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The article focuses on developments relevant to education in Great Britain as of October 1973. Nigel Grant, reader in education at the University of Edinburgh, joined the Editorial Board of "Comparative Education" magazine. The eight session of the Standing Conference of European Ministers of Education was held in June 1973, which focused on "The Educational Needs of the 16-19 Age Group." UNESCO released its latest publication "Present Problems in the Democratization of Secondary and Higher Education." The Schools Council and the Standing Conference on University Entrance published the Working Paper 46, entitled "16-19: Growth and Response, 2. Examination Structure" and Working Paper 47, "Preparation for Degree Courses."

Statistical data which may be useful to students of economic change are presented in this paper. It interprets long-run statistical series on the growth of educational employment in the United States, Great Britain, and Germany, and provides information on the changes in the relative importance of employment in public schools to total governmental employment and to total employment over the long run. Finally, an analysis of the statistical record indicates that some potentially interesting interrelationships exist between the different proportions of school-age population attending public school, teacher-student ratios, and different ratios of school-age populations to total employment in these countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article provides on the planning of the Education Bill of 1902 in Great Britain. The three people who were mainly responsible for planning the Bill, during the eight months before it was introduced to Parliament in March, 1902, were Sir John Gorst, A.J. Balfour and Sir Robert Morant. One of Gorst's main objects had been to help the voluntary schools and he did bring them some assistance by the Voluntary Schools Act, 1897. In December 1900, however, the way for a real revolution in education seemed to be open. The so-called Cockerton Judgment of that month showed that there was no legal foundation for some of the higher education given by the great school boards. Morant might not check the evidence for his prejudices; but he did not make the mistake of making positive proposals without carefully ascertaining the facts which supported them. By March 1901, one finds him drawing Gorst's attention to the implications of the figures for secondary education. The immediate problem was still whether the Bill was to be for secondary education only, or for both secondary and elementary. Moreover, argued Morant, the varying nature of the different types of institutions for secondary education suggested a complex pattern of organization.

This paper summarizes the results of two recent efforts to estimate rates of return to educational investment in Great Britain. Because there is no basic source of age-education-income data such as is available in the U.S., the analysis employs data which are by-products of several surveys conducted for other reasons. Consequently, rather extensive adjustments in the data were required. The rate-of-return results indicate that, while there is little evidence of social overinvestment in higher education, some social underinvestment appears to exist at the secondary level. However, the private rates of return tend to exceed those for alternative investment forms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a news brief related to research at the University of Warwick SSRC Industrial Relations Research Unit in England, as of July 1, 1972. Topics of ongoing research projects include industrial relations in factories, organizational behavior in labor unions, economic aspects of labor markets, and labor law and legislation in Great Britain.

This section provides an overview of the book New Commonwealth Students in Britain.

The article presents a study on individuals' personality in relation to the achievement or progress in university training for professional academic qualifications in Town and Country Planning in Great Britain. Research reveals implications on problems in teaching methodology, examining techniques, and student counseling in higher education. As noted in the study, a person who lacks character stability and self-control, poor self-esteem and self-respect possesses inter-personal problems. It further asserts that producing successful Town and Country Planners stems from individuals who are open to criticism and receive various aspects of vocational training. Findings in the study traced the significant relationships between personality characteristics and vocational training achievements.

Reports on developments in the education sector in Great Britain. Increase in the grant-in-aid of the Open University; Examination of ways in improving skills in dealing with people in a new Training Information Paper; Launch of a major in-depth study of the recruitment and training of 16-year-old leavers by the Rubbers and Plastics Processing Industry Training Board.

This paper presents an historical and statistical analysis of the pre-professional education of officers of various sectors and levels of the British Army between 1800 and 1971. 'Four eras' in the evolution of educational selectivity in the army commissioning system are identified: 1800-1849---educational criteria irrelevant; 1849-I 870-partial educational selectivity; 1870-1939-examination-dominated selection; 1941 onwards- `scientific' selection. In the light of this historical pattern, it was anticipated that the officer corps would show a heavy dependence on the elite sector of education, although also, over time, a reduction in this dependence. Examination of figures for membership of Woolwich (1855-1939), of Sandhurst (1890-1967), of the army elite (1870-1971), and of the officer corps as a whole (1969) verified these predictions. Officership proves to have been a virtual monopoly of the public schools-amongst whom the major boarding schools were predominant at least up to the Second World War, and even since then public school boys have predominated at every level of the army until quite recently. However, it is also clear that an irreversible decline in the role of the public schools has now set in, and that state sector schools are now taking over the major role in the supply of new officers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper begins by examining the typology of educational systems outlined by Earl Hopper m Sociology (vol. 2, no. I, 1968) and argues against the attempt to reduce the comparative study of education to varieties of occupational selection. On the other hand, accepting that a central part of the sociology of education must be with ideology and the generation and transmission of learning, it outlines a framework for examining this in Britain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the problems in the use of educationist A.F. Leach's work by educationists and historians. General historians of the Middle Ages have not used Leach's work, but writers of educational history and of innumerable histories of individual schools' have. This poses the dilemma which faces the student of the history of mediaeval schools. If he wants information he must go to Leach's work, yet there is this doubt about Leach's reliability. Its the author's contention that the reason for this doubt is a mistaken interpretation of the review of "The Schools of Medieval England" by A.G. Little in "The English Historical Review." Scholar Joan Simon's criticism of the author's contention throws some light on this dilemma. She asserts that all subsequent critics have referred to the review. But there have not been any subsequent critics. She considers that the author has been unjust to these critics, and that every historian who has not used Leach's work has conducted some sort of independent inquiry into it but kept silent. Yet she says that criticisms were never followed up.

In May 1970 I argued in this journal that cost effectiveness should dominate the planning of higher education in the seventies, and in November 1971 outlined steps for its rationalisation. The DES Statistics of Education Volume 5, Finance and Awards for 1970, puts in focus the stark situation of education costs for England and Wales. The total cost was £1,980 millions, an increase of £217 millions over the previous year. The 1971 Blue Book (CMND 4829) shows an overall educational expenditure of £2,953 millions for 1970-71 and highlights the share which higher education received. Over the ten year period 1960-1970 the largest increases were on tuition costs of teacher training, university grants and further education, in that order. In 1969-70 further and adult education received £246.3 millions, teacher training £53.8 millions and the universities £225.6 millions. The size of this sector of education has been projected in the DES Planning Paper No 2 which suggested that twice as many boys and girls will secure two or more `A' levels in 1981 compared with 1968. The number in full-time higher education in 1969-70 (Universities, Colleges of Education and Further Education) was estimated at 443 000 and projections suggested this will rise to 847 000 in 1981-82. Total costs of full-time higher education at 1966-67 prices were estimated to rise to £957 millions. It is in the cold light of these essential statistics that developments in planning higher education for the next five years and how cost effectiveness can be implemented are now considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the community work in Britain, 1974. The author has reviewed the work of social work agencies whose workers are busy with one of another aspect of community development, community organization, or community action at a local level. Most professionals who regard themselves as community workers, or who have been officially appointed as such, are generally either social workers with a professional training in social work, or people employed in vocational training, adult education or youth work. In the present rather chaotic situation of community work in Great Britain and Ireland, it is worth remembering two questions that are very often forgotten. The grand decisions about regional economic development, the questions concerning the exploitation of natural resources (too often for short-term profit), those concerning the granting of investment funds these are the decisions which exercise the biggest influence on the future of citizens. Such decisions must be constantly reviewed and supervised in a democratic and vigilant way.

Presents news briefs on developments related to industrial training and management in Great Britain as of October 1974. Purpose of the Conciliation and Arbitration Service; Areas of work from which the wider opportunities courses are drawn; Information on the water services training and education scheme approved by the Secretary of State for the Environment.

The article comments on the present situation and development in the social sciences in Great Britain. The social sciences in general, and in specifically, had a long pre-history. An intelligent observer in the year 1800 would not have had a word for sociology, and would not have known the phrase social science. Economics, and to a lesser degree politics, were firmly established in the universities before 1939. The importance of politics in the conduct of administration and the making of policy was recognized. The experience of economic depression was productive of a diffuse belief in planning which resulted in a new readiness of mind to accept social research. In 1945 this resulted in a growth of demand for social science education and information. All the social sciences grew steadily in the following years. Partly through the encouragement of UNESCO, national associations came into existence in such fields as politics and sociology. They were no novelty in economics. Social administration as a subject of study advanced with the growth of a welfare state. But the real revolution was to follow, and it still continues.

The article discusses issues related to teaching race questions in British schools. In February 1961 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization invited the author to promote and supervise a pilot inquiry to assess the usefulness of Cyril Bibby's book "Race, Prejudice and Education" as means of eliminating race prejudice in the schools of Great Britain. The survey was conducted in the spring and a report submitted in the autumn. The present article is a synopsis of that report. The account of the survey, the question asked and the responses has been drastically condensed to allow for discussion of the conclusions at greater length. "Race, Prejudice and Education" can be strongly recommended as a teaching aid for use in British schools, in association with other measures, in a programme of the type envisaged. The arguments for and against the teaching of race questions in schools have not received sufficient attention in British educational circles. Many teachers maintained that it was inadvisable to teach such topics, on two grounds. First, they considered that much of the material dealt with matters of opinion rather than matters of fact. Secondly, they thought that race as a biological phenomenon was only incidental to inter-group relations and that to emphasize the racial factor was often to create a problem where none existed before.

Focuses on the planning for a new hospital system design for patient care in Great Britain. Establishment of a multi-professional planning committee in hospitals; Contribution of nurse as a project team member; Importance of investments in education in planning and design for medical professions.

The article focuses on the sociological movement at the turn of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, founding and early history of "The Sociological Society" and with the beginnings of sociology as an academic subject. Certainly the sociological movement had something very close to a common working doctrine. Put in its simplest form, this doctrine held sociological investigation to require a prior or parallel examination of man's biological evolution. Emphases were differently placed, but very few sociologists could avoid a concern with the historical evolution of human nature, with man's adaptation to the conditions of existence and with the role of natural laws and biological mechanisms in social activities. The Sociological Society, at least for some of its founding members, was an institution to emancipate sociological science from the over-sight of academic economists and British anthropologists. In the language of the day, both eugenics and civics had become conflicting and dispersive specialisms. It had simply not been possible to create a unified sociology to be taught at University. Most courses in sociology founded at this time were intended to train people for social work.

The article presents information on the working life of young people. The literature on the adjustment of young people to working life is large, but lacks coherence. Although the subject has become a popular research topic, there have been no thorough surveys of the field. The literature on adjustment to work is even less helpful. One of the major features of any adjustment to a worker's role or position, however defined, must be the preparation received in school. This article, in the light of an extensive survey of the literature, develops a method of approach that differs from those adopted by the small number of previous writers who have found any theoretical interest in the topic. The provision of full-time education for the whole of the population of Great Britain is less than a hundred years old. Proportions going into unskilled work decline steeply as the age of leaving increases, but even among seventeen-year-old leavers, about one of four goes into unskilled work. It is hoped that the present approach will serve students of the field both by establishing a framework for the interpretation of previous work, and by generating problems for solution. The complexity of the interrelationships involved is apparent, but a recognition of their existence as opposed to the accumulation of more or less ad hoc correlations must contribute to more fruitful research.

The article presents a discussion on the youth culture in the United States and Great Britain and the growing disinterest in school. The article is a replication of a previous study related to British schools, concerning involvement in youth culture and the school orientation of the student. Adolescence is a time of stress and educational decision making. There are two dominant adolescent life styles available to the student. Firstly, that of the official pupil role-involving the acceptance of values and norms held by the school. Secondly, there is the teenager role, which is basically an inversion of the pupil role. For many students the school has nothing to offer, and thus the pupil role lacks appeal. These disinterested students subsequently seek, through the teen culture, another means of gratification and status reward. The pupil role, then, is representative of the adult society, and the teenager role represents a youth culture that holds values and norms that are opposite to those of the adult society. Adolescents involved in the youth culture will demonstrate their membership in distinctly characteristic ways: by dressing and adorning themselves in styles not shared by their parents. There are two different attitudes that young people may show in their choice of styles: one is to strive for real individuality in dress and manner, the other is to express solidarity with fellow teenagers by wearing what serves as their uniform.

This article discusses the importance of liberal studies in the elementary studies in England and the U.S. The adult-school experiment is a sad commentary on the value of the schooling given to students since the idea went forth that a lad was sent to school to learn to make a living. This is the datum line chosen by some of the critics of the system for marking the period when the decline in learning took place. It is not necessary to examine the statistics of the Departments of War, Navy, and Air Force, issued during the Second World War and the Korean expedition, to read the sad tale of the amazing decline in elementary knowledge. Side by side might be placed the figures for the increase in crime. The reports on juvenile delinquency are extremely shocking. Both the U.S. and Great Britain seem to be passing through the same phase of deterioration, yet no one of influence offers a solution of the problems with which schoolteachers are left to deal. A generation ago the heads of the principal colleges of Oxford and Cambridge lamented the neglect of the classics. Learning had fallen into decay that the great treasures of cathedrals and schools, among them music and books, had been destroyed and that rapine had left a gloom over the land.

This article reports that the inspectorial roles of the British Ministry of Education and the Local Education Authority are in essence complementary, as expressed in a former Board of Education Report 1922-23--the one supervises education over the whole country for the purpose not only of safeguarding the parliamentary grant, but of administering in convenient fashion results and suggestions derived from continuous recorded observations; the other must supervise and provide for the various grades of education taken together and in their actual relationships within the particular area. The most important priority for Her Majesty's Inspector of Schools is to interpret to the local education authority in acceptable fashion the wishes of the Minister of Education, to ensure that Ministry and Local Education Authority work together in harmony. As a corollary, he also helps the Minister understand the point of view of the Local Education Authority, for their partnership is fundamental to successful administration. Inspector therefore humanizes administration, he is an educational ambassador. Moreover, he represents a most useful of fictions in his independence of the Ministry of Education.

The article discusses the American influence on the movement for a national system of elementary education in England and Wales during 1830-1870. In 1826 it was enacted in Massachusetts that the school committee shall never direct to be purchased or used, in any of the town schools, any school books which are calculated to favour the tenets of any particular sect of Christians. It was legally permissible until 1855 for there to be no religious teaching whatever and this freedom was very similar to that permitted to Board schools under the Cowper-Temple clause of the Elementary Education Act of 1870. However, until a Board of Education was established in Massachusetts in 1837 there were serious defects in the common school system arising from the lack of any supervising Board. Until 1867 political controversy centred about the extension of the franchise, and when a Liberal government came into power with a large majority in November 1868 the main task confronting the government was the pacification of Ireland. The question of national education did not come to the front of the political stage until the autumn of 1867.

The article focuses on the Morrill Land-Grant College Act of 1862 of Great Britain. The Act marked the convergence of a set of trends or cultural patterns that had been evolving for some time, for at least a century. The schools and colleges in the early colonies were modeled, naturally enough, after the European, especially the English, patterns familiar to the settlers. As the concept of general public responsibility for education gained acceptance, so the school and the college lost in sectarian flavour and in the predominance of literary studies. For with active public involvement in the provision of education came ever-increasing insistence that education pay off, that it demonstrate its practical worth, its utility. It is not so clear that pressures for engineering or technological education were vital in precipitating the Morrill Act of 1862. As with agriculture, there was almost no systematic education in engineering at the college level before the Civil War. But it should be apparent that, throughout this history and despite certain lively antipathies, several concrete antecedents to the Morrill Act had been developed, certain clear precedents had been established.

The article presents some evidence from Great Britain of the influence exerted by children's educational attainments upon working class parents' aspirations for their children. Low aspirations and distinctive values found in working class communities are developed and maintained and a number of studies of predominantly working class populations have shown a tendency to rely on networks of informal contacts in providing information about job opportunities and in exercising influence to obtain jobs. Two different measures were developed of the home background provided by the family. One of these measured the number of "middle class attributes" possessed by the parents and referred to their education and the occupations they had held and to the education and occupation of their fathers and the education of their mothers. The other referred to the families' expenditure on housing, consumer durables and the decoration and furnishing of the home. Increasing importance of formal qualifications and educational attainments in occupational selection is giving more power to the formal agencies of the school and the Youth Employment Service and is substituting universalistic for particularistic criteria in job selection.

The purpose of this article is to explore some of the relationships between educational planning and manpower planning.[1] It is frequently argued that the expansion of the educational system should be based on detailed forecasts of the educated manpower that will be required in a growing economy. My emphasis is somewhat different: it is that manpower forecasts in a developed country like Great Britain must take account of the likely expansion of education. The basic argument will involve four variables: demand and supply in "the education market", and demand and supply in the labour market. All of these are policy-variables, in the sense that they are subject to a measure of control by the public authorities. But only one of them, supply in the education market, is a policy-variable pure and simple, and some of them--demand in the labour market is an example--can only be influenced by the State to a limited degree. It is precisely this which creates problems for both educational planning and manpower planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports on correspondence education and the use of self-instructional media in schools in Great Britain and Sweden. It discusses the two separate applications of correspondence course materials in schools. The practice of correspondence study in schools, under the supervision of teachers is examined. The article also discusses the use of correspondence course units as self-instructional media without written work being submitted to the correspondence school. The planning of modern correspondence courses is considered.

The article explores the situation in higher education in Great Britain as of November 1965. It highlights the results of the report of the Committee on Higher Education chaired by Lord Robbins. The report proposed that the numbers in full-time higher education should grow from 216,000 in 1962/63 to 392,000 by 1973/74, and further to 558,000, by 1980/81. The article argues that the situation in higher education is very confused, full of uncertainty and charged with underlying ambivalent attitudes of the government, education and industry towards each other. It also discusses the establishment of cooperative schemes between industry and universities and the influence of the Science Research Council in developing relationships between industry and the universities. The article also suggests that need to fully utilize scarce resources is bound to become increasingly important as the number of students to be educated increases in the technical college as well as in universities and colleges.

The article focuses on the involvement of college teachers in educational activity in Great Britain. The education staff are responsible for the expansion of educational research. They are concerned with the training and guidance of lecturers who train would be teachers in colleges of education. Undergraduate teaching constitutes the rationale for an academic existence. The academic standards required by educators is concerned with the development of the whole person. The training of teachers was established longer than other professional courses in the country.

The article focuses on the decision of the Great Britain government to implement a policy of secondary education which is influenced by the needs of students who plan to go on to higher education. The introduction of secondary education raised the school leaving age to 15, with the proviso that it establish a break at the age of eleven between primary and secondary education.

The article focuses on the Canadian curriculum concept of science education in British and U.S. secondary schools. British and U.S. education does not have an equal effect on Canada's educational system. Canada's geographic proximity to the U.S. aided American influence. It is suggested that nations including either England and Wales or Canada should review not only their own history but also other nations' contributions to a discipline prior to innovation. Great Britain's history of science education has periods of distinct emphases which include education traditions such as laboratory-oriented science teaching and a high degree of subject specialization. With regards to U.S. science education, curriculum developments are readily available.

The article focuses on science teaching and the teaching of the essential mathematics for science in the United States and Great Britain. In studying the gap between theory and practice in the curriculum of mathematics and science, a thinker identified that revisions in curriculums are reforms which have nothing to do with the psychology of learning. Related to this concern, the contention of Piaget on cognitive development is considered. He identified five stages of cognitive development. These are sensori-motor actions upon things, contemplation about things, pre-operational actions upon things, concrete operations with things, and intuitive operations with things.

The article focuses on the British education system with its comparison to the U.S. education system. In Great Britain, public schools are divided into three levels, namely, infant school, junior school, and secondary schools. All children in the age group five to seven go to the infant schools while children from seven to eleven go to the junior schools. Children from eleven to fourteen, sixteen, or eighteen go to secondary schools. The country has free and compulsory education for children from the age of five to fourteen. The schools teach reading by the phonetic method. The primary grades emphasizes music, art and physical training more than the American education system. Every infant school has a social welfare worker to assist teachers in every way possible. The subjects taught in the British junior schools are the one's taught in the American upper elementary grades. British secondary schools are of three types, namely, secondary grammar, secondary technical and secondary modern.

Any modern social welfare service, if it is to be understood properly, has to be seen in historical perspective. Before the facilities, social practices, and philosophy that exist for the mentally retarded in Great Britain today are discussed, a description will be given of how they originated, under what circumstances they evolved, and what forces dictated the direction of their growth. Concern for this group of the handicapped gradually built up in the 19th century. Simultaneous with this movement in the education held was a growing preoccupation with the social plight of older defective people at large in the community, and also with the undifferentiated care that many of the more severely handicapped experienced in public institutions for the destitute—usually workhouses or lunatic asylums. This act attempted to co-ordinate the needs of the mentally defective population that were not covered by the education provisions already cited and to provide for a comprehensive and varied service to meet them.

The article focuses on undergraduate education on dermatology in Great Britain. If a medical school did not possess an inspiring dermatologist, many students qualified with virtually no knowledge of skin disorders, nor, it must be said, was the skin likely to have had any but a passing reference made to it in the departments of physiology and pathology. Attention was drawn to the inadequacies of the training of undergraduates in dermatology and, although there has been some improvement since that time, it is still possible to qualify in a British medical school with less than 30 hour of instruction in dermatology included in the curriculum of five-and-a-half years. A good case must be made for the time which educationists desire the student to devote to the study of dermatology; and the maximum use must then be made of that time.