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Principals (policy makers) have debated the progress in U.S. student performance for a half century or more. Informing these conversations, survey agents have administered seven million psychometrically linked tests in math and reading in 160 waves to national probability samples of selected cohorts born between 1954 and 2007. This study is the first to assess consistency of results by agency. We find results vary by agent, but consistent with Flynn effects, gains are larger in math than reading, except for the most recent period. Non-whites progress at a faster pace. Socio-economically disadvantaged white, black, and Hispanic students make greater progress when tested in elementary school, but that advantage attenuates and reverses itself as students age. We discuss potential moderators.

The European Union is likely the most far-developed cross-border public space for higher education. The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) and the European Research Area (ERA) both span an even larger number of countries including associate and partner countries of the EU. Based on shared European values, such as academic freedom, cross-border cooperation, and mobility, these policy frameworks have been developed in Europe over the last decades and with much success. HE systems in this area are thus well-positioned to benefit from cross-border mobility and collaboration but may at the same time face a certain loss of control over HE, for instance with respect to access due to the cross-border flows of students. This seems to make them vulnerable to populist tendencies and neo-nationalist politics seeking to inhibit the free movement of students, scholars, and data. Such tendencies have never been completely absent on the "old continent" but resurged over the uneven outcomes of globalization, the effects of the global financial and consequent Euro crisis, and the refugee crisis. Meanwhile, the impact of the coronavirus crisis is still by and large unknown. Populist tendencies seem now to be turning against the EU, with its freedom of movement for persons (i.e. open borders) as one of its cornerstones and are therefore of concern for the HE sector. Countries such as the UK, Switzerland, Denmark, and the Netherlands have a different position in the European landscape but are all struggling with the complexity of combining the virtues of an open system with constrained national sovereignty. Sovereignty is required in terms of steering capacity in order to balance access, cost, and quality, i.e. the well-known "higher education trilemma." In open systems this is challenged by the "globalization trilemma", which states that countries cannot have national sovereignty, (hyper)globalization and democracy at the same time. How are the EU, its Member States, and the HE sector responding? Will the Union stay united (i.e. Brexit)? Are the legal competencies of the EU in HE strong enough? What about the many European university associations, leagues, and networks? And what do the millions of (former) Erasmus students have to say?

A growing number of U.S. companies across a range of industries are designing apprenticeship programs to give workers access to on-the-job learning opportunities that allow them to transition into in-demand jobs and careers. This discussion paper provides a snapshot of the current state of apprenticeship in the United States based on interviews with national experts and key stakeholders engaged in apprenticeship implementation, including employers, community colleges, unions, and intermediaries. It explores what is needed to build successful programs and highlights current federal and state policy efforts to encourage registered apprenticeship expansion, noting barriers and lessons learned. Four recommendations for how to grow registered apprenticeship opportunities in the United States are: (1) Provide standardized models; (2) Reduce complexity; (3) Measure Value; and (4) Learn from Innovative Models. A sidebar presents examples of state incentives and supports for apprenticeship programs in Colorado, Maryland, and South Carolina. [This paper was produced with funding from the Nestlé USA corporation.]

This research paper is the fifth in a series produced as part of the Cedefop project The changing nature and role of VET (2016-18). Based on comparative analysis of labour force survey data from 2014, the report analyses the vocational effect on labour market and education outcomes, asking whether any advantages conferred by vocational qualifications in early career would be offset by disadvantages later in life. The report explores the functioning of the safety net and the diversion effects across countries, demonstrating how these vary considerably with the specific institutional structure of schooling and work-based training. The results indicate that VET graduates are potentially sacrificing the longer-term gains associated with further education in favour of short-term benefits. [This research was carried out by a consortium led by 3s Unternehmensberatung GmbH and including the Danish Technological Institute, the Institute of Employment Research (University of Warwick), the Institute of International and Social Studies (Tallinn University) and Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini. The Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB) in Germany is supporting the project as a subcontractor.]

In a highly competitive global landscape, occupations are transformed, new jobs are created and the skills needed for the labour market are constantly changing. European countries are looking at redefining VET [vocational education and training] to respond promptly to such challenges and take advantage of the opportunities ahead. They are reforming to modernise their VET systems and strengthen the relevance of their national qualifications in an international context. This publication explores national responses to globalisation in 15 countries and five economic sectors. It aims to understand how European and international initiatives help VET renewal across Europe. It shows how countries' reactions are embedded in their national traditions but also depend on their interactions with European, sectoral and multinational players that provide training and award qualifications. [The research was carried out by a consortium led by IBE Educational research institute and 3s Unternehmensberatung GmbH.]

What is the role of physical activity in the process of human capital accumulation? Brain research provides growing evidence of the importance of physical activity for various aspects of cognitive functions. An increasingly sedentary lifestyle could thus be not only harmful to population health, but also disrupt human capital accumulation. This paper analyzes the effects of on-campus recreational sports and exercise on educational outcomes of university students. To identify causal effects, we randomize financial incentives to encourage students' participation in on-campus sports and exercise. The incentives increased participation frequency by 0.26 times per week (47%) and improved grades by 0.14 standard deviations. This effect is primarily driven by male students and students at higher quantiles of the grade distribution. Results from survey data suggest that students substitute off-campus with on-campus physical activities during the day but do not significantly increase the overall frequency. Our findings suggest that students spend more time on campus and are better able to integrate studying and exercising, which may enhance the effectiveness of studying and thus improve student performance. [Migros provided financial support for this study.]

The digital revolution and automation are accelerating changes in the labour market and in workplace skills, changes that are further affected by fluctuations in international and regional economic cycles and employment opportunity. These factors pose a universal policy challenge for all advanced economies and governments. In the workplace, people seek to acquire contemporary and relevant skills to gain employment and retain transferable skills to maintain employment. The central purpose of this paper is to investigate how other nations or regions are dealing with these issues. What approaches are they taking to understanding the mix and dynamics of the skills attained by individuals and, more broadly, the totality of skills that in aggregate constitute a highly capable and adaptable labour force, one that supports firm viability and greater national productivity. This research has examined a range of initiatives and approaches being developed or in use in selected countries, including the United States, Singapore and New Zealand, and agencies/organisations; for example, the European Commission and the Skills for the Information Age Foundation. In doing so, it showcases the good practices used to ensure that occupational-level skills information remains current and widely accessible. [For "Identifying Work Skills: International Case Summaries. Support Document," see ED579875.]

Lifelong learning is often promoted in ageing societies, but little is known about its returns or governments' ability to advance it. This paper evaluates the effects of a large-scale randomized field experiment issuing vouchers for adult education in Switzerland. We find no significant average effects of voucher-induced adult education on earnings, employment, and subsequent education one year after treatment. But effects are heterogeneous: Low-education individuals are most likely to profit from adult education, but least likely to use the voucher. The findings cast doubt on the effectiveness of existing untargeted voucher programs in promoting labor market outcomes through adult education. (Contains 10 tables, 1 figure and 12 footnotes.)

Rhaeto-Romansh is a Neo-Latin language with three varieties. Occidental Rhaeto-Romansh (Romansh) is spoken in Switzerland, in the Canton of the Grisons. Central Rhaeto-Romansh (Dolomite Ladin) is spoken in some of the Italian Dolomite valleys, in the Province of Belluno, Bozen/Bolzano, and Trento. Oriental Rhaeto-Romansh (Friulian) is spoken in northeast Italy, in the Provinces of Gorizia, Pordenone, Udine, and Venezia. The administrative and state borders separating these communities have determined particular linguistic developments and led to diversified forms of juridical defense. This paper examines juridical regulations for the defense of the Rhaeto-Romansh groups present in the Autonomous Province of Bozen, in the Canton of the Grisons, and in the Autonomous Region Friuli-Venezia Giulia. It highlights the regulations recently adopted in favor of the Friulian linguistic community, which until 5 years ago, was one of the least safeguarded Rhaeto-Romansh groups. It also examines Regional Law 15/96, which was the first organic law for the defense of the Friulian language, and describes Law 482/99, which put into practice the fundamental principle on the defense of minorities provided for by Article 6 of the Constitution. It concludes that once the Executive Rules of Law 482 are issued, Friulians will have many useful juridical instruments for making their linguistic rights prevail. (SM)

This paper focuses on training policy issues related to the development of maintenance practices in middle- and low-income developing countries. Chapter 1 provides a definition and discusses various approaches to maintenance. It shows the major trends in maintenance skill changes, such as increased problem-solving and information technology components and growing specialization geared to the type of technology and modes of maintenance applied. Chapter 2 shows the particular mix of technologies used by developing countries and the extent to which the maintenance practices correspond to their needs. It argues that as developing countries install simpler machines, on average they need less sophisticated maintenance. However, since many developing countries have imported modern equipment, they need policies to develop maintenance of corresponding sophistication. The chapter also illustrates how foreign maintenance practices are applied in some developing countries. The last chapter presents the ways vocational training for maintenance is conducted in developing countries. It notes that maintenance skills are usually learned through apprenticeship and that technical education and training in maintenance is still rare. However, transfer of maintenance knowledge has been more active through technical assistance and technology transfer projects. The report suggests some implications for training policies aimed at enhancing maintenance awareness in developing countries. (KC)

A study of national identity and social integration in two multilingual societies, Canada and Switzerland, examines the relations between Quebec and anglophone Canada and between French and German Switzerland. First, the historical setting for the emergence of multilingualism is outlined for both countries, and the demography of the major language groups is summarized. Then the role of group attitudes in preserving ethnic and national identity, and the degree to which majority and minority language groups adhere to the same core values, are analyzed. Finally, the relative social and political stability in Switzerland and the more tenuous linguistic equilibrium in Canada are reviewed. It is concluded that attitudinal differences between language groups do not disappear, even in contexts with low intergroup tension, but that mediating factors such as the unity of common political and civic culture in Switzerland affect social integration. Survey data on multiple loyalties, divergence/consensus on political issues and core values, and attitudes toward diversity and multilingualism in each country are appended. Contains 59 references. (MSE)

As part of a larger comparison of the school-to-work transition in Switzerland and Great Britain, instruction in mathematics, science, and practical subjects (industrial arts and home economics) in the two countries was compared by two methods: site visits to English and Swiss schools by teams of English teachers and inspectors and analyses of the performance of samples of English and Swiss students on the International Assessment of Educational Progress (IAEP). Of the English and Swiss pupils selected on a representative basis, 47% and 80% participated, respectively. The Swiss students scored significantly higher on the IAEP than the British students did. Although some English students met standards as high as those observed in Switzerland, Swiss students generally appeared to be 1-2 years ahead of their English counterparts. The observed differences between English and Swiss students' levels of achievement were attributed partly to differences in the teaching styles and syllabus content observed in the two countries and partly to the excellence of Swiss primary school teachers. Emphasis on pupils' active involvement in the learning process was greater in Switzerland. (Contains 78 footnotes. Appended is information on a Swiss experiment in comprehensive schooling.) (MN)

This document reports on financing vocational education and training (VET) in developing countries. It focuses on different ways that programs are financed, the link between financing and educational practice, and the conditions that govern the effective use of resources. Chapter I examines the use of public tax revenues to finance VET. It identifies some adverse consequences of public financing; highlights the potential for extending use of public revenues through alternatives to block grants; discusses three major issues--locus of control, equity, and vertical and horizontal imbalance; and describes some policy implications. Chapter II examines these approaches to enterprise financing of training: earmarked payroll tax; tax rebate and credit schemes; and the German dual system. Chapter III reviews alternatives to government-financed VET, including training fees, fellowships and loans, and vouchers and tuition tax credits. Chapter IV discusses production for profit and its policy implications. Chapter V examines how international donor assistance is used to finance VET. It addresses characteristics of assistance, limitations accompanying assistance, and policy implications. Chapter VI focuses on diversifying financing. The discussion of limitations and opportunities covers making better use of resources, broadening financial support, and expanding opportunity. Contains 75 references. (YLB)

This study is a comparative analysis that addresses the question: to what extent has the relationship between parental socioeconomic characteristics and educational opportunities changed over time and why? The document suggests six hypotheses regarding change in the effects of social origins on education transitions: (1) modernization hypothesis: the effects of social origin on all transitions decline; (2) reproduction hypothesis: the effects of social origins decline on earlier transitions but not on later transitions; (3) hypothesis of maximally maintained inequality: the effects will only decline at those transitions for which the attendance rates of the privileged classes are saturated; (4) socialist transformation hypothesis: socialist transformations brought about an initial reduction in the effects, that will then be followed by increased effects; (5) life course hypothesis: the effects decline across transitions but are stable across cohorts; and (6) differential selection hypothesis: the effects decline across cohorts, but the effects on later transitions increase across cohorts. The 13 industrialized countries included in the study may be classified according to their basic cultural and economic systems into three major groups: (1) western capitalistic countries: United States of America, (former) Federal Republic of Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Israel; (2) non-Western capitalistic countries: Japan and Taiwan; and (3) western socialistic countries: Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia. Study results show that educational expansion facilitates the persistence of inequalities in educational opportunity. Tables summarize the major findings with respect to educational expansion and attainment, change in the effects of social origins on highest education attained, and cohort differences. (DK)

This paper describes the U.S. experience in providing vocational training to the low-literate. Chapter I presents an overview of the problem. It discusses the changing nature of work, the workplace, the worker, and vocational training itself. Chapter II describes the U.S. experience in the training of low-literates. The approaches, methods, and techniques developed in the United States to train individuals with low literacy levels (ILLLs) are examined. They include the "functional context" approach to instruction (the most efficient and cost-effective method) and the "Comprehensive Competencies Program." The microcomputer, videodisc, and compact and optical discs are discussed in terms of their practical applications in the design, development, delivery, management, and evaluation of training programs. Chapter II proposes guidelines for the development of vocational training programs for the low-literate based on relevant U.S. experience. The guidelines will need to be adapted according to the varying conditions for literacy from country to country. Chapter IV presents six case studies that exemplify the U.S. experience in vocational training for individuals with low literacy levels. A developmental model of literacy and a bibliography are appended. (YLB)

Resulting from one of the International Labour Office's explorations of the training needs of older workers in industrialized countries, this document states the following six conclusions: (1) programs to encourage delayed retirement and increase the productivity of older U.S. workers are more often funded by government than by the private sector; (2) 48 percent of U.S. workers 55-64 years old were somewhat or very interested in learning new skills and participating in job training programs so they could take on a different job; (3) 17 percent of U.S. workers 50-62 years old said they were much more likely to delay early retirement if they could have job training; (4) public job training programs for older workers under the Job Training Partnership Act are available and are very well developed and evaluated, but may never reach all of those eligible; (5) some private companies have recognized the value of an ongoing educational and training program for older workers, and General Electric has concluded that it is less expensive to retrain its educated but outdated engineers rather than hire new employees; and (6) the nonprofit Chicago-based ABLE (Ability Based on Living Experiences) project has been successful at marketing the skills of job seekers older than 55. The document includes 11 tables and 48 references. (CML)

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) is an intergovernmental economic organisation with 35 member countries, founded in 1961 to stimulate economic progress and world trade. The Organisation for works with countries to develop skills strategies tailored to specific needs and contexts. The Organisation prepared a global skills strategy outline over the period 2011 to 2013. Each national skills strategy country project offers a tailored approach to focus on the unique skills challenges, context and objectives of each country. Each project leverages OECD comparative data and policy analysis, fosters collaboration across ministerial portfolios and levels of government while engaging all relevant stakeholders--employers, trade unions, and civil society organisations. In its paper "Towards an OECD Skills Strategy" (OECD 2013), the OECD sets out the main issues which must be addressed by efficient and effective policies for skills formation and skills use. The majority of material in each of the 13 case summaries presented here has been lifted mostly verbatim from original sources. These sources are stated at the beginning of each case summary. [This document is an added resource for the report "Identifying Work Skills: International Approaches. Discussion Paper" which can be accessed in ERIC at ED579874.]

We consider the question whether pupils from the lower social strata perform better in private government-dependent schools than in public or private-independent schools, using the PISA 2000 data on European high schools. In the eighty's, Coleman and Hoffer (1987) found in the USA that the performance of these pupils was better at religious schools than at comparable public schools. Dronkers and Robert (2003) found in PISA-data for 19 comparable countries that private government-dependent schools are more effective then comparable public schools, also after controlled for characteristics of pupils and parents and the social composition of the school. The main explanation appeared to be a better school climate in private government-dependent schools. Private independent schools were less effective than comparable public schools, but only after controlling for the social composition of the school. As a follow-up we now investigate, again with the PISA-data of these 19 countries, whether this positive effect of private government-dependent schools differs between pupils from different strata. We use various indicators to measure social strata: social, cultural and economic. We expect that the thesis of Coleman & Hoffer does hold for private government-dependent schools, because in these 19 countries they are mostly religious schools, which have more opportunities to form functional communities and create social capital. But for private independent schools, which due to their commercial foundation are less often functional communities, this relation is not expected to hold. However, the results show that public and private schools have mostly the same effects for the same kind of pupils and thus mostly not favor one kind of pupils above another kind of pupils. But private government-dependent schools are slightly more effective for pupils with less cultural capital. However, private independent schools are also more effective for pupils from large families or low status families. (Contains 4 tables, 12 notes and a list of 25 Literature Resources .)