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Improving the brightness of single-photon sources by means of optically resonant nanoantennas is a major stake for the development of efficient nanodevices for quantum communications. We demonstrate that nanoxerography by atomic force microscopy makes possible the fast, robust and repeatable positioning of model quantum nanoemitters (nitrogen-vacancy NV centers in nanodiamonds) on a large-scale in the gap of silicon nanoantennas with a dimer geometry. By tuning the parameters of the nanoxerography process, we can statistically control the number of deposited nanodiamonds, yielding configurations down to a unique single photon emitter coupled to these high index dielectric nanoantennas, with high selectivity and enhanced brightness induced by a near-field Purcell effect. Numerical simulations are in very good quantitative agreement with time-resolved photoluminescence experiments. A multipolar analysis reveals in particular all the aspects of the coupling between the dipolar single emitter and the Mie resonances hosted by these simple nanoantennas. This proof of principle opens a path to a genuine and large-scale spatial control of the coupling of punctual quantum nanoemitters to arrays of optimized optically resonant nanoantennas. It paves the way for future fundamental studies in quantum nano-optics and toward integrated photonics applications for quantum technologies.

International audience; A versatile industrial recipe of transferring nitride microelectronic components such as micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) onto flexible and stretchable substrates is demonstrated. This method bypasses difficulties of temperature-related processing, and is applicable to large-scale and mass production. The technological process of fabrication is presented along with its underlying structural and radio-frequency characterizations. In particular, the Raman strain shifts of aluminum nitride (AlN) thin films are determined for uniaxial and biaxial mechanical deformations. The transferring process onto polymer is also demonstrated by an adhesive bonding of AlN-based MEMS onto a 200 mm silicon (Si) wafer. The devices microstructure is assessed using X-ray before and after transferring, as well as their electrical radio-frequency (RF) features when on Si and polymer substrates. Then, RF measurements are also performed on the transferred and flexible devices; some in their relaxed states, and others in an in situ manner under an increasing macroscopic strain. It is shown that bulk acoustic wave resonator MEMS are fully functional even under 12% uniaxial stretching of the substrate.

International audience; Quantum nano-optics aims at transposing the concepts of quantum optics at the nanoscale. In this context, nitrogen-vacancy color centers in nanodiamonds are particularly interesting sources as they emit single photons one by one with a broad spectral distribution between 600 and 800 nm. We deposit such quantum emitters at the extremities of silicon nanowires and analyze the effects of this interaction via spectrally resolved confocal microscopy. We demonstrate that the single photon emission can be guided over several microns under conservation of their quantum statistics, and with efficiencies of up to 15 %.n We show that the silicon nanowires can be used as spectral filters for the quantum emission. Numerical simulations are in very good agreement with experiments, and indicate that the modal landscape of these nano-waveguides and the according coupling efficiencies with quantum emitters can be designed such that only light from emitters of specific orientations is efficiently guided through the nanowire, enabling a unique quantum state selectivity at a micrometer length scale. Our work opens the door to a genuine modal control of single photon transfer in subwavelength nanowaveguides, paving the way to future fundamental studies and towards integrated and multi-wavelength photonics applications in quantum nano-optics.

The aim of this paper is to present the 3D-sequential integration and its main prospective application sectors. The presentation will also give a synoptic view of all the key enabling process steps required to build high performance Si CMOS integrated by 3D-sequential with thermal budget preserving the integrity of active devices and interconnects and will sketch a status and prospect on current low temperature device performance.

International audience; A scalable manufacturing method is demonstrated for the transfer of crystalline AlN thin-films deposited on 200 mm Si wafer onto a flexible and stretchable polymer. The resulting AlN-On-Polymer (AOP) can be bent and stretched. This novel transfer process allows a straightforward strain-engineering method of semiconductor thin-films when transferred onto polymer. Straining controllably semiconductor thin-films may alter their properties, which may boost the performance of the corresponding devices; e.g. the piezoelectric properties of AlN are enhanced upon tensile strain. We present here the transfer process of AlN thin-films onto polymer substrates; we discuss the influence of uniaxial strain on microstructural properties of AOP after in situ Raman spectroscopy assessments and relative strain evaluations by X-ray diffractions of AlN thin-films embedded in different types of stack configurations.

The study deals with the handling of thin wafers in 3D integration. It concerns the fabrication of 300 mm wafers in industrial tools. Usually, the manufacturing is based on a temporary bonding process performed at 200 °C using a thermoplastic adhesive. In that condition bonding, thinning and dismounting are satisfactory. Moreover, the adhesive flattening during bonding results in an excellent thickness uniformity of the bonded pairs, with a small total thickness variation (TTV) value suitable for 3D integration. If the temperature is 150 °C or lower, the adhesive thickness uniformity is not acceptable anymore. An innovative temporary bonding process at low temperature has thus been developed. It consists in a carrier fabrication with highly uniform adhesive thickness. The standard coated adhesive is flattened with a first reversible temporary bonding at 210 °C. After a first dismounting, this carrier is then bonded to the target device wafer with a low bonding temperature, from 110 °C to 150 °C. Due to the pre-flattening, 80 μm thick silicon films with an excellent TTV value can thus be obtained even with a low bonding temperature required by the device wafer. Moreover, after the device wafer thinning, the final dismounting can be performed without any antisticking layer.

International audience; This study reports the manufacturing of Silicon On Polymer (SOP). It describes the transfer of a 200 mm diameter silicon thin film from a silicon on insulator (SOI) substrate to a flexible polymer. The thickness of the single-crystal silicon film was less than 200 nm and the transfer was achieved by bonding the SOI wafer to a temporary silicon carrier with an adhesive polymer. Various parameters of the transfer were investigated: adherence of the stack, temperature of bonding, temporary carrier and Si film thickness. The substrate and the SOI buried oxide were removed by mechanical grinding and chemical etching. The Si thin film was held on a flexible tape and the temporary carrier was dismounted. SOPs consisting of 20 to 205 nm thin Si films on a flexible polymer (230 μm) were successfully obtained. 200 mm diameter full wafers or patterned wafers could be transferred.

Monolayers (MLs) of transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) such as WSe2 and MoSe2 can be placed by dry stamping directly on broadband dielectric resonators, which have the ability to enhance the spontaneous emission rate and brightness of solid-state emitters at room temperature. We show strongly enhanced emission and directivity modifications in room temperature photoluminescence mapping experiments. By varying TMD material (WSe2 versus MoSe2) transferred on silicon nanoresonators with various designs (planarized versus non-planarized), we experimentally separate the different physical mechanisms that govern the global light emission enhancement. For WSe2 and MoSe2 we address the effects of Mie Resonances and strain in the monolayer. For WSe2 an important additional contribution comes from out-of-plane exciton dipoles. This paves the way for more targeted designs of TMD-Si nanoresonator structures for room temperature applications., Comment: 10 pages, 5 figures

Strain engineering can be called upon to tune the band structures of semiconductors. It is widely used in different types of microelectronics devices and it is expected to enable unprecedented responses in optoelectronics [1]. In the case of single crystal Silicon (sc-Si), several approaches have been proposed, relying either on the lattice mismatch inherent to hetero-epitaxial growth (Si on relaxed SiGe) or on substrate expansion (porous Si) [2, 3]. However, these methods are limited to bi-axial strain and by the maximum strain achievable in sc-Si thin film. We recently evaluated a method enabling to transfer a 200nm thick sc-Si film on a stretchable polymer substrate. Tensile tests proved that applying an external mechanical load on the substrate injected significant amounts of strain into sc-Si [4]. This work is focused on studying different parameters to improve the maximum strain in a Silicon On Polymer (SOP) stack obtained from a 200mm Silicon On Insulator (SOI) wafer using temporary polymer bonding. The overall fabrication process is described in figure 1(a). 2 × 24mm2 rectangles are defined using photolithography in a SOI thin film. The wafer is temporary bonded to a handling silicon substrate with a 40µm thick glue layer. Then, the backside of the SOI is removed with mechanical grinding and selective chemical etching. Finally, the sc-Si thin film is transferred to a 230µm thick flexible substrate thanks to a release layer between the glue and the sc-Si layer. The substrate is cut into tensile test samples as described in figure 1(a). In a previous study we have shown that a 200nm thick sc-Si film could be uniaxialy strained up to 1.5% along the [110] direction [4]. In the present work, we quantify the impact of strain orientation, sc-Si film thickness and pattern edge roughness on maximum uniaxial strain. In order to change the sc-Si film thickness a dry etching step was used after removing the backside of the SOI ubstrate. A soft lithography mask and a standard chrome 1X lithography mask were compared for the fabrication of rectangles. To achieve even smoother pattern edges, TetraMethylAmmonium Hydroxide (TMAH) etching was also used (for 90 minutes in a 25 %wt solution at 80◦C) on a patterned SOI with a silicon oxide layer as a hard mask. Resulting samples were tested on a uniaxial tensile stage coupled to a Raman spectrometer, giving us access simultaneously to the sample macroscopic strain and the silicon local strain. Tensile test results are summarized in figure 1(b). Reducing the thickness of the sc-Si did not improve the strain limit while better edges definitions did. Indeed, using TMAH, uniaxial strains up to 3% along [100] were reached in a 200nm thick sc-Si film on a flexible polymer substrate. These results are highly encouraging for the development of films with a wide range of strain. Furthermore, this method is easily transferable to other materials such as AlN or Ge. References [1] J. Li, Z. Shan, and E. Ma, “Elastic strain engineering for unprecedented materials properties,” MRS Bulletin, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 108–114, 2014. [2] A. Boucherif, N. P. Blanchard, P. Regreny, O. Marty, G. Guillot, G. Grenet, and V. Lysenko, “Tensile strain engineering of Si thin films using porous Si substrates,” Thin Solid Films, vol. 518, no. 9, pp. 2466–2469, 2010. [3] J. M. Hartmann, A. Abbadie, D. Rouchon, J. P. Barnes, M. Mermoux, and T. Billon, “Structural properties of tensile-strained Si layers grown on Si1-xGex virtual substrates (x = 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5),” Thin Solid Films, vol. 516, pp. 4238–4246, 4 2008. [4] L. G. Michaud, C. Castan, M. Zussy, P. Montmeat, V. H. Mareau, L. Gonon, F. Fournel, F. Rieutord, and S. Tardif, “Elaboration and characterization of a 200 mm stretchable and flexible ultra-thin semi-conductor film,” Nanotechnology, vol. 31, p. 145302, 1 2020. Figure 1

High temperature (>1000°C) annealing is necessary to completely close a bonding interface. Using interface synchrotron high energy X-ray reflectivity, we have investigated the sealing behavior of silicon thermal oxide/ silicon thermal oxide interfaces, with different surface roughnesses. Interface X-ray reflection is able to measure accurately the width and the depth of the electron density gap across a bonding interface with a sub-nanometer accuracy, whose product is a good marker of the interface closure. The uncomplete closure of the interface is the result of a balance between attractive and repulsive force between the two bonded solids. These two forces depend on the statistics of asperity and on the mechanical behavior of individual asperity [1]. For attraction, at high temperatures, a key factor is the gain of contact surface area which reduces the surface energy due to uncontacted zones. Repulsion is due to compression of contacting asperities. At high temperature, both elastic and plastic behavior can be expected, with some yield of the asperities compressed above the elastic limit. In the elastic solid regime, we have shown that equilibrium distance of rough silicon oxide to rough siliconoxide bonding can be predicted using standard adhesive contact models such as Johnson-Kendall Roberts (JKR) or Deryagin-Müller-Toporov (DMT) with Gaussian roughness statistics[2]. The equilibrium distance is dependent and sensitive to the Fuller Tabor adhesion parameter, θ=E σ3/2 R1/2 / 2γR where E is the Young modulus, σ the mean roughness, R the radius of the asperity, while 2γ is the adhesion energy at contact points. When θ>>1 , the equilibrium distance is large and the contact area is small (unclosed interface) . When θ< In the plastic regime, both repulsive and attractive curves share the same dependence with distance so that the system is expected to be unstable, between a weakly evolving unsealed interface and a fully sealed interface when the asperity pressure stress is above the elastic limit. The kinetics of the sealing can also be modeled in this case, monitoring the interfacial gap as a function of time (Figure). It is found that the sealing characteristic time scales directly with the silicon oxide viscosity (Figure insert). This dependence can be understood using the plastic asperity contact model, assuming the fluid part flows according to the Stokes equation around asperities. References [1] Rieutord, F., L. Capello, R. Beneyton, C. Morales, A.-M. Charvet, and H. Moriceau. “Rough Surface Adhesion Mechanisms for Wafer Bonding.” In Semiconductor Wafer Bonding 9: Science, Technology, And Applications ECS Transactions, edited by H. Baumgart, S. Bengtsson, H. Moriceau, K.D. Hobart, T. Suga, and C. Colinge, 3:205–15. ECS Transactions, 2006. [2] Johnson, K. L., Contact Mechanics, Cambridge University Press (1985). Figure caption Time dependence of the interface closure for a SiO2//SiO2 bonding interface. Roughness of surfaces was 5.4Å rms as measured using AFM. The color scale gives the temperatures (1000-1200°C). Insert: dependence of the closure time with viscosity. Figure 1

To reach quantum supremacy, large scale integration of quantum bits through three dimensional (3D) architectures functional at sub-Kelvin temperatures is required. Electrical signals are transferred by 3D interconnects which need to be carefully designed in term of materials and dimensions to optimize the whole system performance. To that end, 20 μm pitch daisy chains with more than 20000 SnAg microbump-based interconnects and more than 1000 direct Cu bond ones have been fabricated with die-to-wafer processes developed on 300 mm Si wafers. Daisy chain resistances have been measured in a liquid nitrogen deware and in a He3 cryostat at the following thermal steps: 300 K, 77 K, 4 K and 400 mK, allowing to extract unitary link resistances to establish preliminary process design kits at these low temperatures. The mechanical and electrical robustness of these interconnects has been validated through the repeatability of the resistance measurements over several thermal cycles.

In this work, we present the fabrication process of a $3~\mu \text{m}$ -thick AlGaInAs-based vertical p-i-n laser diode structure grown on a directly bonded InP-SiO2/Si (InPoSi) substrate. High-quality epitaxial growth on InPoSi is reported. Based on these structures, the fabrication process of Fabry-Perot broad lasers is presented. Device performance is compared to the ones obtained from the same growth run on an InP substrate as a reference. High electrical properties of the n and p contacts are demonstrated. Lasing operation in the pulse regime is shown up to 50°C. Threshold current densities as low as 0.4 kA/cm 2 at 20°C are obtained for the laser on InPoSi, comparable to the ones obtained for the reference on InP substrate.

Hybrid integration of III-V materials onto silicon by direct bonding technique is a mature and promising approaches to develop advanced photonic integrated devices into the silicon photonics platform. In this approach, the III-V material stack is grown on an InP wafer in a unique epitaxial step prior to the direct bonding process onto the silicon-on-insulator wafer. Currently, no additional epitaxial regrowth steps are implemented after bonding. This can be seen as a huge limitation as compared to the III-V on III-V wafer mature technology where multi-regrowth steps are most often implemented. In this work, we have studied the material behavior of an InP membrane on silicon (InPoSi) under epitaxial regrowth conditions by metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE). MOVPE requires high-temperature elevation, typically above 600 °C. We show for the first time the appearance of voids at 400 °C in an InP seed (100 nm) directly-bonded onto a thermally oxidized Si substrate despite the use of a thick SiO2 oxide (200 nm) at the bonding interface. This phenomenon is explained by a weakening of the bonding interface while high-pressurized hydrogen is present. A kinetic study of the hydrogen lateral diffusion is carried out, enabling the assessment of its lateral diffusion length. To overcome the void formation, highly efficient outgassing trenches after bonding are demonstrated. Finally, high-quality AlGaInAs-based multi-quantum well (MQW) heterostructure surrounded by two InP layers was grown by MOVPE on InPoSi template patterned with outgassing trenches. This process is not only compatible with MOVPE regrowth conditions (650 °C under PH3) but also with conventional fabrication processes used for photonic devices.

International audience

Epitaxial growth of high material quality $1.55\boldsymbol{\mu} \mathbf{m}$ AlGaInAs Multiquantum Wells Heterostructure on a directly-bonded InPoSi substrate has been developed for datacom applications.

International audience; The presented work concerns the manufacturing of very thin silicon wafers for a 3D Integrated Circuit industrial purpose. One of the key parameters of the 3D integration is the adherence of the bonded structure which involves silicon wafers and a polymer adhesive as an intermediate layer. The scope of the paper is to determine the suitable adherence of the stack for a successful manufacturing onto industrial tools. For this purpose the dismounting capacity of the fully automated equipment EVG (R) 850DB depending on the adherence energy is studied. Direct and polymer bonded silicon pairs are prepared. Their energies of adherence cover a large range of energy from 0.3 to 14 J/m(2). The automatic mechanical dismounting process is successful when the stack adherence is 1.2 J/m(2) or lower. This value does not depend on the bonded structure type direct bonded pairs or thinned polymer bonded pairs exhibit the same behavior regarding the dismounting capacity. And we demonstrate that the industrial manufacturing of 70 pm thin silicon wafers is possible if the adherence is 0.4 J/m(2) to 1.2 J/m(2).

International audience; The transport of water in a highly confined gap made by the directbonding of low roughness silicon hydrophilic wafers is studied.We derive the equation for the transport of water from chemicalpotential gradients, using Stokes and conservation equations. Thetransport equation is found to be a Porous Medium Equation withexponent 2. A solution for this equation with stepwise boundaryconditions is given. The model is tested against different initialconditions for inward and outward flow, and different temperaturesand humidity levels.

Nanofluidics finds its root in the study of fluids and flows at the nanoscale. Flow rate is a quantity that is both central when dealing with flows and notoriously difficult to measure experimentally at the scale of an individual nanopore or nanochannel. We show in this letter that minute flow rate can be directly measured accumulating liquid over time within the compliant membrane of a commercial piezoresistive pressure sensor. Our flow rate sensor is versatile and can be operated independently of the nature of the liquid, flow profile, and type of nanochannel. We demonstrate this method by measuring the pressure-driven flow of silicon oil in a single nanochannel of average radius 200 nm. This approach gives reliable measurement of the flow rate up to 1 pL/min. Unlike other nanoscale flow measurements methods based, for instance, on particle tracking, our sensor delivers a direct voltage output suitable for nanoflow control applications.

International audience; This paper deals with the effect of the silicon bonding temperature with thermoplastic adhesive. The bonding temperature exhibits a significant effect on the morphology and on the adherence energy of the bonded stack. A suitable temperature control leads to an excellent homogeneity of the bonded structure and an optimal total thickness variation (TTV) value. Using Brewer Bsi5150 adhesive material, 275 A degrees C appears as the optimal bonding temperature in order to optimize the TTV from 55 A mu m down to 5 A mu m. The adherence of the structure is also increased with high bonding temperatures. Indeed, the adherence energy is above 10 J/m(2) when the temperature is above 250 A degrees C. On the contrary, when the temperature is less than 150 A degrees C, the adherence is only around 1 J/m(2). Noteworthy, this value is suitable for back side processing and a mechanical debonding of the structure without any need of other specific layer which could lead to a very simple temporary bonding process.

International audience; Direct bonding of PECVD SiOx films is of great interest in the field of microtechnologies for applications such as stacked structures, thin film transfers, whose fabrication processes still deserve to be investigated. This work deals with the influence of water diffusion in the SiOx films deposited onto 200mm Si wafers and its impact on adherence of hydrophilic surfaces. The as-deposited film nature induces various stresses. Stresses evolutions and water penetration are characterized and a correlation is made between the kinetics of both stress variations and water diffusion through the oxide thin films. Impacts of room temperature (RT) storage prior to bonding and thermal treatments applied for strengthening the bonding is shown. As direct bonding operates through surface asperities deformation, specific mechanical properties of such contact asperities can lead to a stronger bonding by increasing bonding area (Fournel 2015, Rieutord 2006; Ventosa 2008; Ventosa 2009). As the mechanical properties of silicon oxide material are greatly influenced by internal water concentration, aging and water diffusion on asperity have a real impact in term of direct bonding energy. Moreover at bonding interfaces, it is observed by X-ray reflectivity (XRR) that aging of deposited SiOx prior to bonding enables shallower bonding gaps, indicating better bonding interface closure which is coherent with the bonding energy enhancement. All these results confirm the link between water diffusion and hydrophilic surface adherence of deposited SiOx films.

It has been experimentally demonstrated only recently that a simultaneous excitation of interfering electric and magnetic resonances can lead to uni-directional scattering of visible light in zero-dimensional dielectric nanoparticles. We show both theoretically and experimentally, that strongly anisotropic scattering also occurs in individual dielectric nanowires. The effect occurs even under either pure transverse electric or pure transverse magnetic polarized normal illumination. This allows for instance to toggle the scattering direction by a simple rotation of the incident polarization. Finally, we demonstrate that directional scattering is not limited to cylindrical cross-sections, but can be further tailored by varying the shape of the nanowires., Comment: 12 pages, 6 figures + supporting informations of 12 pages, 19 figures

Direct bonding of silicon and silicon dioxide thin films is now widely used in industry for SOI (Silicon on Insulator) elaboration for instance or in some backside imager manufacturing processes which are now at a stage of mass production processes. Silicon oxide capping layer is very often used as a convenient bonding layer allowing efficient topography planarization with classical CMP (Chemical Mechanical Planarization) process. Thus silicon oxide//silicon oxide direct bonding has been very developed when bonding interface behaviour deserves to be deeply studied. The bonding energy evolution is one of the key parameters and has been widely studied for many years [1,2,3]. Notably, water edge penetration at the bonding interface after the direct bonding was reported recently [4,5]. This work is then focused on the impact of water edge penetration on silicon oxide direct bonding energy values. 200 mm silicon wafers are thermally oxidized at 950 °C under steam atmosphere in order to growth 145 nm of silicon dioxide thin film. After classical RCA cleaning, these wafers are bonded at room temperature and ambient pressure. Just after the bonding, they are diced into 2 cm wide beams and annealed at 300 °C for bonding energy measurement under anhydrous atmosphere [3]. But after the dicing, the atmospheric water can start to penetrate the direct bonding interface. Two times are then considered: t1 is the time between the dicing and the annealing steps and t2 is the time between the annealing and the energy measurement. The bonding energy dependence regarding t1 and t2 is studied. It will be shown that increasing t1 is beneficial for the oxide/oxide bonding energy in contrary to t2 increase. A mechanism for bonding evolution will be proposed to explain these results mainly based on water stress corrosion influence. The annealing atmosphere will also be pointed out to explain some behaviours. Recommendations for storage time and atmosphere as well as for annealing conditions could then be formulated to make bonding energy values at the wafer edge suitable for subsequent device elaborations. REFERENCES [1] G. Kräuter, A. Schumacher, U. Gösele, Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, Vol. 70 (3), 271–275 (1998). [2] F. Fournel, C. Martin-Cocher, V. Larrey, H. Moriceau, F. Rieutord, WaferBond International Conference Brunswick Germany (2015) [3] F. Fournel, L. Continni, C. Morales, J. Da Fonseca, H. Moriceau, F. Rieutord, A. Barthelemy, I. Radu, J. Appl. Phys., 111, 104907 (2012) [4] M. Tedjini, F. Fournel, V. Larrey, F. Rieutord, WaferBond International Conference, Brunswick Germany (2015) [5] M. Tedjini, F. Fournel, H. Moriceau, V. Larrey, D. Landru, O. Kononchuk, S. Tardif, F. Rieutord, Submitted to Journal of Applied Physics.

International audience; The kinetics of water diffusion through the gap formed by the direct bonding of two silicon wafers is studied using two different techniques. X-ray reflectivity is able to monitor the interface density changes associated with the water front progression. The water intake is also revealed through the defect creation upon annealing, creating a rim-like pattern whose extent also gives the water diffusion law. At room temperature, the kinetics observed by either technique are consistent with the Lucas-Washburn law for diffusion through a gap width smaller than 1 nm, excluding any significant no-slip layer thickness. Published by AIP Publishing.

Direct bonding is now a well-known technique to join two flat surfaces without any additional material. This technique is used in many applications and especially in SOI (Silicon-On-Insulator) elaboration or in some backside imager manufacturing processes which are now almost in mass production. Direct bonding mechanism study is then very important in order to clearly understand this bonding behavior. Especially in the case of silicon or silicon dioxide hydrophilic surface, the role of water is essential. Water could lead to lots of different reactions at the bonding interface and especially the water stress corrosion could play an important role in the direct bonding mechanism. © The Author(s) 2015. Published by ECS. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial No Derivatives 4.0 License (CC BY-NC-ND, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is not changed in any way and is properly cited. For permission for commercial reuse, please email: oa@electrochem.org. [DOI: 10.1149/2.0031505jss] All rights reserved.

International audience; The use of reconstructed silicon wafers obtained after high temperature annealing under H-2 atmosphere was demonstrated as an efficient way for increasing the bonding energy of silicon hydrophobic bonding (Rauer et al. 2013). Mechanisms occurring in these bondings are the focus of this paper. Si bonding interface closure was analyzed at the nanometer scale using X-Ray Reflectivity and Fourier Transform InfraRed spectroscopy in multiple internal reflexion mode. These two characterization techniques enable one to follow the interface closure taking under consideration mechanical and chemical aspects. We have shown that the terrace morphology and the monohydride surface termination specific to reconstructed Si surfaces both play a role in obtaining an efficient bonding gap closure after annealing at low temperature.

International audience; SOI circuit exhibits excellent performance and rehabilitee but with the component miniaturization trend and the clock frequency increase, the self-heating phenomena that arise from the SOI structure itself must not be underestimated. In order to minimize this problem, several candidates have been identified to replace the buried silicon oxide (SiO2) by high thermal conductive dielectric layers such as HfO2, Si3N4, diamond or Al2O3. In order to elaborate a SOI structure using this kind of innovative buried dielectric, first of all, their direct bonding with silicon has to be studied. In this work, we investigate the bonding thermal behaviour of Si/Al2O3 and Al2O3/Al2O3 direct bonded structures: bondings are submitted to room temperature up to 900 A degrees C annealing. Amorphous or crystallized Al2O3 thin films were used in this study. Bonding energies are measured in an anhydrous atmosphere and bonding defectivity is analysed using scanning acoustic microscope (SAM). With amorphous a-Al2O3 layer, for T > 200 A degrees C, high bonding energy are obtained even if high defect density appeared when annealing temperature exceeded 400-500 A degrees C. Spontaneous debonding phenomena even occurred for a-Al2O3/a-Al2O3 direct bonding. This defectivity, unobservable using infrared camera, may be explained by chemical or structural Al2O3 modification such as gases desorption, internal stress or crystallisation state. Bonding with crystallized Al2O3 film has been also characterized by infrared spectroscopy and complementary analysis. No high defect density is observed with crystallized Al2O3 layer. Based on these results, an Al2O3 bonding mechanism is proposed.

Direct bonding is now a well-known technique to join two flat surfaces without any additional material. This technique is used in many application and especially in SOI (Silicon on insulator) elaboration or in some backside imager manufacturing process which is now almost a mass production process. Direct bonding mechanism study is then very important in order to clearly understand this bonding behaviour. Especially in the case of silicon or silicon dioxide hydrophilic surface, the role of water is essential. Water could lead to lots of different reactions at the bonding interface and especially the water stress corrosion could play an important role in the direct bonding mechanism. After having reviewed the different silicon dioxide water stress corrosion in the literature [1,2], its influence in the direct bonding area will be pointed out. The direct bonding energy measurement, G, using the double cantilever (DCB) beam technique is for instance highly affected by the water stress corrosion [3, 4, 5, 6]. In addition to the direct bonding energy, this DCB technique is also very interesting to allow improvement of the direct bonding mechanism. Indeed, as the water stress corrosion only appears with siloxane bonds, it could be an interesting characterization of the classical silicon direct bonding reaction: Si-OH+Si-OH => Si-O-Si+H2O We will then show that siloxane bonds could appear already at room temperature and not only during the classical post bonding annealing process using for instance plasma activated bonding by changing the relative humidity of the characterization atmosphere. This water stress corrosion is also put into evidence during adhesion bonding energy and subsequent G measurement in which the hysteresis cycle which appears between these two measurements shows that specific siloxane bonds appear after the bonding wave propagation [7, 8]. Moreover, they put in evidence the effect of the atmosphere humidity in such hysteresis cycle. In addition to this, the water stress corrosion could be used to put into evidence the remaining water at the bonded interface [9]. Indeed in specific dioxide/dioxide bonding, Ventosa et al. [10] show that the water could remain at the interface until post bonding annealing treatment of 400°C during 2 hours and we will show that this can be seen by the water stress corrosion which takes place even in anhydrous atmosphere for this bonding type. Thus, the stress corrosion study in anhydrous atmosphere can deeply participate to the elaboration of a direct bonding mechanism. Moreover, one could think that the water stress corrosion plays an active role in the direct bonding evolution. Indeed, in other silicon dioxide processes, as CMP for instance, the water stress corrosion helps to hydrolyze the surface and to remove the polished material. The water stress corrosion might help the surface asperities to deform in order to increase the bonding area and thus the bonding energy. Furthermore, as the water stress corrosion rate depends on the temperature [11], it could also participate to the bonding energy evolution versus annealing temperature. The direct bonding mechanism could then be seen as a mechanical model of asperity deformation greatly helped by the trapped water at the bonding interface. Besides the bonding energy evolution, we will also discuss how the water stress corrosion study of bonded structure could be very interesting for the characterization of bonded interface chemical resistance. Indeed a good relation is seen between the chemical interface resistance and the water stress corrosion sensitivity [12]. The water stress corrosion study in bonded structure and especially in silicon or silicon dioxide bonding is then very fruitful and should deserve to be extended to other type of bonding interface and materials. REFERENCES [1] S.M. Wiederhorn, et al., J.Mater.Sci. (17) 3460 (1982). [2] M. Ciccotti, J.Phys.D (42) 214006 (2009) [3] O. Vallin, et al., Mat.Sci.andEng. R50 109 (2005). [4] T. Martini, et al.,Soc. 144(1) 354 (1997). [5] Y. Bertholet, et al., Sens.Actua.A 110 157 (2004). [6] F. Fournel, et al., J.Apl.Phys. (111) 104907 (2012). [7] D. S. Grierson et al., ECS Trans. 33(4) 573 (2010). [8] D. Radisson, to be published. [9] C. Martin-Cocher, to be published. [10] C. Ventosa, et al., J.Appl.Phys. 104 (2008). [11] S. N. Crichton et al., J.Am.Ceram.Soc. 82(11) 3097 (1999). [12] T. Suni, et al., ECS Trans. (19) 70 (2003).

Investigation of a surface patterned by buried dislocation networks is performed with grazing incidence x-ray scattering (GIXS). It is shown that surface long-range undulations lead to a azimuth-dependent diffusion spot, the scattering vector of which is mainly parallel to the x-ray propagation direction. This unusual scattering direction with GIXS is explained by the scales of the scattering objects. A geometrical model is proposed to extract the periodicity of the surface from GIXS.

Single Si/SiO 2 quantum wells were fabricated using silicon on insulator (SOI) substrates, the upper barrier being a thin thermally oxidized Si layer. Samples were Er and O implanted at low energy in order to center their concentration profile in the well, and then annealed. A bulk Si sample implanted under the identical conditions was used as a reference. We present low temperature photoluminescence results using UV excitation in order to create photogenerated carriers mainly in the Si well. We show that the 1.54-μm photoluminescence is much more intense for Er in a well than for Er in implanted bulk silicon. We show that infrared emission occurs through an energy transfer mechanism from Si to Er centers. Confinement prevents the escape of photogenerated carriers towards the substrate and promotes energy transfer towards optical active erbium center.

International audience; Ultrathin films of silicon bonded on 4-inch (001) silicon wafers have been obtained by combining a direct hydrophobic silicon bonding technique with a layer transfer. The strain field produced by the dislocation network localized at the bonded interface is a good candidate to induce a long-range order growth of nanostructure. To be able to make this new kind of substrate, knowledge of the dislocation strain field extension is essential. Grazing incidence X-ray diffraction allows us to measure its spatial extension through the diffraction peak satellites due to different dislocation networks. The exponential decay of these peaks were measured and compared. We found that the decrease of the strain field extension is almost two times lower for the screw dislocation network than for the ‘mixed’ dislocations one. The film thickness control is then two times more critical for the screw dislocations.

International audience; Twist-bonded Si/Si (0 0 1) and Si/SiO2 interfaces have been investigated by grazing incidence X-ray scattering methods. For Si/Si (0 0 1) bonding, conventional X-ray reflectivity reveals the good quality of the interfaces in terms of flatness and roughness. In-plane grazing incidence diffraction measurements around the (2 2 0) reflection show satellite peaks close to the substrate and the layer diffraction peaks. These sharp satellites are produced by a periodic displacement resulting from a very regular buried dislocation network. The Si/SiO2 bonding has been studied with X-ray reflectivity within a transmission geometry. The analysis of the data shows the high quality of both bonded Si/SiO2 and thermal oxide SiO2/Si interfaces.

International audience; Ultra thin film of silicon bonded on 4 in. (001) silicon wafers have been obtained by combining a direct hydrophobic silicon bonded technique with a layer transfer. The twist angle between the ultra thin Si film and the Si substrate was varied from 0 to 15°. X-ray reflectivity measured the thickness and the roughness of the ultra thin films. Complementary results concerning the interface structure were obtained with high resolution transmission electronic microscopy. It is shown that an ultra thin film (a few nm) can be reproductively prepared upon the full 4 in. wafers. Moreover, this process gives very small thickness fluctuations and a small surface roughness. The bonding interface has a low concentration of oxide precipitates and presents two arrays dislocations respectively, due to the twist (screw dislocations) and a residual tilt angle (mixed dislocations) of the crystals. Dissociation of the screw dislocations is also observed on the lowest twist angle sample.

This thesis is dedicated to the study of an alternative and original method to produce strained single-crystal silicon thin film in an effort to develop a strain engineering platform for single crystal semi-conductor. Strain engineering is widely used to boost Si based transistor performance and offers outstanding possibility for the use of Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) compatible semi-conductor in interesting optoelectronic applications. Usual methods used to fabricate strained semi-conductors are limited in terms of achievable strain value, strain orientation, strained surface and crystalline quality. We aim at proposing a process allowing to tune precisely deformation state (i.e., strain tensor) in a single-crystal. This process is applicable for different semi-conductors and materials and compatible with an industrial environment. The process studied here relies on temporary polymer wafer bonding, mechanical grinding, wet etching and direct bonding to transfer a single crystal silicon thin film from a Silicon On Insulator substrate to a flexible polymer, strain the crystal and bond it back on a rigid substrate. Silicon On Polymer structure were obtained with single crystal silicon thin film with a thickness ranging from 20 to 205 nm. Up to full diameter 200 mm films were transferred as well as patterned wafers. An extensive study of mechanical behavior of Silicon On Polymer (SOP) structures is provided using biaxial and uniaxial tensile test stages combined with Raman spectroscopy, digital image correlation, X-ray diffraction and Micro Laue X-ray Diffraction (μLaue). These results were used to validate a custom mechanical bench test for flexible SOP structures. Corresponding data acquisition and analysis strategies were also developed. The understanding of SOP mechanical behavior enabled the use of a bulge test apparatus to perform a direct bonding between a strained SOP and a silicon oxide die. μLaue allowed for a detailed analysis of the reported crystal. The transfer process was also adapted to functional devices and poly-crystal aluminum nitride thin films. Our custom mechanical bench test allowed the extraction of AlN Raman strain or stress coefficient in different configurations. Promising results showed that direct bonding is a suitable method to maintain a single crystal silicon thin film in a strained state after transfer from a stretched flexible polymer substrate. This can lead to some unprecedented development in strain engineering. Further work can enable the production of strained thin film of different nature, stress orientation and strain level., Cette thèse est consacrée à l’étude d’une méthode alternative et originale pour élaborer un film mince de silicium monocristallin ultra-contraint dans le but de développer une plateforme d’ingénierie de la déformation ("strain engineering") pour les semi-conducteurs monocristallins. Les contraintes sont largement utilisées pour améliorer les performances des transistors à base de silicium et offrent des possibilités exceptionnelles, notamment pour l’utilisation de semi-conducteurs compatibles Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) dans des applications optoélectroniques. Les méthodes habituelles utilisées pour fabriquer des semi-conducteurs contraints sont limitées en termes de valeur de déformation, d’orientation de la contrainte, de surface déformée et de qualité cristalline. Notre objectif est de proposer un procédé permettant de contrôler précisément l’état de déformation (c’est-à-dire le tenseur de déformation) dans un monocristal. Ce procédé est applicable à différents semi-conducteurs et matériaux et est compatible avec un environnement industriel. Le procédé étudié ici repose sur le collage polymère temporaire, l’abrasion mécanique, la gravure humide et le collage direct pour transférer un film mince de silicium monocristallin d’un substrat de type silicium sur isolant à un polymère flexible. Puis le cristal est déformé en appliquant une contrainte externe et est enfin recollé sur un substrat rigide. Les structures silicium sur polymère (SOP) ont été obtenues avec des films minces de silicium monocristallin d’une épaisseur allant de 20 à 205 nm. Des films d’un diamètre total de 200 mm ont été transférés ainsi que des motifs. Une étude approfondie du comportement mécanique des structures SOP est fournie en utilisant des platines d’essai de traction biaxiale et uniaxiale combinées à la spectroscopie Raman, de la corrélation d’images numériques, la diffraction des rayons X et à la micro diffraction de Laue (μLaue). Ces résultats ont été utilisés pour valider un banc d’essai mécanique adapté aux structures silicium sur polymère flexibles. Des stratégies d’acquisition et d’analyse de données ont également été développées. L’utilisation d’une membrane sous pression (bulge test) a permis le collage direct entre un film de silicium déformé et un substrat de silicium oxydé. La diffraction des rayons X offre une analyse détaillée du cristal transféré. Le processus de transfert a également été adapté à des dispositifs fonctionnels et à des films minces de nitrure d’aluminium poly-cristallin. Notre banc d’essai mécanique a permis d’extraire le coefficient de déformation ou de contrainte Raman de l’AlN dans différentes configurations. Ces résultats prometteurs ont montré que le collage direct est une méthode appropriée pour maintenir un film mince de silicium monocristallin dans un état de contrainte après le transfert d’un substrat de polymère flexible étiré. Cela peut conduire à un développement sans précédent dans l’ingénierie de la déformation. Des travaux ultérieurs peuvent permettre la production de films minces déformés de différentes natures, orientations et niveaux de déformation.

Nowadays, the microelectronics industry is seeking to develop ever more efficient components while reducing energy consumption. Planar solutions having reached their limits, 3D structures were developed to vertically stack the circuits. This requires a perfect control of the different assembly processes in which the direct bonding of thin layers of silicon oxide deposited by PECVD constitutes an interesting alternative in the sense that it allows the elaboration at low temperature of structures integrating insulating layers composed of silicon oxide.The direct bonding of silicon oxide obtained by thermal oxidation has been widely studied in the past. However, the use of deposited PECVD silicon oxides has not been so far widespread in bonded structures. The purpose of our study was to evaluate the particularities of the silicon oxide deposited in the direct bonding framework as well as the specific mechanisms involved during sealing of the bonding interface. Since direct bonding takes place by bringing these surfaces into contact at room temperature and then generally followed byconsolidation annealing, special mechanisms will take place in the oxide volume and at the bonding interface to differentiate the behaviour of the PECVD deposited silicon oxides in bonding.In this study, we assembled different oxide configurations and showed the primordial influence of water on direct bonding. It appeared that, from the ambient temperature, the water was already impacting the bonding by modifying the physicochemical and mechanical properties of the oxide subsurface. At higher temperatures, the water migrates from the oxide volume to the bonding interface allowing the closing of the bonding interfaceby exacerbating the above oxide properties. The water resulting from the closing of the bonding interface is then either stored inside cavities forming at the bonding interface or discharged into the oxide subsurface dependingon the type of oxide. It was also shown that the deposited oxide had a relatively balanced water concentration profile and could contain a significant amount of water. These findings have led to the development of two-layerstructures optimized for direct bonding. Understanding these different mechanisms provides new insights into the use of direct bonding processes for future applications.; De nos jours, l’industrie de la microélectronique cherche à développer des composants toujours plus performants tout en réduisant la consommation d’énergie. Les solutions planaires ayant atteint leurs limites, desstructures 3D furent développées afin d’empiler verticalement les circuits. Cela nécessite une parfaite maitrise des différents procédés d’assemblage au sein desquels le collage direct de couches minces d’oxyde de silicium déposées par PECVD constitue une alternative intéressante en ce sens qu’elle permet l’élaboration à basse température de structures intégrant des couches isolantes composées d’oxyde de silicium.Le collage direct d’oxyde de silicium obtenu par voie thermique fut largement étudié par le passé. Cependant, l’utilisation d’oxyde de silicium obtenu par voie de dépôt PECVD fut jusqu’ici peu répandu dans les structures collées. L’objet de notre étude fut d’évaluer les particularités de l’oxyde de silicium déposé dans le cadre du collage direct ainsi que les mécanismes spécifiques mis en jeu lors du scellement de l’interface de collage. Le collage direct s’effectuant par la mise en contact de ces surfaces à température ambiante, puis étant généralement suivi d’un recuit de consolidation, des mécanismes particuliers auront lieu dans le volume de l’oxyde ainsi qu’à l’interface de collage permettant de différencier le comportement des oxydes déposés en collage.Dans cette étude, nous avons assemblés différentes configurations d’oxydes et montré l’influence primordiale de l’eau sur le collage direct. Il est apparu que, dès la température ambiante, cette dernière impactait déjà le collage en modifiant les propriétés physicochimiques et mécaniques de la subsurface de l’oxyde. A plus haute température, l’eau migre du volume de l’oxyde vers l’interface de collage permettant la fermeture de l’interface de collage en exacerbant les propriétés de l’oxyde précités. L’eau résultant de la fermeture de l’interface de collage est alors soit stockée à l’intérieur de cavités se formant à l’interface de collage, soit évacuée dans la subsurface de l’oxyde suivant la typologie de celui-ci. Il a également été montré que l’oxydedéposé disposait d’un profil de concentration d’eau relativement équilibré et qu’il pouvait contenir une quantité importante d’eau. Ces constations ont permis l’élaboration de structures bicouches optimisées pour le collage direct. La compréhension de ces différents mécanismes apporte un nouvel éclairage dans l’utilisation des procédés de collage direct pour les applications du futur.

Nowadays, the microelectronics industry is seeking to develop ever more efficient components while reducing energy consumption. Planar solutions having reached their limits, 3D structures were developed to vertically stack the circuits. This requires a perfect control of the different assembly processes in which the direct bonding of thin layers of silicon oxide deposited by PECVD constitutes an interesting alternative in the sense that it allows the elaboration at low temperature of structures integrating insulating layers composed of silicon oxide.The direct bonding of silicon oxide obtained by thermal oxidation has been widely studied in the past. However, the use of deposited PECVD silicon oxides has not been so far widespread in bonded structures. The purpose of our study was to evaluate the particularities of the silicon oxide deposited in the direct bonding framework as well as the specific mechanisms involved during sealing of the bonding interface. Since direct bonding takes place by bringing these surfaces into contact at room temperature and then generally followed byconsolidation annealing, special mechanisms will take place in the oxide volume and at the bonding interface to differentiate the behaviour of the PECVD deposited silicon oxides in bonding.In this study, we assembled different oxide configurations and showed the primordial influence of water on direct bonding. It appeared that, from the ambient temperature, the water was already impacting the bonding by modifying the physicochemical and mechanical properties of the oxide subsurface. At higher temperatures, the water migrates from the oxide volume to the bonding interface allowing the closing of the bonding interfaceby exacerbating the above oxide properties. The water resulting from the closing of the bonding interface is then either stored inside cavities forming at the bonding interface or discharged into the oxide subsurface dependingon the type of oxide. It was also shown that the deposited oxide had a relatively balanced water concentration profile and could contain a significant amount of water. These findings have led to the development of two-layerstructures optimized for direct bonding. Understanding these different mechanisms provides new insights into the use of direct bonding processes for future applications., De nos jours, l’industrie de la microélectronique cherche à développer des composants toujours plus performants tout en réduisant la consommation d’énergie. Les solutions planaires ayant atteint leurs limites, desstructures 3D furent développées afin d’empiler verticalement les circuits. Cela nécessite une parfaite maitrise des différents procédés d’assemblage au sein desquels le collage direct de couches minces d’oxyde de silicium déposées par PECVD constitue une alternative intéressante en ce sens qu’elle permet l’élaboration à basse température de structures intégrant des couches isolantes composées d’oxyde de silicium.Le collage direct d’oxyde de silicium obtenu par voie thermique fut largement étudié par le passé. Cependant, l’utilisation d’oxyde de silicium obtenu par voie de dépôt PECVD fut jusqu’ici peu répandu dans les structures collées. L’objet de notre étude fut d’évaluer les particularités de l’oxyde de silicium déposé dans le cadre du collage direct ainsi que les mécanismes spécifiques mis en jeu lors du scellement de l’interface de collage. Le collage direct s’effectuant par la mise en contact de ces surfaces à température ambiante, puis étant généralement suivi d’un recuit de consolidation, des mécanismes particuliers auront lieu dans le volume de l’oxyde ainsi qu’à l’interface de collage permettant de différencier le comportement des oxydes déposés en collage.Dans cette étude, nous avons assemblés différentes configurations d’oxydes et montré l’influence primordiale de l’eau sur le collage direct. Il est apparu que, dès la température ambiante, cette dernière impactait déjà le collage en modifiant les propriétés physicochimiques et mécaniques de la subsurface de l’oxyde. A plus haute température, l’eau migre du volume de l’oxyde vers l’interface de collage permettant la fermeture de l’interface de collage en exacerbant les propriétés de l’oxyde précités. L’eau résultant de la fermeture de l’interface de collage est alors soit stockée à l’intérieur de cavités se formant à l’interface de collage, soit évacuée dans la subsurface de l’oxyde suivant la typologie de celui-ci. Il a également été montré que l’oxydedéposé disposait d’un profil de concentration d’eau relativement équilibré et qu’il pouvait contenir une quantité importante d’eau. Ces constations ont permis l’élaboration de structures bicouches optimisées pour le collage direct. La compréhension de ces différents mécanismes apporte un nouvel éclairage dans l’utilisation des procédés de collage direct pour les applications du futur.

Coupled electrokinetic phenomena within nanochannel are of interest for energy harvestingand production of electricity based on the controlled mixing of river water with sea water known as "blue energy". The origin of the phenomena is related to interaction with charged walls and transport of ions within the so called Debye layer. This work aims at a better understanding of the physics and transport phenomena in this layer associated with solution confined in nanochannel.A specific instrumentation has been developed during this thesis to study the mechanisms governing coupled nanofluics fluxes. The idea is to characterize simultaneously the mass transport within the nanochannel and the electrical current driven through the nanochannel by the application of either salinity difference , pressure difference or voltage difference across the channel. The thesis is divided into three parts.In the first part, a custom made flow cell and experimental conditions to control and measure various fluxes is presented. The capability of cell to measure current or voltage under applied pressure or salinity gradient is presented taking the benefit of commercial nanoporous Nafion membrane.The second part is focused on an easy way of preparation of nanochannel sample in the form of single chip, in which nanochannel is interfaced to micro and macroscopic world. A well-controlled, 1.4µm long nanochannel of conical geometry with a maximum aspect ratio of 10 is fabricated. The minimum apex size of nanochannel achieved here is 50 nm which is about 30 times less than the length of channel. The presence of electrode directly at the interface of nano to micro cavity allow to perform electrical characterization of nanochannel with high precision.The third part of the thesis is devoted to the development of a method for the direct measurement of flow rate as low as 10 pL/min across a single nanochannel. This measurement approach combined with electrical measurement, could be used, in presence of pressure, voltage or salinity gradient, to measure the flow rate and the electrical current across a single nanochannel simultaneously and independently.; Les phénomènes électrocinétiques couplés au sein d'un nanocanal sont d'intérêt pour la conversion d'énergie et la production d'électricité reposant sur le mélange contrôlé d'eau douce et d'eau salée aussi appelée "énergie bleue". L'origine des phénomènes est lié à l'interaction avec des parois chargées et au transport d'ions au sein de ce qu'on nomme les couches de Debye. Ce travail vise à une meilleure compréhension de la physique et des phénomènes de transport dans ces couches dans le cadre de solutions confinées dans des nanocanaux.Une instrumentation spécifique a été développée pendant la thèse pour étudier les mécanismes qui gouvernent ces flux couplés. L'idée est de caractériser simultanément le transport de masse et le courant électrique au sein d'un nanocanal soumis à une différence de salinité de pression ou de tension électrique. Ce travail est divisé en trois parties.Dans la première partie, est décrite une cellule conçue pour la mesure et le contrôle de courant et tension électrique en présence de différence de pression ou de salinité au bornes d'un nanopores. L'utilisation de la cellule est illustrer dans le cas d'une membrane nanoporeuse de nafion.La seconde partie est focalisée sur une méthode simple de préparation d'un nanocanal directement connectable à un dispositif macroscopique. Le nanocanal, d'un micromètre de long, présente une géométrie conique, d'angle ajustable, et des extrémités équipées d'électrode déposées par pulvérisation cathodique.La troisième partie, concerne le développement d'une méthode pour la mesure directe de débit jusqu'à 10 pL/min s'écoulant au sein d'un nanocanal. Cette méthode combinée à une caractérisation électrique, pourra être utilisée, en présence de gradient de pression, de tension ou de salinité pour mesurer le débit et le courant électrique au sein d'un nanocanal de manière simultanée et indépendante.

Direct wafer bonding refers to the spontaneous establishment of attractive forces between two surfaces at ambient temperature without any additional polymer material. Available at ambient pressure or under vacuum, this technology is attractive for monocrystal-amorphous stacks, perfectly illustrated by SOI (Silicon On Insulator) substrate elaboration widely used nowadays in microelectronics or microtechnologies. Electronic device performance and multidisciplinarity needs require this technology on many different materials. In this context, a precis understanding of bonding mechanism is paramount. The aim of this work is to study the hydrophilic bonding mechanisms for alumina, nitride silicon and ultra-low k thin films.In this study, hydrophilic bonding of deposited dielectric films prepared by chemical treatment were analyzed as function of post-bonding annealing temperature. Chemical and mechanical bonding interface closure has been analyzed from mechanical and chemical point of view via several characterization techniques: anhydrous bonding energy measurement, acoustic microscopy, X-Ray reflectivity and infrared spectroscopy. Each material demonstrates interesting behaviors embedded at the bonding interface compared to the deposited film free surfaces. Throughout the studies, correlations between bonding and free surface evolution have led to their bonding mecanisms and some recommendations for efficient and high quality bonding elaboration., Le collage direct consiste à l’adhésion spontanée dès température ambiante de deux surfaces sans ajout de matière polymère à l’interface de collage. Réalisable sous vide ou à pression atmosphérique, il possède l’avantage de permettre l’empilement de matériaux monocristallins sur des matériaux amorphes, parfaitement illustrée, par exemple, avec la fabrication de substrats SOI (silicium sur isolant) couramment utilisé de nos jours en microélectronique et/ou en microtechnologie. La course à la performance et/ou pluridisciplinarité des circuits électroniques nécessite la maîtrise de ce procédé pour un plus large panel de matériaux. La compréhension des mécanismes physico-chimique à l’interface de collage devient alors primordiale. L’objectif de cette thèse est d’étudier les mécanismes mis en jeu dans le collage direct hydrophile de couches diélectriques autres que l’oxyde de silicium : l’oxyde d’aluminium, le nitrure de silicium et un ultra-low k.Dans cette étude, des procédés de collage direct hydrophile de films diélectriques déposés sont développés avec différentes préparations de surface. L’évolution mécanique et chimique de l’interface de collage, après différents traitements thermiques, est analysé via différentes techniques de caractérisation comme la mesure anhydre d’énergie de collage, la microscopie acoustique, la réflectivité des rayons X et la spectroscopie infrarouge. Chaque matériau démontre un comportement particulier une fois confiné à l’interface de collage par rapport à son comportement en surface libre. Tout au long de cette thèse, le lien entre collage et surface libre a permis d’établir les mécanismes de collages des différents matériaux étudiés et d’énoncer des recommandations pour obtenir des collages de qualité.

Coupled electrokinetic phenomena within nanochannel are of interest for energy harvestingand production of electricity based on the controlled mixing of river water with sea water known as "blue energy". The origin of the phenomena is related to interaction with charged walls and transport of ions within the so called Debye layer. This work aims at a better understanding of the physics and transport phenomena in this layer associated with solution confined in nanochannel.A specific instrumentation has been developed during this thesis to study the mechanisms governing coupled nanofluics fluxes. The idea is to characterize simultaneously the mass transport within the nanochannel and the electrical current driven through the nanochannel by the application of either salinity difference , pressure difference or voltage difference across the channel. The thesis is divided into three parts.In the first part, a custom made flow cell and experimental conditions to control and measure various fluxes is presented. The capability of cell to measure current or voltage under applied pressure or salinity gradient is presented taking the benefit of commercial nanoporous Nafion membrane.The second part is focused on an easy way of preparation of nanochannel sample in the form of single chip, in which nanochannel is interfaced to micro and macroscopic world. A well-controlled, 1.4µm long nanochannel of conical geometry with a maximum aspect ratio of 10 is fabricated. The minimum apex size of nanochannel achieved here is 50 nm which is about 30 times less than the length of channel. The presence of electrode directly at the interface of nano to micro cavity allow to perform electrical characterization of nanochannel with high precision.The third part of the thesis is devoted to the development of a method for the direct measurement of flow rate as low as 10 pL/min across a single nanochannel. This measurement approach combined with electrical measurement, could be used, in presence of pressure, voltage or salinity gradient, to measure the flow rate and the electrical current across a single nanochannel simultaneously and independently., Les phénomènes électrocinétiques couplés au sein d'un nanocanal sont d'intérêt pour la conversion d'énergie et la production d'électricité reposant sur le mélange contrôlé d'eau douce et d'eau salée aussi appelée "énergie bleue". L'origine des phénomènes est lié à l'interaction avec des parois chargées et au transport d'ions au sein de ce qu'on nomme les couches de Debye. Ce travail vise à une meilleure compréhension de la physique et des phénomènes de transport dans ces couches dans le cadre de solutions confinées dans des nanocanaux.Une instrumentation spécifique a été développée pendant la thèse pour étudier les mécanismes qui gouvernent ces flux couplés. L'idée est de caractériser simultanément le transport de masse et le courant électrique au sein d'un nanocanal soumis à une différence de salinité de pression ou de tension électrique. Ce travail est divisé en trois parties.Dans la première partie, est décrite une cellule conçue pour la mesure et le contrôle de courant et tension électrique en présence de différence de pression ou de salinité au bornes d'un nanopores. L'utilisation de la cellule est illustrer dans le cas d'une membrane nanoporeuse de nafion.La seconde partie est focalisée sur une méthode simple de préparation d'un nanocanal directement connectable à un dispositif macroscopique. Le nanocanal, d'un micromètre de long, présente une géométrie conique, d'angle ajustable, et des extrémités équipées d'électrode déposées par pulvérisation cathodique.La troisième partie, concerne le développement d'une méthode pour la mesure directe de débit jusqu'à 10 pL/min s'écoulant au sein d'un nanocanal. Cette méthode combinée à une caractérisation électrique, pourra être utilisée, en présence de gradient de pression, de tension ou de salinité pour mesurer le débit et le courant électrique au sein d'un nanocanal de manière simultanée et indépendante.