Search

Background: Dietary cocoa is an important source of flavonoids and is associated with favorable cardiovascular disease effects, such as improvements in vascular function and lipid profiles, in nondiabetic adults. Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is associated with adverse effects on postprandial serum glucose, lipids, inflammation, and vascular function. Objective: We examined the hypothesis that cocoa reduces metabolic stress in obese T2D adults after a high-fat fast-food–style meal. Methods: Adults with T2D [n = 18; age (mean ± SE): 56 ± 3 y; BMI (in kg/m2): 35.3 ± 2.0; 14 women; 4 men] were randomly assigned to receive cocoa beverage (960 mg total polyphenols; 480 mg flavanols) or flavanol-free placebo (110 mg total polyphenols

Dietary flavonoid intake, especially berry flavonoids, has been associated with reduced risks of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in large prospective cohorts. Few clinical studies have examined the effects of dietary berries on CVD risk factors. We examined the hypothesis that freeze-dried strawberries (FDS) improve lipid and lipoprotein profiles and lower biomarkers of inflammation and lipid oxidation in adults with abdominal adiposity and elevated serum lipids. In a randomized dose-response controlled trial, 60 volunteers [5 men and 55 women; aged 49 ± 10 y; BMI: 36 ± 5 kg/m(2) (means ± SDs)] were assigned to consume 1 of the following 4 beverages for 12 wk: 1) low-dose FDS (LD-FDS; 25 g/d); 2) low-dose control (LD-C); 3) high-dose FDS (HD-FDS; 50 g/d); and 4) high-dose control (HD-C). Control beverages were matched for calories and total fiber. Blood draws, anthropometrics, blood pressure, and dietary data were collected at screening (0 wk) and after 12-wk intervention. Dose-response analyses revealed significantly greater decreases in serum total and LDL cholesterol and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-derived small LDL particle concentration in HD-FDS [33 ± 6 mg/dL, 28 ± 7 mg/dL, and 301 ± 78 nmol/L, respectively (means ± SEMs)] vs. LD-FDS (-3 ± 11 mg/dL, -3 ± 9 mg/dL, and -28 ± 124 nmol/L, respectively) over 12 wk (0-12 wk; all P < 0.05). Compared with controls, only the decreases in total and LDL cholesterol in HD-FDS remained significant vs. HD-C (0.7 ± 12 and 1.4 ± 9 mg/dL, respectively) over 12 wk (0-12 wk; all P < 0.05). Both doses of strawberries showed a similar decrease in serum malondialdehyde at 12 wk (LD-FDS: 1.3 ± 0.2 μmol/L; HD-FDS: 1.2 ± 0.1 μmol/L) vs. controls (LD-C: 2.1 ± 0.2 μmol/L; HD-C: 2.3 ± 0.2 μmol/L) (P < 0.05). In general, strawberry intervention did not affect any measures of adiposity, blood pressure, glycemia, and serum concentrations of HDL cholesterol and triglycerides, C-reactive protein, and adhesion molecules. Thus, HD-FDS exerted greater effects in lowering serum total and LDL cholesterol and NMR-derived small LDL particles vs. LD-FDS in the 12-wk study. These findings warrant additional investigation in larger trials. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01883401.

Objective Green tea ( Camellia sinensis ) has shown to exert cardioprotective benefits in observational studies. The objective of this clinical trial was to assess the effects of green tea on features of metabolic syndrome and inflammation in obese subjects. Methods We conducted a randomized controlled trial in obese subjects with metabolic syndrome. Thirty-five subjects [(mean ± SE) age 42.5 ± 1.7 y, body mass index 36.1 ± 1.3 kg/m 2 ] completed the 8-wk study and were randomly assigned to receive green tea (4 cups/d), green tea extract (2 capsules and 4 cups water/d), or no treatment (4 cups water/d). Both the beverage and extract groups had similar dosing of epigallocatechin-3-gallate, the active green tea polyphenol. Fasting blood samples were collected at screening, 4 and 8 wk of the study. Results Green tea beverage or extract supplementation did not significantly alter features of metabolic syndrome or biomarkers of inflammation including adiponectin, C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, interleukin-1β, soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1, soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1, leptin, or leptin:adiponectin ratio. However, both green tea beverage and extracts significantly reduced plasma serum amyloid alpha versus no treatment ( P Conclusion This study suggests that the daily consumption of green tea beverage or extracts for 8 wk was well tolerated but did not affect the features of metabolic syndrome. However, green tea significantly reduced plasma serum amyloid alpha, an independent cardiovascular disease risk factor, in obese subjects with metabolic syndrome.

Among all fruits, berries have shown substantial cardio-protective benefits due to their high polyphenol content. However, investigation of their efficacy in improving features of metabolic syndrome and related cardiovascular risk factors in obesity is limited. We examined the effects of blueberry supplementation on features of metabolic syndrome, lipid peroxidation, and inflammation in obese men and women. Forty-eight participants with metabolic syndrome [4 males and 44 females; BMI: 37.8 ± 2.3 kg/m2; age: 50.0 ± 3.0 y (mean ± SE)] consumed freeze-dried blueberry beverage (50 g freeze-dried blueberries, #126 350 g fresh blueberries) or equivalent amounts of fluids (controls, 960 mL water) daily for 8 wk in a randomized controlled trial. Anthropometric and blood pressure measurements, assessment of dietary intakes, and fasting blood draws were conducted at screening and at wk 4 and 8 of the study. The decreases in systolic and diastolic blood pressures were greater in the blueberry-supplemented group (− 6 and − 4%, respectively) than in controls (− 1.5 and − 1.2%) (P lt 0.05), whereas the serum glucose concentration and lipid profiles were not affected. The decreases in plasma oxidized LDL and serum malondialdehyde and hydroxynonenal concentrations were greater in the blueberry group (− 28 and − 17%, respectively) than in the control group (− 9 and − 9%) (P lt 0.01). Our study shows blueberries may improve selected features of metabolic syndrome and related cardiovascular risk factors at dietary achievable doses.

Strawberries have been reported to be potent antioxidants and reduce cardiovascular risk factors, such as elevated blood pressure, hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia, and inflammation in limited studies. We hypothesized that freeze-dried strawberry supplementation will improve blood pressure, impaired glucose, dyslipidemia, or circulating adhesion molecules in obese subjects with metabolic syndrome, thereby lowering cardiovascular risk factors in these subjects. Twenty-seven subjects with metabolic syndrome (2 males and 25 females; body mass index, 37.5 +/- 2.15 kg/m(2); age, 47.0 +/- 3.0 years [means +/- SE]) consumed 4 cups of freeze-dried strawberry beverage (50 g freeze-dried strawberries approximately 3 cups fresh strawberries) or equivalent amounts of fluids (controls, 4 cups of water) daily for 8 weeks in a randomized controlled trial. Anthropometrics and blood pressure measurements, assessment of dietary intakes, and fasting blood draws were conducted at screen and 8 weeks of the study. Strawberry supplementation significantly decreased total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (5.8 +/- 0.2 to 5.2 +/- 0.2 mmol/L and 3.5 +/- 0.2 to 3.1 +/- 0.1 mmol/L, respectively [means +/- SE], P < .05) and small low-density lipoprotein particles using nuclear magnetic resonance-determined lipoprotein subclass profile vs controls at 8 weeks (794.6 +/- 94.0 to 681.8 +/- 86.0 nmol/L [means +/- SE], P < .05). Strawberry supplementation further decreased circulating levels of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 vs controls at 8 weeks (272.7 +/- 17.4 to 223.0 +/- 14.0 ng/mL [means +/- SE], P < .05). Serum glucose, triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, blood pressure, and waist circumference were not affected. Thus, short-term freeze-dried strawberry supplementation improved selected atherosclerotic risk factors, including dyslipidemia and circulating adhesion molecules in subjects with metabolic syndrome, and these results need confirmation in future trials.

Objective Use the Transtheoretical Model of Behavior Change (TTM) to determine the proportionate stage of change of low-income parents and primary caregivers (PPC) for increasing accessibility, measured as servings served, of fruits and vegetables (FV) to their preschool-aged children and evaluate response differences for theoretical constructs. Design Cross-sectional, quantitative survey design consisting of staging algorithm, construct scales, and food frequency questionnaire. Setting Rural and urban communities in a southwestern state of the United States. Participants 238 low-income PPC enrolled in federal nutrition education programs were recruited from group nutrition education sessions. Main Outcome Measures Stage of change using a staging algorithm, TTM constructs of processes of change, decisional balance, and self-efficacy measured by multiple-item scales using Likert response, and fruit and vegetable servings served using a food frequency questionnaire. Analysis Descriptive analysis, Pearson's chi-square, analyses of variance with Tukey's Honestly Significant Difference post hoc test, and principal component function analysis. Results Of the surveyed PPC, 43% were in precontemplation/contemplation stages, and 29% were in the preparation stage for increasing FV accessibility (measured by servings served) to their preschool-aged children. PPC in the action/maintenance stages evidenced greater use of behavioral processes and had higher self-efficacy scores compared to PPC in precontemplation/contemplation and preparation stages. Conclusions and Implications Interventions aimed at increasing FV accessibility for preschool-aged children should be tailored to meet PPCs' stage of change. Interventions targeting PPC in precontemplation/contemplation stages should use methods to share ideas for planning meals and snacks to include FV. Interventions for PPC in the preparation stage should aim to build skills in quick preparation of economical FV, address parental role modeling of FV consumption, and encourage goal setting. Learning formats providing social support may prove effective in prevention of behavior relapse for PPC in action/maintenance stages.

This study determined whether psychosocial, weight satisfaction, and dietary pattern variables discriminate between the Stages of Change for fruit and vegetable intakes among young men and women. A random sample of 18 to 24 year-olds, from 10 states returned 1438 surveys. Discriminant analyses for fruit intake conveyed that between precontemplation and contemplation/preparation, pro-scores and self-efficacy predicted the men's but not women's stages. Between contemplation/preparation and action/maintenance, self-efficacy and breakfast consumption best predicted stage for women, whereas men were discriminated only by self-efficacy. Discriminant analyses for vegetable intake were similar by gender. Precontemplation and contemplation/preparation were discriminated by pro-score and staging into contemplation/preparation versus action/maintenance was best predicted by self-efficacy and weight satisfaction. Young men and women are at different places in the Stages of Change process and few are meeting the vegetable guidelines. Dietary interventions can be most effective if specifically tailored to food group, stage, and gender.

Background: Cigarette smoking is a major risk factor for several chronic oxidative diseases that can be ameliorated by antioxidants. Objectives: This study identified the typical dietary intakes and the major food group contributors of the antioxidants β-carotene, vitamin C, and vitamin E by smoking status. Design: The 1994-1996 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals (CSFII) provided the current sample (n = 6749), who were categorized as non- (n = 3231), former (n = 1684), and current (n = 1834) smokers. In the CSFII, individuals' food intakes were estimated with two 24-h dietary recalls. Data were analyzed by using a chi-square test with a simultaneous Fisher's z test, analysis of variance with Scheffe's test, multivariate analysis of covariance, and analysis of covariance with Bonferroni adjustment for multiple comparisons. Results: The sample consisted of 3707 men and 3042 women. Current smokers tended to be younger with less education and lower incomes than nonsmokers and former smokers. The average body mass index (in kg/m 2 ) of current smokers was 25.8, the lowest of the 3 groups. Current smokers had the lowest dietary antioxidant intake. Fatty foods such as luncheon meats, condiments and salad dressings, and ground beef contributed more to the antioxidant intakes of current smokers than to those of the other 2 groups, whereas fruit and vegetables contributed less. Current smokers consumed the fewest numbers of servings of all nutrient-bearing groups in the food guide pyramid, except the meat group. Conclusion: Future interventions should target the clustering of cigarette smoking and other unhealthy lifestyle habits, eg, an imprudent diet.

Objective To determine children's sources of dietary fiber and to identify the food group choices made by those who met the "age+5" rule, which recommends that children daily consume an amount of fiber that is equal to their age plus an additional 5g fiber. Design This study used 24-hour dietary recalls and 1-day food records to assess the nutrient intake and food group choices of children who did and did not meet the recommendations of the age+5 rule. Subjects The 1989-1991 US Department of Agriculture Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals provided the study sample of 603 children between the ages of 4 and 6 years and 782 children between the ages of 7 and 10 years. Statistical analyses Differences in nutrient and food group intakes between age categories were determined by t tests. Results Only 45% of 4- to 6-year-olds and 32% of 7- to 10-year-olds consumed adequate fiber to meet the age+5 rule. Those who met the age+5 rule did so by consuming significantly more high- and low-fiber breads and cereals, fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, and seeds. Children with low fiber intakes had significantly higher energy-adjusted intakes of fat and cholesterol, whereas those who met the age+5 rule had significantly higher energy-adjusted intakes of dietary fiber, vitamins A and E, folate, magnesium, and iron. Applications The majority of the children had low intakes of dietary fiber, suggesting that they are at risk for future chronic disease. Parents and school foodservice personnel should strive to offer fiber-rich foods to children so their acceptance and consumption of them will be increased. J Am Diet Assoc. 1998;98:1418-1423.

The objective of this study was to evaluate differences in college students’ dietary intake and quality in relation to their Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) personality preferences. Students from three large introductory nutrition classes and 26 other classes were recruited to participate. Students (n = 302) completed a scannable version of the food frequency portion of the National Cancer Institute's Health Habits and History Questionnaire (NCI-HHHQ) and the MBTI. Dietary intake was compared using an adapted version of the Diet Quality Index (DQI), a multidimensional indicator of quality, and the recommended servings from the Food Guide Pyramid. Differences were determined by grouping the students according to their personality preferences and applying analysis of variance. Students preferring Extraversion, Intuition, or Judgment had tendencies for better dietary habits. Although some differences existed between men and women, Extraverts, in general, in comparison to Introverts, had higher intakes of grain, fruit, and dairy servings, with an overall superior DQI and a lower percentage of kcalories from fat; however, they also had a higher percentage of kcalories from alcohol. Intuitive women, in comparison to Sensing, had a superior DQI, consumed more fruit servings and breakfasts per week, and had a lower percentage of kcalories from sweets. Women preferring Judgment, as compared to those preferring Perception, consumed a significantly lower percentage of kcalories from alcohol and more frequent breakfasts. Suggestions for future research and for improving nutrition education are made based upon the link between certain personality preferences and dietary quality.

Intakes of energy, macronutrients, cholesterol, sodium and dietary fiber were evaluated among 1–10 year old US children stratified by age, gender and race. The USDA's 1989–1991 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals (CSFII) data sets supplied the study sample. Caregivers of 1,895 children residing in the 48 conterminous states provided one 24-hour recall and two 1-day food records to describe the children's dietary intake. Blacks compared to Whites and females compared to males consumed less energy. Children consumed 46–52%, 15–17%, 34–38%, 13–15%, 5–6%, 12–15% of energies from carbohydrates, proteins, fats, saturated fat, polyunsaturated fat and monounsaturated fat, respectively. Intakes of fat, saturated fat and cholesterol (mg/1000 Kcal) exceeded current recommendations. Intake ratio of polyunsaturated fat to saturated fat was lower than recommendation. Cholesterol intakes were higher and dietary fiber intakes were lower among Blacks compared to Whites. Dietary patterns of children were less favorable for cardiovascular health. To achieve recommended intake patterns, significant modifications are needed in children's diets concerning fat, sodium and fiber.

Objectives Health-related characteristics and habits and food choices of young adults were compared for three groups: college students, college graduates, and nonstudents. Design Subjects completed a mailed survey that included questions about demographics, attitudes, and behaviors and a food frequency questionnaire. Main outcome measures were health-related characteristics and habits and food choices. Subjects Female (n=758) and male (n=580) 18- to 24-year-olds in nine states who were selected randomly by zip code in each state. The response rate averaged 43% for all states. Statistical analyses performed Analysis of variance or χ 2 tests were applied to health-related personal characteristic variables and the Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance was applied to food consumption variables for women and men separately. Results According to self-reported heights and weights, female nonstudents were more often overweight than female students or graduates. Nonstudents of both genders reported smoking more often than students or graduates. College students and graduates ate more grain foods high in dietary fiber, more fruits and dark-green vegetables, and more lower-fat milk and meats than non students. Conclusions/applications Non students were at greater health risk for some chronic illnesses, because of poorer health habits and food choices, than were college students and graduates. The behavior of nonstudents implies weaker response to messages promoting weight control, smoking cessation, and observance of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans than behavior exhibited by students or college graduates. Health promotion efforts could be enhanced by identifying demographic, educational, situational, and formative influences on positive health and dietary behaviors of young adults.

To identify the ways in which 18 to 24 year olds view foods, a mail survey was constructed that included demographics, opinion items, a repertory grid rating foods against factors thought to influence food intake, and a food frequency. Of the 1475 respondents, 736 were college students (students), 237 were college graduates (graduates), and 328 were high school graduates not attending school (nonstudents). Factor analysis for the total group and for each subgroup examined underlying views held by the respondents. Findings showed that the respondents viewed foods in terms of physical/social aspects, whether they were health-promoting or fattening, importance of nutrition with adequacy of money and food shopping/preparation skills, and adequacy of stores and cooking facilities. For students, importance of nutrition disappeared as a perception while convenience emerged. For graduates, adequacy of money disappeared while importance of nutrition appeared as a strong perception. The nonstudents showed a fifth factor identifying satiety value of food as a strong perception while importance of nutrition disappeared. Habit was the individual variable showing the highest correlation with frequency of consumption of selected foods. The results suggest that respondents viewed foods differently based on ’whether or not they were students. Nutrition messages may need to focus on the different ways in which foods are viewed to be effective.

Objectives of this study were to estimate mean daily intake of copper for eight age subgroups of each gender, to examine consumption patterns of chocolate foods in the U.S., and to determine amounts of copper provided by the consumption of chocolate foods by analyzing 3-day dietary records reported by individuals in the 1987–1988 Nationwide Food Consumption Survey. Mean daily copper intake for all age/gender groups of infants and children reached the lower value of the Estimated Safe and Adequate Daily Dietary Intake (ESADDI) range. However, the mean daily copper intake of all age/gender groups of adolescents and adults was below the ESADDI of 1.5 to 3.0 mg/day. Chocolate cookies were most frequently consumed among chocolate foods. Dark chocolate/candy made the highest contribution to mean daily copper intake (22.1% of ESADDI). Other major contributors to the daily copper intake were chocolate pie (17.8% of ESADDI), chocolate milk (13.3%), chocolate topping/syrup/icing (12.0%), milk chocolate/candy (11.3%), and chocolate cake/muffin (11.2%). The total dietary copper intake by males and females was positively associated (p

The 3-day food intake data from 1987–1988 Nationwide Food Consumption Survey (NFCS) was used to evaluate the nutrient intakes of 1–3, 4–6 and 7–10 year old American children. Nutrient intakes were compared with 1989 Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) and percent RDAs were computed. On average, the children consumed 35 to 37% of their energy from fat, 49 to 51% of energy from carbohydrate, 15% of energy from protein, 13 to 14% of energy from saturated fat and 142 to 148 mg of cholesterol/1000 calories. Intakes of total fat, saturated fat and cholesterol were higher, while intakes of polyunsaturated fat and ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated fat were lower than the expert recommendations. Mean intakes of vitamins and minerals were adequate except for vitamin E and zinc for all age groups. Calcium and iron intakes were below the RDA (84% of RDA) only in the 1–3 year age group. Although dietary intake patterns observed in this study were in agreement with other survey results, caution should be used in applying these results to general the US population because of possible bias introduced by survey low-response.

One problem encountered by many who work with nutrition and health education programs is the lack of curricular and instructional materials appropriate for adults with low literacy skills. In their seminal work, Doak et al. (1) clearly demonstrated the breadth and depth of this problem in patient education. Systematic methods for determining appropriate written materials for adults with low literacy skills are badly needed. A method that holds promise for identifYing and developing instructional materials for adults with low literacy skills is the Critical Incident Technique (CIT). Studies have shown the CIT to be a powerful approach to identifYing specific behaviors associated with effective and ineffective performance (2). This technique has been adopted by various professions as a strategy for developing educational and training programs. Few studies, however, have used the cq for groups with low levels of literacy. In addition, its application to the development of instructional materials remains unexplored. The purposes of this paper are to provide an overview of the CIT and to report on the use of the CIT in the development of nutrition information materials for adults with low literacy skills.

The purpose of this project was to develop nutrition materials based on bulletins HG 232(1–11), “The Dietary Guidelines and Your Diet”, for use by adults with low literacy skills. A booklet testing at the fifth grade level was designed and tested using qualitative research methods. Participants included 131 women and 21 men, 16 to 60 years of age (mean age 30 years). Sixteen percent were African American, 3% were Native American, 1% were Hispanic, and the remaining 80% were Caucasians. All possessed reading skills from the third to eighth grade levels, and years of education completed ranged from sixth grade to high school graduate (mean of tenth grade). Two sets of interviews were conducted. The booklet was revised based upon results from the first set of interviews. Participants were especially interested in “how to” and “did you know” information, and calorie and nutrient contents of food. Topics of interest included, “Tips on Feeding Young Children”, “Eat Less Fat”, and “Watch Your Weight”. Findings from the interviews provide evidence of the need for nutrition information among these low Uterate adults. Further research with low literate adults is needed to define typical dietary practices, beliefs and perceptions, and barriers to change.

In early spring of 1988, questionnaires were mailed to 4,000 Midwestern physicians to survey their attitudes and practices regarding elevated serum cholesterol and their use of referrals for nutrition counseling; 633 physicians responded. Sixty-eight percent of the physicians thought that reducing high serum cholesterol levels would substantially affect heart disease; however, physicians attributed considerably less preventive value to reducing the cholesterol level than to reducing blood pressure (80.3%) or ceasing smoking (90.0%). The range of serum cholesterol for which diet therapy was most frequently initiated was 5.70 to 6.20 mmol/L. The most frequent range for initiation of drug therapy was 7.80 to 8.25 mmol/L. The physicians reported that although their medical school training did not prepare them adequately for providing diet counseling, they did feel prepared to provide, and were successful in, counseling on diet modifications for reducing serum cholesterol. Few (10%) of the total sample reported having registered dietitians available for dietary counseling, and most (88.8%) believed that it is the physician’s responsibility to provide such counseling. Although the low response rate limits the conclusions of the survey, it is likely that those physicians most interested in the topic responded. We conclude that registered dietitians should explore the need for their special services further. More aggressive marketing of dietetic services could benefit both physicians and patients in the campaign to reduce serum cholesterol.

The use of focus group interviews as a qualitative research method has grown in popularity. This paper was written to provide ideas on how to determine if publication of focus group-based research should be pursued. Included are viewpoints on methodological, design, analysis, and reporting issues. In addition, a list of suggested readings is provided.

ROSALIEAMOS,3 NANCY BETTS,4 CONSTANCE GEORGIOU,S SHARON HOERR,6 RAO IVATURI,7 AND JANE VOICHICK 2 lDepartment of Nutritional Sciences, Shantz 309, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721; 2Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1415 Linden Drive, Madison, Wisconsin 53706; 3Department of Family and Consumer Sciences Ed., 220C Mackay Hall, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011; 4202 Ruth Leverton Hall, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0806; SNutrition and Food Management, Milam Hall 108, Oregon State University, Corvalis, Oregon 97331-5103; 6Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1224; 7Department of Home Economics, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809

Three hundred sixty-two people between the ages of 19 and 24 years were chosen from the 1994 and 1995 Continuing Survey(s) of Food Intakes by Individuals (CSFII) with exclusion of those who were pregnant or lactating, on special diets including vegetarian, allergic to any food, or failed to complete two day dietary recalls. Descriptive statistics and Student's t-tests were performed. It was found that for our young adult sample, the intake of the fruit group was noticeably below the recommendation. Variety and proportionality within the grain products group and the vegetable group were missing in young adult's diets. Compared to females, males had higher mean servings for all three food groups and higher intakes of energy and nutrients. However, percent calories from fat were above the 30% limit for both genders. The average calcium and folate intake levels were alarmingly low for the females, while fiber was notably low for both genders. As higher numbers of servings were consumed, men had significantly increased energy and nutrient intakes but this did not hold true for the women. Percent fat calories were numerically lower with higher intakes of fruit and grains, but greater with higher vegetable consumption probably due to high fried potato intake and/or too much added fat. The research implied that, for 19-to-24-year-olds, balancing the food groups and nutritious foods within the groups coupled with reducing fat is especially important.

The effectiveness of federally funded nutrition programs, such as Food Stamps, Head Start, and the Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), has been and continues to be questioned; however, these programs have demonstrated some positive outcomes. The welfare reform process established in 1996 poses a serious threat to the continuation of the nutrition education portions of the federally funded nutrition programs. In an attempt to show the positive effects and outcomes of nutrition education in conjunction with federally funded nutrition programs, a pilot study was conducted in Lincoln, Nebraska. Primary care givers (PCG) and their 3-10 year old children were recruited from community centers, Head Start, and the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA). At the end of data collection, 20PCG and 54 children participated in the food recalls and 25PCG and 47 children filled out questionnaires. Of the PCG participants, 17 were limited resource as defined as using some sort of assistance for food or housing. Information in the questionnaires involved types of programs being used, nutrition knowledge, food security, physical activity, resource management skills, and demographic data. The programs the PCG most frequently reported using were WIC, Free or Reduced School Breakfast and/or Lunch, Food Stamps, and Head Start. Adequacy of the diet was assessed using the food recalls. Of the PCG, only 2 participants were male and only 2 of the female participants were under the age of 25. The PCG were low in calories (mean of 1922.12), dietary fiber (mean of 15.66gm), iron (mean of 13.52mg), and zinc (mean of 8.04mg). The children were low in dietary fiber (mean of 15.97gm) and zinc (mean of 8.20mg). In conclusion, federally funded nutrition programs in Nebraska are making a positive impact in the lives of its participants.

Seventy two Southeast Asian refugee children, age 2–60 months, were examined using 24-hour dietary recalls, hemoglobin or hematocrit measurements, and height and weight measurements. The mean nutrient intake was considered adequate as compared to the NRC RDA. Several children had consumed a number of servings of highly fortified breakfast cereal thus consuming the highest levels of nutrients. Those with the lowest nutrient intakes were older infants who consumed formula exclusively. The iron status was considered adequate with the mean hemoglobin at 12g and hematocrit at 37.2%. On NCHS references over two-thirds of the children were considered stunted in height. However, by Thailand references less than one-fourth would be considered stunted. Iron status and growth status were considered to be adequate given the ethnic background and early experience. The mothers' beliefs about foods leading to excessive intake of highly fortified foods as well as prolonged infant formula feeding need further investigation.