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The article focuses on the HIMSS-SIIM Enterprise Imaging Community White Papers, reflecting on past achievements and future directions, highlighting the collaboration between HIMSS and SIIM in generating informative documents. It discusses the impact and future prospects of these white papers, marking the renaming of SIIM's Journal of Digital Imaging to the Journal of Imaging Informatics in Medicine (JIIM).

This white paper explores the considerations of standards-based interoperability of medical images between organizations, patients, and providers. In this paper, we will look at three different standards-based image exchange implementations that have been deployed to facilitate exchange of images between provider organizations. The paper will describe how each implementation uses applicable technology and standards; the image types that are included; and the governance policies that define participation, access, and trust. Limitations of the solution or non-standard approaches to solve challenges will also be identified. Much can be learned from successes elsewhere, and those learnings will point to recommendations of best practices to facilitate the adoption of image exchange. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

First two decades of the twenty-first century are characterised by epidemics of non-communicable diseases such as many hundreds of millions of patients diagnosed with cardiovascular diseases and the type 2 diabetes mellitus, breast, lung, liver and prostate malignancies, neurological, sleep, mood and eye disorders, amongst others. Consequent socio-economic burden is tremendous. Unprecedented decrease in age of maladaptive individuals has been reported. The absolute majority of expanding non-communicable disorders carry a chronic character, over a couple of years progressing from reversible suboptimal health conditions to irreversible severe pathologies and cascading collateral complications. The time-frame between onset of SHS and clinical manifestation of associated disorders is the operational area for an application of reliable risk assessment tools and predictive diagnostics followed by the cost-effective targeted prevention and treatments tailored to the person. This article demonstrates advanced strategies in bio/medical sciences and healthcare focused on suboptimal health conditions in the frame-work of Predictive, Preventive and Personalised Medicine (3PM/PPPM). Potential benefits in healthcare systems and for society at large include but are not restricted to an improved life-quality of major populations and socio-economical groups, advanced professionalism of healthcare-givers and sustainable healthcare economy. Amongst others, following medical areas are proposed to strongly benefit from PPPM strategies applied to the identification and treatment of suboptimal health conditions: Stress overload associated pathologies Male and female health Planned pregnancies Periodontal health Eye disorders Inflammatory disorders, wound healing and pain management with associated complications Metabolic disorders and suboptimal body weight Cardiovascular pathologies Cancers Stroke, particularly of unknown aetiology and in young individuals Sleep medicine Sports medicine Improved individual outcomes under pandemic conditions such as COVID-19. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An increasing interest in a healthy lifestyle raises questions about optimal body weight. Evidently, it should be clearly discriminated between the standardised "normal" body weight and individually optimal weight. To this end, the basic principle of personalised medicine "one size does not fit all" has to be applied. Contextually, "normal" but e.g. borderline body mass index might be optimal for one person but apparently suboptimal for another one strongly depending on the individual genetic predisposition, geographic origin, cultural and nutritional habits and relevant lifestyle parameters—all included into comprehensive individual patient profile. Even if only slightly deviant, both overweight and underweight are acknowledged risk factors for a shifted metabolism which, if being not optimised, may strongly contribute to the development and progression of severe pathologies. Development of innovative screening programmes is essential to promote population health by application of health risks assessment, individualised patient profiling and multi-parametric analysis, further used for cost-effective targeted prevention and treatments tailored to the person. The following healthcare areas are considered to be potentially strongly benefiting from the above proposed measures: suboptimal health conditions, sports medicine, stress overload and associated complications, planned pregnancies, periodontal health and dentistry, sleep medicine, eye health and disorders, inflammatory disorders, healing and pain management, metabolic disorders, cardiovascular disease, cancers, psychiatric and neurologic disorders, stroke of known and unknown aetiology, improved individual and population outcomes under pandemic conditions such as COVID-19. In a long-term way, a significantly improved healthcare economy is one of benefits of the proposed paradigm shift from reactive to Predictive, Preventive and Personalised Medicine (PPPM/3PM). A tight collaboration between all stakeholders including scientific community, healthcare givers, patient organisations, policy-makers and educators is essential for the smooth implementation of 3PM concepts in daily practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although digital breast tomosynthesis has higher sensitivity than digital mammography and at least as high specificity, digital mammography remains the most common method for conducting mammographic screening. At the same time, mammography systems are now delivered "DBT-ready" and can be used for either digital mammography or digital breast tomosynthesis. In this paper, we ask whether it is ethically permissible to use such equipment for digital mammography, given its lower sensitivity. We argue it is not, and that clinics are ethically required to use their DBT-ready equipment to screen with digital breast tomosynthesis whenever this is practically possible. Our argument relies on a comparison between digital breast tomosynthesis and a hypothesized improvement in the image quality of digital mammography. Critical relevance statement: Women may lose out on the benefits of screening with digital breast tomosynthesis when DBT-ready equipment is used to screen with digital mammography; we argue that this practice is ethically problematic. Key Points: Digital breast tomosynthesis finds more cases of breast cancer than digital mammography. Mammography equipment can often be used to screen with both digital breast tomosynthesis and digital mammography. When they can, clinics are ethically required to use existing equipment to screen with digital breast tomosynthesis instead of digital mammography. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses why similar institutional rules (Municipal Plan, Fund, and Council) and intergovernmental transferences) may influence municipal decision-making to participate in inter-municipal consortia differently in two Brazilian federal public policies—health and education. The paper argues that the more institutionalized the national policy design, the higher the probability of the municipalities getting into IMC. Based on quantitative analysis, findings show why the financial dimension is relevant for health policy, the most institutionalized in comparison with education, regarding municipal options for IMC. Similar evidence was not found in both policies considering the effect of their institutional rules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This paper outlines the engagement process that was used to develop the Northwest Territories Alcohol Strategy, based on a recommendation by the developers of the Canadian Alcohol Policy Evaluation report, and how this informed the final actions in the strategy., Methods: A literature review, four targeted engagement activities, and iterative validation by advisory groups and community and Indigenous leadership were used to evaluate, modify, or reject the original recommendations and develop the final actions that were included in the NWT Alcohol Strategy., Results: There are fourteen original CAPE recommendations, four of which had already been implemented in the Northwest Territories before the development of the strategy. On completion of the process, four recommendations had already been implemented in the NWT. Two recommendations were included in the strategy without changes, two were adapted for use in the strategy, and six were not included. One stand-alone alcohol policy measure was created and included., Conclusion: Alcohol strategies are dependent on a variety of contextual factors. Developers need to take into consideration the unique geography, political climate, and cultural context of the region for which they are being developed, in order to produce a strategy that is applicable, acceptable, and feasible at the community level., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Background: Geriatric Medicine (GM), concerned with well-being and health of older adults, can play a crucial role in the alignment of healthcare systems to the needs of the aged populations. However, countries have varying GM development backgrounds. The goal of PROGRAMMING- COST 21,122 Action is to propose the content of education and training activities in GM for healthcare professionals across various clinical settings, adapted to local context, needs, and assets. Defining relevant stakeholders and addressing them on both an international as well as a country-specific level is crucial for this purpose. In this paper we are describing the methods used in the PROGRAMMING Action 21,122 to map the different categories of stakeholders to be engaged in the Action. Methods: Through conceptualizing a model for stakeholders by literature research, and online discussion group meetings, a synthesis for the potential stakeholders was defined as a template, and pilot applications were requested from participant countries. Results: There were 24 members from 14 countries (6 males/18 females) of multidisciplinary professions involved in this study. A model for the list of stakeholders to be addressed was developed and, after seven online discussion meetings, a consensus framework was provided. Invited countries completed the templates to pilot such operationalization. Conclusion: Our framework of stakeholders will support the research coordination and capacity-building objectives of PROGRAMMING, including the participation into the assessment of educational needs of healthcare professionals. Identified stakeholders will also be mobilized for purposes of dissemination and maximization of the Action's impact. By defining and mapping multidisciplinary stakeholders involved in older people's care specific to countries, particularly where GM is still emerging, GM tailored educational activities will be facilitated and optimally targeted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information related to the "Journal of General Internal Medicine" (JGIM). It states that the JGIM featured new columns which include From the Editor's Desk, Exercises in Clinical Reasoning, and Healing Arts. It says that JGIM will renew the Innovations in Medical Education, provide article series on health policy, and collaborate with the "Annals of Internal Medicine." It also presents the lists of JGIM reviewers from 2009-2010 including Elmer Abbo, Lisa Hess, and Jenny Yi.

Background: The differing global trends in alcohol consumption and policy measures implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic warrant a closer look at the actions taken by civil society organisations (CSOs) and community-led efforts to describe how they may influence and accelerate action for change in alcohol control measures. This paper analyses actions undertaken by CSOs at the national and local levels to safeguard communities and improve alcohol control policies during the COVID-19 pandemic in six African countries. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was distributed via email to CSOs involved in alcohol prevention, outreach and policy development in Kenya, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania and Zimbabwe. Individuals (n = 19) working at CSOs responded to the questionnaire from February to March 2022. Questions related to the role of CSOs during the pandemic are analysed and synthesised in this paper. 19 CSOs respondents representing the six countries were included in the study. Results: Action areas led by CSOs during the COVID-19 pandemic included: (i) direct lobbying advocacy, (ii) conducting public awareness media campaigns and (iii) legal and regulatory interventions linked to the pandemic. Conclusions: Given the size of the challenges governments faced during the COVID-19 pandemic, the role of CSOs, during the ongoing pandemic and beyond, has become even more relevant to strengthen advocacy and public health interventions for alcohol control in Southern Africa. For this, CSOs should have a "seat at the table" when public health policies are designed, discussed and enforced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Rare diseases pose immense challenges for healthcare systems due to their low prevalence, associated disabilities, and attendant treatment costs. Advancements in gene therapy, such as treatments for Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA), have introduced novel therapeutic options, but the high costs, exemplified by Zolgensma® at US$2.1 million, present significant financial barriers. This scoping review aimed to compare the funding approaches for rare disease treatments across high-performing health systems in Australia, Singapore, South Korea, the United Kingdom (UK), and the United States (US), aiming to identify best practices and areas for future research. Methods: In accordance with the PRISMA-ScR guidelines and the methodological framework by Arksey and O'Malley and ensuing recommendations, a comprehensive search of electronic databases (Medline, EMBASE, and Cochrane) and grey literature from health department websites and leading national organizations dedicated to rare diseases in these countries was conducted. Countries selected for comparison were high-income countries with advanced economies and high-performing health systems: Australia, Singapore, South Korea, the UK, and the US. The inclusion criteria focused on studies detailing drug approval processes, reimbursement decisions and funding mechanisms, and published from 2010 to 2024. Results: Based on a thorough review of 18 published papers and grey literature, various strategies are employed by countries to balance budgetary constraints and access to rare disease treatments. Australia utilizes the Life Saving Drugs Program and risk-sharing agreements. Singapore depends on the Rare Disease Fund, which matches public donations. South Korea's National Health Insurance Service covers specific orphan drugs through risk-sharing agreements. The UK relies on the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) to evaluate treatments for cost-effectiveness, supported by the Innovative Medicines Fund. In the US, a combination of federal and state programs, private insurance and non-profit support is used. Conclusion: Outcome-based risk-sharing agreements present a practical solution for managing the financial strain of costly treatments. These agreements tie payment to actual treatment efficacy, thereby distributing financial risk and promoting ongoing data collection. Countries should consider adopting and expanding these agreements to balance immediate expenses with long-term benefits, ultimately ensuring equitable access to crucial treatments for patients afflicted by rare diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although problematic cannabis use is a public health concern, little is known about lower-risk cannabis use beliefs and behaviors. A major stumbling block for research in this domain has been the lack of a methodologically sound, multidimensional measure of lower-risk cannabis beliefs and behaviors. This paper reports the development of the Cannabis Lower-Risk Scale (CaLRS). In Study 1 (N = 510), people who use cannabis were administered a survey containing 69 items that assessed an array of lower-risk beliefs and behaviors. A factor analysis was conducted, and items were subsequently culled. In Study 2 (N = 1008), the factor structure was confirmed revealing a 6-factor scale (21-items) that assesses three lower-risk beliefs (stigma reduction, informed self-regulation, and personal awareness) and three lower-risk behaviors (positive protective strategies, honesty, and limiting behaviors). The implications for research and public health policy and programs are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Research has identified that rurally located persons face health inequities when compared to their urban peers. While health policies and practice frameworks to address the needs of rural people are largely developed on the principles of evidence-based medicine, it is not clear whether this evidence base appropriately considers geographic factors that may impact participant outcomes. The purpose of this project was to examine whether research within leading health and medical journals identified the geographic classification (location) of their participants, thus enabling the original authors and subsequent readers to appropriately consider this factor in the making of policy and practice recommendations. Methods: A retrospective analysis of study participants' geographic identifiers within articles from medical and health journals was carried out in this project. Eleven journals were chosen for evaluation, with 300 consecutive eligible papers from each journal retrospectively reviewed. All 3300 papers were analyzed to determine whether the research participants' geographic location was identified. This classification was then stratified into varying categories of rural or urban, as appropriate. Results: It was not possible to identify participants' geographic location in 2193 (66%) of the 3300 reviewed articles. A total of 121 papers (4%) had sole focus on rural residents, with another 95 articles (3%) comparing outcomes between rural and urban locations. Slightly more than a quarter (27%) of the articles either just featured urban participants or made no distinction between rural and urban locations. Conclusions: These findings indicate that insufficient attention is given to the geographic location of participants. This failure means that the outcomes and recommendations of the research base may be invalid for a large section of the world's population and result in inequities in healthcare services. There is an emerging concern about using this evidence base for developing health guidelines and policy frameworks, as the needs of a substantial proportion of the population may not have been appropriately captured. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: What constitutes innovation in health technologies can be defined and measured in a number of ways and it has been widely researched and published about. However, while many countries mention it as a criterion for pricing or reimbursement of health technologies, countries differ widely in how they define and operationalise it. Methods: We performed a literature review, using a snowballing search. In this paper, we explore how innovation has been defined in the literature in relation to health technology assessment. We also describe how a selection of countries (England, France, Italy, Spain and Japan) take account of innovation in their health technology assessment frameworks and explore the key methodologies that can capture it as a dimension of value in a new health technology. We propose a way of coming to, and incorporating into health technology assessment systems, a definition of innovation for health technologies that is independent of other dimensions of value that they already account for in their systems, such as clinical benefit. We use Spain as an illustrative example of how innovation might be operationalised as a criterion for decision making in health technology assessment. Results: The countries analysed here can be divided into 2 groups with respect to how they define innovation. France, Japan and Italy use features such as severity, unmet need and therapeutic added value as indicators of the degree of innovation of a health technology, while England, Spain consider the degree of innovation as a separate and additional criterion from others. In the case of Spain, a notion of innovation might be constructed around concepts of 'step-change', 'convenience', 'strength of evidence base' and 'impact on future research & development'. Conclusions: If innovation is to be used as operational criteria for adoption, pricing and reimbursement of health technologies, the concept must be clearly defined, and it ought to be independent from other value dimensions already captured in their health technology assessment systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Priority setting in healthcare is a highly contentious area of public decision making, in which different values often support incompatible policy options and compromise can be elusive. One promising approach to resolving priority-setting conflicts divides the decision-making process into two steps. In the first, a set of eligible options is identified; in the second, one of those options is chosen by a deliberative process. This paper considers the first step, examining proposals for identifying a set of options eligible for deliberation. It focuses on the approach proposed by Anders Herlitz, which limits deliberation to options that are on a par; neither better or worse than, nor strictly equal to the alternatives. Once these "maximal" options are identified, the choice among them is made though a deliberative process that acknowledges the difficult tradeoffs which must be made. While parity and kindred notions are clearly useful in resolving some priority-setting conflicts, this paper argues that the conflicts that arise in setting priorities make it as difficult to decide which options are on a par as it is to decide among those options. The paper draws on priority-setting debates that occurred during the recent pandemic to illustrate the challenges in identifying eligible options: There may be sharp disagreement about how to understand and individuate relevant values; about whether certain values are relevant in a priority-setting context; about how to establish parity between "consequential" and "deontic" options, and about whether one option remains on a par with others after it is modified in various ways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A large literature contends that conservatives differ from liberals in their dispositional sensitivity to threat and needs for social order and security. Thus, a puzzle emerged during the COVID-19 pandemic when American conservatives, despite their purported threat sensitivity, responded to the pandemic in ways that evinced little concern toward the risks posed by COVID-19. Threat tolerant liberals present an equally interesting case, having fervently masked, isolated, and advocated for stringent public health restrictions when facing down COVID-19. Why did so many Americans adopt health behaviors and policy preferences at odds with their dispositional orientations toward threat and needs for security during the COVID-19 pandemic? In this paper, I analyze three national surveys to evaluate how psychological dispositions affected Americans' responses to COVID-19. I find that authoritarianism, a common measure of dispositional threat sensitivity and needs for security, conditionally affected Americans' responses to the pandemic. Directly, authoritarianism was associated with greater concern over COVID-19 and, in turn, increased willingness to engage in protective health behaviors, support restrictive public health measures, and support economic interventions amidst the pandemic-induced downturn. Indirectly, however, authoritarianism promoted identification with and cue-taking from right-wing elites who frequently downplayed the severity of COVID-19; attention to such rhetoric reduced politically engaged authoritarians' concern over COVID-19 and, in turn, their willingness to adopt protective health behaviors and support public health restrictions or economic interventionism. Attention to political discourse thus appears to have countervailed Americans' dispositional orientations toward threat and security during the COVID-19 pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Population policy has taken two divergent trajectories. In the developing part of the world, controlling population growth has been a major tune of the debate more than a half-century ago. In the more developed part of the world, an inverse pattern results in the discussion over the facilitation of population growth. The ethical debates on population policy have primarily focused on the former and ignored the latter. This paper proposes a more comprehensive account that justifies states' population policy interventions. We first consider the reasons that support pro-natalist policies to enhance fertility rates and argue that these policies are ethically problematic. We then establish an ethics of population policy grounded on account of self-sustaining the body politic, which consists of four criteria: survival, replacement, accountability, and solidarity. We discuss the implications of this account regarding birth-control and pro-natalist policies, as well as non-procreative policies such as immigration, adoption, and unintended baby-saving strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Every year, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) clears approximately 3,000 medical devices for marketing via the 510(k) pathway. These constitute 99% of all devices approved for human use and includes the premarket review of many devices incorporating newer technology such as artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), and other software. As the complexity of these novel technologies and the number of applications is expected to increase in the coming years, statutory changes such as the 2016 21st Century Cures Act, regulations, and guidance documents have increased both the volume and complexity of device review. Thus, the ability to streamline the review of less complex, low-to-moderate risk devices through the 510(k) pathway will maximize the FDA's capability to address other important, future-oriented regulatory questions. For over twenty five years, third party review organizations have served a defined function to assist with the review of 510(k) applications for a set of enumerated device classes. This paper reviews the history of FDA device regulation, the evolution of the 510(k) review pathway, and the recent history of the 510(k) third party review program. Finally, the paper addresses policy concerns from all stakeholders – including the FDA – along with policy suggestions to improve the third party review program and FDA device regulation writ large. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Public protest continued to represent a prominent form of social activism in democratic societies during the COVID-19 pandemic. In Australia, a lack of specific legislation articulating protest rights has meant that, in the context of pandemic restrictions, such events have been treated as illegal mass gatherings. Numerous large protests in major cities have, indeed, stirred significant public debate regarding rights of assembly during COVID-19 outbreaks. The ethics of infringing on protest rights continues to be controversial, with opinion divided as to whether public health goals or human rights should take precedence. This paper applies public health ethical theory to an in-depth analysis of arguments on both sides of the debate. Using the Nuffield Council on Bioethics framework as a backdrop, proportionality and necessity of restrictions are understood as key concepts that are common to both public health and human rights perspectives. The analysis presented here finds a middle-ground between the prevailing arguments on opposing sides and is further able to rationalize the use of protest itself as an important element of a mature public health ethics response to restrictive policy. Thus, this paper aims to influence public health policy and legislation regarding protest rights during public health emergencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Person centered care (PCC) invites ideas of shared responsibility as a direct result of its shared decision making (SDM) process. The intersection of PCC and psychiatric contexts brings about what I refer to as the responsibility problem, which seemingly arises when SDM is applied in psychiatric settings due to (1) patients' potentially diminished capacities for responsibility, (2) tension prompted by professional reasons for and against sharing responsibility with patients, as well as (3) the responsibility/blame dilemma. This paper aims to do away with the responsibility problem through arguing for a functional approach to mental illness, a blameless responsibility ascription to the person with mental illness, as well as a nuanced understanding of SDM as part of an emancipation-oriented PCC model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The advent of the COVID-19 pandemic and the inequitable response to it has created a space for rethinking the knowledge translation that informs current health policy formulation and planning. Wide recognition of the failure of global health governance and national health systems has led to calls for reviving the Primary Health Care (PHC) agenda for post-COVID health systems development. Despite the joint international declaration on PHC made four decades ago, it has had limited application. This paper argues that the recent attempts to rethink PHC will prove inadequate without analysing and learning from the politics of knowledge (PoK) underlying global health policy and planning. Even with the growing relevance of the spirit of the Alma-Ata Declaration (1978) and its operationalisation as detailed in the report of conference proceedings, reassessment of reasons for its limited implementation continues to be located largely in the political economy of the medical establishment, the international economic order or in national governance flaws. Failure to address the dominant knowledge paradigm in the Alma Ata articulation of PHC has contributed to its limited application. This calls for expansion in the analysis from knowledge translation to generation and hierarchisation of knowledge. The paper discusses how the application of PoK as an analytical lens helps understand the power equations underlying the process of knowledge generation and its translation into policy and practice. Beneath the techno-centric and commodified health system is the dominant 'knowledge' system whose foundations and assumptions ought to be interrogated. By following a PoK approach, a reorientation of thinking about the relationship between various forms of knowledge and knowledge holders is anticipated. A new health service system design is outlined—translating the spirit of PHC of 1978 into a 'PHC Version 2.0'—that addresses the PoK gap in operational terms, with an approach to guide all levels of healthcare. It suggests how the world can be empowered to respond better by engaging with diverse ontologies and epistemologies to conceptualise knowledge and frame policies. Further, in the contexts of Asia, Africa and Latin America, it can contribute to the development of self-reliance to democratise general health policy and planning in the post-pandemic period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The number of economic evaluations is constantly increasing. The need to establish a framework with which to assess the validity of the studies has led to the development of checklists and scoring systems to compare the quality of different studies and ensure that decisions made by decision makers and researchers are based on solid evidence. The most prominent of these checklists is that produced by Drummond et al. Their checklist aims to answer two important questions: is the methodology employed in the study appropriate and are the results valid? In this paper three methods using the checklist of Drummond et al. are developed to assess the quality of a random sample of 50 papers selected from the NHS Economic Evaluation Database. Method 1, a direct application of the checklist calculates an average score with each of the ten items weighted equally, this method proves to be good at identifying low quality studies but is a rather a blunt tool for differentiating between high-quality studies. Method 2, also using an additive score, introduces a hierarchy of the effectiveness data and also adds a new item with respect to the transferability of the results. With this method the number of papers scoring top marks decreases dramatically in comparison to method 1. Method 3 involves a multiplicative rather than additive scoring system, which is better at distinguishing between good quality studies but appears to reduce discrimination between poor-quality studies. Overall, the ten-point checklist of Drummond et al. is a useful and quick tool with which to assess the quality of economic evaluations and to enable decision makers and researchers to focus upon the most relevant studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Worldwide stroke is the second leading cause of death and the third leading cause of death and disability combined. The estimated global economic burden by stroke is over US$891 billion per year. Within three decades (1990–2019), the incidence increased by 70%, deaths by 43%, prevalence by 102%, and DALYs by 143%. Of over 100 million people affected by stroke, about 76% are ischemic stroke (IS) patients recorded worldwide. Contextually, ischemic stroke moves into particular focus of multi-professional groups including researchers, healthcare industry, economists, and policy-makers. Risk factors of ischemic stroke demonstrate sufficient space for cost-effective prevention interventions in primary (suboptimal health) and secondary (clinically manifested collateral disorders contributing to stroke risks) care. These risks are interrelated. For example, sedentary lifestyle and toxic environment both cause mitochondrial stress, systemic low-grade inflammation and accelerated ageing; inflammageing is a low-grade inflammation associated with accelerated ageing and poor stroke outcomes. Stress overload, decreased mitochondrial bioenergetics and hypomagnesaemia are associated with systemic vasospasm and ischemic lesions in heart and brain of all age groups including teenagers. Imbalanced dietary patterns poor in folate but rich in red and processed meat, refined grains, and sugary beverages are associated with hyperhomocysteinaemia, systemic inflammation, small vessel disease, and increased IS risks. Ongoing 3PM research towards vulnerable groups in the population promoted by the European Association for Predictive, Preventive and Personalised Medicine (EPMA) demonstrates promising results for the holistic patient-friendly non-invasive approach utilising tear fluid-based health risk assessment, mitochondria as a vital biosensor and AI-based multi-professional data interpretation as reported here by the EPMA expert group. Collected data demonstrate that IS-relevant risks and corresponding molecular pathways are interrelated. For examples, there is an evident overlap between molecular patterns involved in IS and diabetic retinopathy as an early indicator of IS risk in diabetic patients. Just to exemplify some of them such as the 5-aminolevulinic acid/pathway, which are also characteristic for an altered mitophagy patterns, insomnia, stress regulation and modulation of microbiota-gut-brain crosstalk. Further, ceramides are considered mediators of oxidative stress and inflammation in cardiometabolic disease, negatively affecting mitochondrial respiratory chain function and fission/fusion activity, altered sleep–wake behaviour, vascular stiffness and remodelling. Xanthine/pathway regulation is involved in mitochondrial homeostasis and stress-driven anxiety-like behaviour as well as molecular mechanisms of arterial stiffness. In order to assess individual health risks, an application of machine learning (AI tool) is essential for an accurate data interpretation performed by the multiparametric analysis. Aspects presented in the paper include the needs of young populations and elderly, personalised risk assessment in primary and secondary care, cost-efficacy, application of innovative technologies and screening programmes, advanced education measures for professionals and general population—all are essential pillars for the paradigm change from reactive medical services to 3PM in the overall IS management promoted by the EPMA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, I provide an epistemic evaluation of the harms that result from the widespread marketing of direct-to-consumer (DTC) genetic tests. While genetic tests are a valuable accessory diagnostic tool when ordered by a medical practitioner, there are different implications when they are sold directly to consumers. I aim to show that there are both epistemic and non-epistemic harms associated with the widespread commoditization of DTC genetic tests. I argue that the epistemic harms produced by DTC genetic tests have been disregarded in discussions on the topic. Drawing on the notion of contributory epistemic injustices, I highlight two pertinent epistemic harms: (1) a failure to uptake an individual's articulations about their identity and (2) the presiding reductionist framework dismisses useful hermeneutical resources. I then propose ways to mitigate these harms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A person's health status is one of the strongest determinants of well-being. The negative impact of poor health on subjective well-being may be moderated by providing care to individuals in need. In this paper, we investigate the relationships between receiving informal care and the amount of care received and subjective well-being among people aged 65 or older in selected European countries. Our analysis of data from the 6th wave of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) showed that receiving regular informal care was associated with higher subjective well-being among older people in Northern European countries, and with lower subjective well-being among older males in Southern European countries. Moreover, we found that the perception of the amount of help received affected the subjective well-being of older people, as those who reported that the support they received was either insufficient or met their needs had lower subjective well-being than those who were not in need of care. Our results also showed that receiving formal care was negatively related with subjective well-being among older adults in Northern Europe and Central and Eastern Europe. In the context of population ageing and the growing need for care, social policies that support both sides of the caregiving relationship could enhance subjective quality of life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The issues and problems of mandatory vaccination policy and roll out in First Nations communities are unique and do not concern the safety and effectiveness of vaccines. These issues are also independent of more specific arguments of mandatory vaccination of healthcare workers as a condition of employment. As important as these issues are, they do not consider the complex politics of ongoing settler colonialism and First Nations community relations. In this paper, we also set aside the very real problems of disinformation, hesitancy, scientific and health illiteracy, and other concerns that drive vaccine hesitancy and refusal. These affect all communities, including First Nations communities. We, instead describe the dominant arguments in favour of mandatory vaccination and critique them in terms of the disputed legitimacy of Settler-Colonial decision-making as it impacts First Nations communities. We contend cultural responsiveness and safety—not state compulsion—must remain the first principles of any engagement—including vaccination—with First Nations Peoples, families, and communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geospatial models can facilitate the delineation of food access patterns, which is particularly relevant for urban planning and health policymaking. Because community food environmental studies use different analysis units or study scales, the rigor and consistency of their evaluations cannot be ensured. This issue is known as the modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP). The paper provides a systematic review of past literature on place-based community food environmental research using different analysis units or geospatial models as they pertain to the MAUP. We identify these key findings: (1) the ZIP code zone is not recommended as an appropriate analysis unit for modeling community food access, as it did not have significant correlations with health indicators; (2) using a circular buffer of less than 0.5 km around household locations is most likely to reveal health correlations, compared with network buffers or container-based measures; (3) to reveal health effects of the community food environment, it is recommended to focus in selected regions or partitions of a study area with similar socioeconomic statuses, such as the central city or low socioeconomic status areas; (4) for studies utilizing a single statistical unit or distance measure, it is suggested to discuss the existence of the MAUP, such as evaluating the sensitivity of the model to the change of the unit or the distance measure. By highlighting the MAUP, this paper has policy implications—given that geospatial modeling of food accessibility provides support for health policy intervention, using different metrics may lead to different interpretations of health disparities and could thus misinform policy decisions. Therefore, any assessment of community food environments that may potentially lead to a policy change should consider the effects of the MAUP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Path-dependency theory says that complex systems, such as health systems, are shaped by prior conditions and decisions, and are resistant to change. As a result, major policy changes, such as health system reform, are often only possible in policy windows—moments of transition or contextual crisis that re-balance social power dynamics and enable the consideration of new policy ideas. However, even in policy windows there can be resistance to change. In this paper, we consider the role of ideas in constraining change. We draw on political science theory on the dynamic relationship between foreground ideas (policy programmes and frames) and background ideas (deeply held collective cognitive and normative beliefs) to better understand how ideas exert influence independently of the contextual conditions that give rise to them or the actors that espouse them. To do so, we examine two apparent policy windows in the South African National Health Insurance policy process. The analysis reveals how ideas can become institutionalised in organisations and procedures (such as policy instruments or provider networks), and in intangible cultural norms—becoming hegemonic and uncontested ideas that shape the attitudes and perspectives of policy actors. In this way, ideas operate as independent variables, constraining change across policy windows. While health policy analysts increasingly recognise the influence of ideational variables in policy processes, they tend to conceptualise ideas as tools actors wield to drive change. This analysis reveals the importance of considering ideas (values, norms, and beliefs) as persistent features of the policy-making context that constrain actors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Experimental economics is, nowadays, a well-established approach to investigate agents' behavior under economic incentives. In the last decade, a fast-growing number of studies have focused on the application of experimental methodology to health policy issues. The results of that stream of literature have been intriguing and strongly policy oriented. However, those findings are scattered between different health-related topics, making it difficult to grasp the overall state-of-the-art. Hence, to make the main contributions understandable at a glance, we conduct a systematic literature review of laboratory experiments on the supply of health services. Of the 1248 articles retrieved from 2011, 56 articles published in peer-review journals have met our inclusion criteria. Thus, we have described the experimental designs of each of the selected papers and we have classified them according to their main area of interest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the reactive medical approach applied to disease management, stroke has reached an epidemic scale worldwide. In 2019, the global stroke prevalence was 101.5 million people, wherefrom 77.2 million (about 76%) suffered from ischemic stroke; 20.7 and 8.4 million suffered from intracerebral and subarachnoid haemorrhage, respectively. Globally in the year 2019 — 3.3, 2.9 and 0.4 million individuals died of ischemic stroke, intracerebral and subarachnoid haemorrhage, respectively. During the last three decades, the absolute number of cases increased substantially. The current prevalence of stroke is 110 million patients worldwide with more than 60% below the age of 70 years. Prognoses by the World Stroke Organisation are pessimistic: globally, it is predicted that 1 in 4 adults over the age of 25 will suffer stroke in their lifetime. Although age is the best known contributing factor, over 16% of all strokes occur in teenagers and young adults aged 15–49 years and the incidence trend in this population is increasing. The corresponding socio-economic burden of stroke, which is the leading cause of disability, is enormous. Global costs of stroke are estimated at 721 billion US dollars, which is 0.66% of the global GDP. Clinically manifested strokes are only the "tip of the iceberg": it is estimated that the total number of stroke patients is about 14 times greater than the currently applied reactive medical approach is capable to identify and manage. Specifically, lacunar stroke (LS), which is characteristic for silent brain infarction, represents up to 30% of all ischemic strokes. Silent LS, which is diagnosed mainly by routine health check-up and autopsy in individuals without stroke history, has a reported prevalence of silent brain infarction up to 55% in the investigated populations. To this end, silent brain infarction is an independent predictor of ischemic stroke. Further, small vessel disease and silent lacunar brain infarction are considered strong contributors to cognitive impairments, dementia, depression and suicide, amongst others in the general population. In sub-populations such as diabetes mellitus type 2, proliferative diabetic retinopathy is an independent predictor of ischemic stroke. According to various statistical sources, cryptogenic strokes account for 15 to 40% of the entire stroke incidence. The question to consider here is, whether a cryptogenic stroke is fully referable to unidentifiable aetiology or rather to underestimated risks. Considering the latter, translational research might be of great clinical utility to realise innovative predictive and preventive approaches, potentially benefiting high risk individuals and society at large. In this position paper, the consortium has combined multi-professional expertise to provide clear statements towards the paradigm change from reactive to predictive, preventive and personalised medicine in stroke management, the crucial elements of which are: Consolidation of multi-disciplinary expertise including family medicine, predictive and in-depth diagnostics followed by the targeted primary and secondary (e.g. treated cancer) prevention of silent brain infarction Application of the health risk assessment focused on sub-optimal health conditions to effectively prevent health-to-disease transition Application of AI in medicine, machine learning and treatment algorithms tailored to robust biomarker patterns Application of innovative screening programmes which adequately consider the needs of young populations Stroke is a severe brain disease which has reached an epidemic scale worldwide: in 2019, the global stroke prevalence was 101.5 million people. The World Stroke Organisation predicted that globally, 1 in 4 adults over the age of 25 will get a stroke in their lifetime. Not only old people but also teenagers and young adults are affected. Current global costs of stroke are estimated at 721 billion US dollars. Due to undiagnosed so-called "silent" brain infarction, the number of affected individuals is about 14 times greater in the population than clinically recorded. If it remains untreated, silent brain infarction may cause many severe and fatal disorders such as dementia, depression and even suicide. In this position paper, the consortium describes how the rudimental approach to treating severely diseased people could be replaced by an innovative predictive and preventive one to protect people against the health-to-disease transition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Health has been a focal point in sustainable development policies. Seventeen new goals of sustainable development contribute directly or indirectly to people's health. Particular emphasis should be laid on health, along with saving lives of poor people. This can be done by effectively creating healthier society for individuals around the world. Sustainable development goals perceive significance value—that is to concentrate on the needs of hindered groups, children, women, and the poorest of poor to attain sustainable development of human ambitions and to confirm a healthier life for all. This paper analyses the issues of public health and sustainable development from an ethical point of view. As ethics deals with what is good or bad, right or wrong, the paper examines the normative aspects of sustainable development with respect to public health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Colon cancer is the second most common cause of cancer-related death and an important cause of morbidity. The natural history of carcinogenesis, via the adenoma-carcinoma sequence, permits screening, which reduces the relative risk of mortality by up to 16%. The efficacy of a screening programme is limited by the growth of interval colorectal cancers between screening examinations. Quantifying the rate of interval cancers and delineating contributing endoscopic factors are crucial to maximise the benefit of a screening program.Methods: A systematic review was performed in accordance with PRISMA principles. Electronic databases were interrogated with a considered search strategy, and reference lists of retrieved papers were surveyed. For inclusion, studies included the rate of interval cancer (stated or calculated) and reported at least one of a predefined list of endoscopy characteristics. The primary outcome was to establish the rate of interval cancers. The secondary outcome was to determine the association between endoscopy quality measures and interval cancers.Results: The search yielded 2067 papers. Seventy-six full text papers were reviewed. Fifteen papers met the inclusion criteria. In total, there were 117,793 colon cancers, 7281 of which were interval lesions, giving an overall rate of 6.2%. The adenoma detection rate (ADR) of the endoscopist performing the index operation was the most consistent endoscopy factor associated with development of interval cancers. The impact of setting, volume and bowel preparation varied between papers.Conclusion: Interval cancers reduce the efficacy of colorectal screening programmes. Ensuring the quality of the endoscopy process, specifically by increasing the ADR of practitioners, is crucial to the reduction of the rate of interval cancers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The topic of air pollution and its effect on public health has become a hot policy issue that has attracted worldwide attention, but this attention has seldom been extended to the causal relationship between atmospheric environmental policy (AEP), air pollution, and public health. This paper uses panel data from 30 provinces in China to construct spatial econometric models that analyze the impact of AEP on air pollution, the impact of air pollution on public health, and the mediation effect that air pollution may have between AEP and public health. The results demonstrate that there is a significant positive spatial spillover effect of soot and dust (SD) emission intensity and the overall air pollution level as measured by the Air Pollution Index (API). The AEP has significant inhibitory effects on the intensity of sulfur dioxide and SD emissions, as well as on overall air pollution. An increase in the overall air pollution level has a significant detrimental effect on public health as measured by average life expectancy. Air pollution as measured by API is a mediating factor in the relationship between AEP and public health. The study results could help to effectively control air pollution and promote public health by leading to improvements in regional pollution prevention and control mechanisms and strengthening of the central government's policy formulation and local governments' policy implementation process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The identification of territorial clusters where the population suffers from worse health conditions is an important topic in social epidemiology, in order to identify health inequalities in cities and provide health policy interventions. This objective is particularly challenging because of the mechanism of self-selection of individuals into neighborhoods, which causes selection bias. The aim of this paper consists in the identification of neighborhood clusters where elderly people living in Turin, a city in north-western Italy, are exposed to an increased risk of hospitalized fractures. The study is based on administrative data and is a retrospective, observational cohort study. It is composed by a first phase, in which the individual confounding variables are balanced across neighborhoods in order to make them comparable, and a second phase in which the neighborhoods are aggregated into clusters characterized by significantly higher health risk. In the first phase we exploited a balancing technique based on partially ordered sets (poset), called Matching on poset based Average Rank for Multiple Treatments (MARMoT). On the balanced dataset, we used a spatial scan to identify the presence of clusters and we checked whether the risk of fracture is significantly higher in some contiguous areas. The combination of both MARMoT procedure and spatial scan makes it possible to highlight two clusters of neighborhoods in Turin where the risk of incurring hospitalized fractures for elderly people is significantly higher than the mean. These results could have important implications for the implementation of health policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers are often faced with evaluating the effect of a policy or program that was simultaneously initiated across an entire population of units at a single point in time, and its effects over the targeted population can manifest at any time period afterwards. In the presence of data measured over time, Bayesian time series models have been used to impute what would have happened after the policy was initiated, had the policy not taken place, in order to estimate causal effects. However, the considerations regarding the definition of the target estimands, the underlying assumptions, the plausibility of such assumptions, and the choice of an appropriate model have not been thoroughly investigated. In this paper, we establish useful estimands for the evaluation of large-scale policies. We discuss that imputation of missing potential outcomes relies on an assumption which, even though untestable, can be partially evaluated using observed data. We illustrate an approach to evaluate this key causal assumption and facilitate model elicitation based on data from the time interval before policy initiation and using classic statistical techniques. As an illustration, we study the Hospital Readmissions Reduction Program (HRRP), a US federal intervention aiming to improve health outcomes for patients with pneumonia, acute myocardial infraction, or congestive failure admitted to a hospital. We evaluate the effect of the HRRP on population mortality among the elderly across the US and in four geographic subregions, and at different time windows. We find that the HRRP increased mortality from pneumonia and acute myocardial infraction across at least one geographical region and time horizon, and is likely to have had a detrimental effect on public health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The public health policy depends on the management, quality, and coverage aspects. However, the assessment analysis of spatial patterns and distribution of public health services is still a challenge. This paper attempts to analyze the availability and accessibility of public health facilities in the Muktsar district of Punjab at the village level. Spatial and attribute data for public health facilities have been used within the GIS platform to produce accurate measures of accessibility. The average nearest neighbor tool has been used for spatial patterns of services in the district. Near analysis tool has been used to calculate distances from demand points (populations) to providers (facilities). Apart from these, the ratios of public health facilities to population were calculated for the identification of underserved and over-served areas. The study advocates that the spatial pattern of public health facilities is significantly clustered (p value 0.000) with a Z-score of − 5.18. It has been found that urban areas of the Muktsar district were identified as having a higher density of health facilities, whereas villages located in the marginal parts have the lowest density of health facilities. When looking at the average distance from village centroids to health facilities, it varies considerably from village to village. Considerably less than 60 percent of the population living in 108 villages has access to public health facilities. Apart from these, 40 percent of the population living in 126 villages has the greatest increase in the distance while accessing these facilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thromboembolism is the third leading vascular disease, with a high annual incidence of 1 to 2 cases per 1000 individuals within the general population. The broader term venous thromboembolism generally refers to deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, and/or a combination of both. Therefore, thromboembolism can affect both – the central and peripheral veins. Arterial thromboembolism causes systemic ischemia by disturbing blood flow and oxygen supply to organs, tissues, and cells causing, therefore, apoptosis and/or necrosis in the affected tissues. Currently applied antithrombotic drugs used, e.g. to protect affected individuals against ischemic stroke, demonstrate significant limitations. For example, platelet inhibitors possess only moderate efficacy. On the other hand, thrombolytics and anticoagulants significantly increase hemorrhage. Contextually, new approaches are extensively under consideration to develop next-generation antithrombotics with improved efficacy and more personalized and targeted application. To this end, phytochemicals show potent antithrombotic efficacy demonstrated in numerous in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo models as well as in clinical evaluations conducted on healthy individuals and persons at high risk of thrombotic events, such as pregnant women (primary care), cancer, and COVID-19-affected patients (secondary and tertiary care). Here, we hypothesized that specific antithrombotic and antiplatelet effects of plant-derived compounds might be of great clinical utility in primary, secondary, and tertiary care. To increase the efficacy, precise patient stratification based on predictive diagnostics is essential for targeted protection and treatments tailored to the person in the framework of 3P medicine. Contextually, this paper aims at critical review toward the involvement of specific classes of phytochemicals in antiplatelet and anticoagulation adapted to clinical needs. The paper exemplifies selected plant-derived drugs, plant extracts, and whole plant foods/herbs demonstrating their specific antithrombotic, antiplatelet, and fibrinolytic activities relevant for primary, secondary, and tertiary care. One of the examples considered is antithrombotic and antiplatelet protection specifically relevant for COVID-19-affected patient groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Regardless of its form, financing health in isolation will never raise sufficient funds to lead to universal health coverage. Achieving this goal which is not a pure health policy, requires multisectoral collaboration to support financing mechanisms. Within this framework, the World Health Organization has created the Health Financing Progress Matrix to assess a country's progress in health financing. The World Health Organization calls for multisectoral support for health financing systems to achieve universal health coverage. This paper aims to explain how health diplomacy can be defined and implemented to influence and facilitate multisectoral participation in fighting against fragmentation and increase necessary budget to internalize the health financing progress matrix in Burundi. Main text: Burundi's health financing system is characterized by multiple fragmentation of resources and services, which reinforces economic and health inequities, referred to as de-universalization of universal health coverage. The health financing system in Burundi is inadequate to meet the health needs of the population. Different people with different needs form different segments, and coverage may be inconsistent, duplicative, or incomplete. Health diplomacy can alleviate this situation by appointing health finance attachés in each of the 19 sectors that make up the life of the country. Health finance attachés may have three main tasks:1) promoting confidence building, 2) seeking consensus, and 3) building solidarity for universal health coverage. The practices of health finance attachés can help to improve budget for more coverage. Following the World Health Organization's progress matrix on health financing, internalization can be achieved in four ways: (i) raising the profile of health diplomats to be accredited in non-health sectors, (ii) establishing offices of health finance attachés in each sector, (iii) creating means by which sectors benefiting from internalization act, (iv) operationalizing proportionate universal health coverage. Conclusion: Health diplomacy holds an ethical practice (representation approach) for internalizing the matrix. Measuring the size of the health gap and the steepness of the health gradient determines the degree of matrix internalization. Health diplomacy needs to be included in all health financing agendas to achieve proportionate universal health coverage in poor countries like Burundi. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated many social problems and put the already vulnerable, such as racial minorities, low-income communities, and older individuals, at an even greater risk than before. In this paper we focus on older adults' well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic and show that the risk-mitigation measures presumed to protect them, alongside the generalization of an ageist public discourse, exacerbated the pre-existing marginalization of older adults, disproportionately affecting their well-being. This paper shows that states have duties to adopt and put into practice redress measures to compensate for the negative consequences of COVID-19 public health policies on older adults' overall well-being. These duties flow from the minimal ethical requirement of respect for persons. We show that respect is a morally basic attitude that presupposes taking the others' interests into account, with the aim of advancing their well-being. This duty is not limited to kinship, relatives, and friends but it extends to states and the rest of the civil society. In the conclusion, we draw lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic and sketch some redress measures that could compensate for the decrease in older adults' well-being as a result of the adoption of measures to contain the spread of the virus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Direct-to-consumer (DTC) genetic testing exists largely outside of any regulatory schemes, and studies providing a comprehensive overview of the ethical, social, legal, and technological considerations for regulating these types of technologies are lacking. This paper uses the 3-I framework for policy analysis to analyze the ideas, interests, and institutions relevant to policy development for DTC genetic testing in North America and internationally. A scoping review was conducted. Citation databases were searched for papers addressing the ethical, social, legal, and technological implications of DTC genetic testing; stakeholder perspectives on and experiences with DTC genetic testing; or the effect of such testing on the healthcare system. Ninety-nine publications, organizational reports, governmental documents, or pieces of legislation were included. The ideas included are autonomy, informed decision making, privacy, and clinical validity and utility. The interests discussed are those of the public and healthcare providers. The institutions included are regulatory organizations such as the Food and Drug Administration in the United States, laws governing the implementation or delivery of genetic testing in general, and legislation created to protect against genetic discrimination. This analysis clarifies the ethical, social, legal, and technological issues of DTC genetic testing regulation. This information can be used by policy makers to develop or strengthen regulations for DTC genetic testing such as requiring an assessment of the clinical validity of tests before they become publicly available, controlling how tests are marketed, and stipulating requirements for healthcare provider involvement and informed consent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This critical essay evaluates the potential integration of distinct kinds of expertise in policymaking, especially during situations of critical emergencies, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. This article relies on two case studies: (i) herd immunity (UK) and (ii) restricted access to ventilators for disabled people (USA). These case studies are discussed as examples of experts' recommendations that have not been widely accepted, though they were made within the boundaries of expert epistemic authority. While the fundamental contribution of biomedical experts in devising public health policies during the COVID-19 pandemic is fully recognized, this paper intends to discuss potential issues and limitations that may arise when adopting a strict expert-based approach. By drawing attention to the interests of minorities (disenfranchized and underrepresented groups), the paper also claims a broader notion of "relevant expertise." This critical essay thus calls for the necessity of wider inclusiveness and representativeness in the process underlying public health policymaking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]