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The characteristics of one's moral code determine how often and in what life situations inner conflict is aroused, influence the ways such conflict is experienced, and set limits on the techniques that can be used to resolve it. The goal of this paper is to convey the theoretical richness of the topic and to clarify some of the research implications. Therefore, only a brief outline of empirical work on the acquisition of moral needs is explained here. Details of the latter are presented elsewhere. Instead, the article describes a number of the problems that have been encountered in the development of the investigations. The paper closes with a discussion of some hypothetical interrelationships between moral standards and other facets of personality.

This article discusses the ethics of trade union leaders. In this paper, the author gives an account of the premisses from which trade union leaders act and to examine, in a general way, their aims, their code of trade union morality, their loyalties and to show their attitude to the standard of social behaviour in the society which they purport to change. It is not a comprehensive examination. Some aspects of behaviour are barely mentioned for example, the problem of remuneration whether these men should be paid like the workers they represent or as businessmen is not discussed. There is considerable discussion of the problem of honours, but this can cast only an oblique light on their approach to what is an appropriate standard of social behaviour. Throughout this paper only full-time general secretaries and presidents of trade unions are classified as trade union leaders. There is an ethical basis for decision-making in all trade unions. The objectives of a trade union tell one what the union is hoping to achieve, but the traditions stipulate the kind of action and behaviour to be adopted in pursuit of those objectives. Thus, the behaviour of trade unionists is not formally rational. One reaches a different conclusion when the behaviour of trade union leaders is measured by the standard of the minority. This is a standard that is related to the ultimate purpose of trade unions and shows a correlation between present behaviour and intended social and economic changes.

This paper focuses on celibate priest, author and sociologist Andrew M. Greeley's contributions to theory in the sociology of religion, one of two substantive areas in which Greeley has chosen to write extensively on. The other being the sociology of ethnic groups in the United States. The author has discerned and chosen to discuss four substantive themes in Greeley's writings, roughly in chronological order research in the "Protestant Ethics," the sociology of Roman Catholicism, the secularization thesis and denominational membership in society. As early as 1964, Greeley felt justified in calling for a moratorium on the Protestant Ethic research in society. In need achievement, occupational success, income levels and educational attainments, Protestant-Catholic differences were either unproven, insignificant, or in some instances, slightly reversed from the conventional hypotheses. This overall judgment has been sustained by subsequent researchers. Besides clarifying the impact of Catholic elementary, high school and college education on specific Catholic adult religious behavior, Greeley has contributed seven books and numerous articles on the Catholic Church itself. According to the author Greeley is much more convincing as an applied sociologist analyzing critical problems in the changing church than he is as a theorist of Catholic higher education.

Before discussing the main theme of this paper, namely, the research being conducted by Soviet sociologists in their study of the family, it seems necessary to say a few words about what is, in the final analysis, the most important thing, that is the moral views of Soviet people and the standards of behavior they strive for. Communist morality, as can be seen from this brief list of the standards of behavior of Soviet citizens, includes the basic rules common to all mankind. At the same time, as the building of the new society progresses, communist morality becomes enriched with new principles and contents. This is not a matter of one day or even a year. This process of the formation of new qualities in man who has been freed from exploitation and has become the master of his own fate is going on in the Soviet Union and will continue to go on even more intensively. All of this gives the Soviet sociologists extremely rich material for their study of the family as a historical phenomenon connected with the development of society as a whole.

The article focuses on research in problems of scientific information. All research results from . That which one calls pure research results from the dissatisfaction of not knowing and attempts to fill the lack with the satisfaction of knowledge. Applied research, by contrast, results from dissatisfaction with the manner of doing and seeks a remedy ultimately through improved technology. Of course this dichotomy, like most dichotomies, does not result in mutually exclusive classes; much curiosity is involved in the pursuit of utilitarian rewards through research and as for the ultimate ultility of pure research, all one has to do is look around oneself.

The purpose of this paper is to identify and clarify, from the stance of the consultant, some of the "ethical" problems frequently encountered in the process of consultation. Its purpose is not to offer viable solutions to such problems. Such solutions can be discovered or created only by the consultant, usually in collaboration with his client and various significant others in his associational world. A few comments on how the rigors of ethical problem-solving may be eased, but never eliminated, in the life of the consultant are offered at the end of the essay. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents information on public administration. In his March/April 1969 paper on "Sys- tems Politics and Systems Budgeting" (which could be better titled "The Protocols of the Elders of Pluralism"), Allen Schick suggests that systems analysis is somehow a force for change as opposed to the reactionary impulses of pluralism. In the fields of public administration and budgeting the vast majority of writers ("pluralist" and otherwise) have supported the long line of budgetary reforms. While systems analysis would call for greater understanding, more research, and so on, pluralism would suggest that people who want a better break should organize to achieve it. Public administration is the inevitable consequences in governmental administration of a new view of man, particularly as concerns "knowing" and "being." In contrast with the traditional view of man impassively pursuing scientific goals, the new view of man posits a radically altered version of the human cognitive apparatus.

Attribution of responsibility is becoming the subject of increasing research activity. Reasons for such activity appear fairly obvious. It is highly probable that the degree to which one person holds another as responsible for the latter's acts is a prime determinant of much interpersonal behavior. For example, responses to others that are punishing versus rehabilitative, generous versus niggardly, kindly versus hostile, or accepting versus rejecting may all be mediated to a substantial extent by the degree to which one attributes responsibility to another person for the outcome of his acts. The focus of the present paper is on several potential determinants of responsibility attribution and their interactions. In professor E. Walster's study, the stimulus events were described as chance-determined. That is, a person gained, broke even, or lost money on an investment purely as a function of environmental events over which he had no control. In this study, Walster was not able to show a relation between responsibility attribution and outcome seventy.

In order to yield further understanding of the nature and extent of the trait of intolerance of ambiguity, as the dimension will be called in this research, an attempt was made to measure directly how much ambiguity a subject would tolerate in an interpersonal situation. Most studies have relied upon paper-and-pencil tests or clinical ratings to measure interpersonal or social intolerance of ambiguity. In this experiment actual interpersonal behavior was quantified in standardized situations. Three such situations were devised and all were of the following experimental prototype E confronted the S with an indefinite and ambiguous task and gave vague initial instructions. The ambiguous task in this situation was adapted from the kind of problems that are used on the Bennett Test of Productive Thinking. These problems take the form of stating some new invention or some other "new factor" in the world, and the subject is supposed to describe the consequences that such an innovation will have upon the physical and social environment. This kind of problem lends itself to the present experiment because it does not have any specific right or wrong answers and can be approached in a number of ways.

The article presents a discussion on ethics of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge may be defined as knowledge which is collected and organized in accordance with four technical norms: empirical validity, logical clarity, logical consistency of propositions, and generality of principles. However, it may be argued that such technical norms do not guarantee the objectives of science. It has been pointed out that science has realized its basic objectives, and its technical norms have had relevance because of broader institutional values which articulate scientific endeavor. This value system, which is usually referred to as the scientific ethos, consists of universalism, organized scepticism, communality, ethical neutrality, and disinterestedness. It is this value system which provides the impetus for scientific activity and guarantees its validity. The emergence of the scientific ethos has been traced to the historical conditions of the seventeenth century. In retrospect, it is clear that the convergence of a number of trends such as secularization, rationalism, and cultural relativism combined to produce the facilitating conditions.

Psychological literature indicates the prevalence of the view that character and personality constitute two distinct types of phenomena. The objective psychologist, on the contrary, believes that there is no warrant for isolating character traits from the other components of personality in order to elevate the former to a coordinate position beside all the others. Accordingly, it is the purpose of the present paper to inquire into the nature of character and its interrelation with personality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An attempt is made to add conceptual strength to the conflict approach toward the study of family process. The concepts developed aim to provide analytical access to the nature of the family negotiating process. The focus thus is on the conceptions of bonding, aggression, appeasement, and threat. In addition the extramarital nature of familial and marital conflict management is discussed. Throughout the argument, findings from the field of ethology are used, heuristically, to aid in the attempts at problem formulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on the relative efficacy of volition and justification in arousing dissonance. Dissonance theory continues to be an important source of insights for an impressive diversity of behavioral areas. Unfortunately, many of these exciting extensions are based on vulnerable foundations, core assumptions and propositions of dissonance theory are still in dispute. Unlike research derived from a systematic theory, dissonance research has not strengthened the basic statements and postulates that generated it, it has not clarified them, it hasn't brought them closer to the data level and it certainly has not been integrated into a neat unified system. Of the several areas in need of clarification, one concerns the conditions for dissonance arousal. It was to this problem, particularly the relative contributions of volition and justification in arousing forced compliance dissonance, that the present experiment and an attempt at formalization were addressed. A principal feature of scholars J.W. Brehm and A.R. Cohen revision of dissonance theory was the authors' insistence that the subjects make a choice, either between choice objects or whether or not to engage in a given behavior.

Focuses on the discussion regarding the conceptual analysis of altruism. Agreement on the emphasis of the other in altruism; Emphasis on the contention that helping behavior is the next most general term with altruistic being the special case rather than vice versa; Mistake on the inclusion of the paraphrase that leads the reader to the incorrect conclusion that the author was equating altruistic and moralistic behavior.

The article reports on a survey of ethical behavior in the accounting profession. The results indicate that violations of the professional code of ethics may exist in a stratified professional accounting community. The violations appear to be related to the size of the firm in which the accountant practices. The researchers speculate that accountants in large firms face a wider responsibility for inappropriate action than those in small. The penalties for misconduct may be higher for those in large firms.

The article focuses on the proposed Uniform Consumer Credit Code in the U.S. in the late 1960s, particularly raising questions of errant behavior within the laws and their preventative measures to discourage such behaviors through the moderation of the creditor-debtor relationship. The "bad man" approach of Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. is particularly described and applied to the credit code. Several instances of the legal disincentives present within the code to prevent deliberate contract-breaching behaviors are analyzed.

The article offers information on the ecology of choices and peace research. Ecology of choices is defined as an inter related social and moral context of human society made up of the claims, rights and duties of human beings. According to historians like James Harvey Robinson, Carl Becker and Charles Beard, choices are relative. It states that the strength of human kind is in the face of ecology of choice and the necessity of willing without being able to quite control the conditions or to escape the consequences of choice. It also asserts that peace research must come to grips with the ecology of choices.

The article presents the study which discusses the personal and impersonal methods of recruitment for social research. The two recruitment methods, personal and impersonal, were used in a policy-oriented study on the effects of day care on children and their families. These were also contrasted in terms of efficiency, dropout rate, types of people recruited, and ethical considerations. It suggests that social researchers must use first the impersonal method before they would use the personal approach if they need to apply the second approach.

Focuses on the interpretation of the discussions of altruism, which is based on a misconception both of purpose and point of view. Attempt to conceptually analyze altruism for centuries to little or no avail; Misrepresentation of the positions the author criticized in at least three ways; Suggestion that the average person may have a conception of altruism that differs from that of the three present authors.

Researcher K. Keniston argues that the intense involvement of student activists in the 1960's can be at least partially explained in terms of a fusion of their personality and their politics. The present article is addressed to the conceptual differentiation and empirically aided redefinition of this explanatory notion. One manner in which personality may be fused with politics may be more specifically articulated with the psychologists S. Tomkins's concept of a normative ideology. A normative ideology emphasizes that value resides in consistency with external authorities or standards. Such authorities or standards are considered infallible in themselves. Human experience marred by selfishness, ignorance, or even original sin can perceive the applications of these values only dimly. A second manner in which personality can be fused with politics is suggested by Tomkins's concept of humanistic ideology. Humanists see human experience and human emotions as the ultimate source for the discovery and justification of values. External authorities such as God, the state, a great leader, or even a great leader appealing to the will of the people are not the locus of value.

The article examines the views of R.H. Tawney, an economic historian on the origins of capitalism. Tawney argued that it is equally over-simplified and one-sided to argue that capitalism had to wait until the Protestant ethic had produced a capitalist spirit or that the Protestant ethic was itself merely the result of the development of capitalism. He never discounted the impact of economic changes on religious thought and practice. But, at the same time, he insisted that the impact of religion upon economic life and behavior could not be dismissed either. Puritans, as well as Catholics, attempted the formidable task of formulating a Christian casuistry of economic behavior. By the 18th century, the pursuit of economic self-interest has been proclaimed the law of nature by the philosophers. The consequent repudiation of the social character and responsibility of religion, aided the development of individualism in all areas of society-economic, social, political. Hard work, frugality, the pursuit of riches as a disposition of man, was created by the historical transformations of the l6th-l8th centuries.

This article presents information on behaviorism. In the last two decades, psychology has witnessed a meteoric rise in the prestige and influence of the application of behavior theory. Behaviorism appears to be on the way to domination of applied psychology similar to its past domination of the experimental area. The major support for this behavioristic ferment in psychology is the apparent power that behavioral methods have in controlling human actions. Such behavior control power has implications related to three major areas of concern for psychologists: therapy, ethics and social control.

In the modern Greek movies analyzed, the "bad" girls, that is, the more emancipated and independent ones, were consistently portrayed as rich girls; while the "good" girls, who love unconditionally with an almost maternal love, were always portrayed as poor girls. This inverse relationship between morality and possession of (or aspiration toward) money was examined in terms of traditional values, class stereotypes, and conditions for social mobility within the Greek culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The method of character education employed by the Communists, their system of developing socialist morality, and their childrearing practices are reviewed and commented upon in the light of practices and standards prevalent in the United States. The tremendous social problems that are confronting us present the greatest challenge that humanity has ever faced. These problems must be solved by individuals who have learned to live responsibly in a democracy. The ultimate hope of humanity lies in man's capacity to be concerned for others in such a way as to establish a human fellowship that will cross all lines of political difference, social class, race, sex, philosophy, and religion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reuben Hill has indicated the disagreement which exists among family-field professionals regarding premarital sex morality and the function of constructive conflict in marriage; he has also called attention to discontinuities between individual versus marriage and family goals. Other problems include the presumption, despite an emphasis on preventive mate selection, that marriage is the best design-for-living for everyone; the misconceived nature of sexuality in women; and the idolization of reproduction. Particularly important problems are the neglect of lower socio-economic families, especially of Negroes; and the apparent inadequacy of value foundations fostering family stability, such as the Protestant Ethic which has previously served middle-class families. The latter concerns suggest major developmental tasks for NCFR during the next 25 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A game-like situation was used to investigate the resistance to temptation of disadvantaged 5-year-old Negro children. Sex of the experimenter, sex of the child, and father absence or presence were varied. Expectations based on potential influences of father absence were not confirmed. Boys and girls from father-absent homes did not differ significantly in their resistance to temptation. Boys from father-present homes resisted temptation more with a female E while girls resisted temptation more with a male rule giver. Findings were discussed in light of previous research by other investigators. A satiation-deprivation of social reinforcement explanation was suggested to account for the findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This article focuses on the conception of evil in social sciences. Social sciences is characterized not only by the neglect to raise the question at issue, as well as many other questions which it considers equally non-scientific, but also by certain related, typically unacknowledged, theoretical consequences of conceptions of truth, particularly scientific truth, and of the relations between student and subject matter. Is and ought, theory and practice, knowledge and its application, and science and history, society, politics and ethics. Modern social control thus is far more total and cruel, as well as efficient, than ever before, when crimes against mankind had not yet begun to be recognized as such. Evil is no longer committed in the name of God, is less than ever legitimated by religious or even moral motives, and is covered over by political, economic and technological reasons, and on a larger scale than ever but the cover can also be seen through, and is seen through, by more people than ever.

This article presents several reflections related to the investigations of value systems. The author evaluates Professor George Geiger's arguments on ethical studies. Geiger attributes the reluctance of social scientists to undertake investigations of problems of value to cultural lag, to the failure of institutions to keep up with theoretical advances. Granting some reluctance of scientists to get involved in problems of value, the author of this article points out the possibility that the chief deterrents to scientific exploration of values are methodological in nature. Psychologists and sociologists exploring attitudes toward war, and capital punishment, have shown willingness to examine one aspect of problems of values. These efforts may not represent an impressive attack on all the encompassing problem of ethics in human behavior, but social scientists at least indicate their willingness to concern themselves with problems that are part of the fabric of ethics.

The article asserts that there is a lack of proper protection provided to human beings from biomedical research in law, national health guidelines and ethical codes. This calls for a comprehensive public policy which protects human beings from being experimented upon by medical community. There is practically no statutory law regulating human experimentation, and the judge-made law is completely inadequate to protect those who are most likely to find themselves the subjects of experimentation like the poor, aged, children etc. The author insists that for several reasons ethical codes are completely useless as a means for protecting individuals. Institutions where human experimentation is conducted also seem more interested in protecting themselves than the people they serve.

The article discusses the summary of a symposium at the meetings in Boston, Massachusetts in September 1948 which was presented by the Division of Industrial and Business Psychology. It states that the group explored the issues on ethical practice among industrial psychologists. It mentions that the opinion was expressed that ethical standards should refer to the acts of persons working in the professional field and not for their personal qualifications or type of organization by which they are working. It adds that the panel of the meeting assumed that the Division must tackle the leadership in defining standard competence and the professional guidelines.

The article focuses on the significance of the economic misrepresentation. The actual or potential threat of economic misrepresentation has many dimensions. The purely ethical issue will tend to merge into the practical issues of daily life at large when the virus of irresponsibility and falsehood is permitted to thrive in any one area from which it can readily spread elsewhere. The threat of economic misrepresentation extends beyond the diffused general effects just traced. If it continues to thrive it is likely to undermine important foundations upon which the stable structure of our economic democracy depends. To the extent that economic misrepresentation succeeds in influencing voters' party preference or their choice of representatives, it diminishes the effectiveness of our democratic methods. The new and highly favored role of statistical reference in public debate is obviously due to the rather recent development in the scope and reliability of statistical data. In support of such privately organized measures of preventing and correcting economic misrepresentation, legal action may be desirable in order to enforce universally the rules which the well mentioned have already voluntarily accepted.

The article presents a discussion on creative and adaptive response in the Japanese Society and the social values of the Japanese people. In the traditional Japanese society the starting point of all activity is an individual's sense of indebtedness; to the past for all the ancestral experience of past ages, and to the present for all the personal responsibilities incurred in daily contact with others. The virtuous Japanese unlike the Westerner who claims he owes nothing to any man, does not discount his own or his ancestors' past experience. He recognizes his place in the great network of mutual indebtedness that embraces both one's forebears and one's contemporaries. In his system of ethics founded on the social contract, and not abstract value the highest virtue is loyalty to one's commitments. Where creative response was constrained, society tended to stagnate. Where creative entrepreneurship was strong, its disorganizing quality, together with the typical adaptive response of Japanese society, caused the transformation of Japan into a rapidly advancing modern economy.

The article focuses on the attempt to use the technique of the sociology of knowledge in an investigation of the life and writings of William Graham Sumner, professor of political and social science at Yale from 1872 to 1910. Throughout his work is found a constant emphasis on the desirability of the practice of these virtues--the constant renunciation of the present in favor of the future, human fore sight, hard work, self-denial, industry, temperance, prudence, frugality. So also a constant depreciation of these vices--an appetite for luxury, vice, sloth, dithyrambic rhetoric, lack of thrift, laziness. This complex of value-attitudes is the ethic of intra-worldly asceticism. The problem, then, of explaining the relationship between class position and intra-worldly asceticism in the life of Sumner is a social psychological problem. Intra-wordly asceticism becomes the dependent variable, class position an independent variable. His life represents a success story of social ascent, emancipation from a working-class milieu and the rise of an intellectual to the role of a nationally prominent political professor.

The article is concerned with Two Principles of social change. The Two Principles centered significantly about a persistent moral bias. Authors witnessed a number of historical instances in civilized society where moral ideas, as well as institutions, seemed distorted by this bias, exhibiting a dramatic partiality towards either the social or individual values. The first of the Two Principles dealt with the emergence of a new kind of morality from a biased institutional order. The second was concerned with how such ideals affect institutions. The cases studied suggested that Compensatory Moral Ideals, reflecting principally values lacking, rather than present, in the existing order, tend to make existing institutions appear immoral, and to direct social reform towards a new order compatible with the values embodied in the Compensatory Moral Ideals. The value of a theoretical construct depends upon in interpreting fact. The Two Principles are, of course, merely hypothetical and must be justified by their usefulness, if possible, in illuminating and rendering intelligible moral history and related problems.

The article focuses on the labor movement in the United States, which was founded upon an ethical commitment, the premises that people are more important than machines and that the human soul has precedence over economic advantage. The United Mine Workers is a kind of unionism set apart to some extent through self-isolation and to different conditions with which miners have had to deal. The logical conclusion to the process of unionization is, eventually, the ownership of the factories by both workers and management. No responsible union leader will admit such a conclusion today in the United States. Socialization of industry is highly improbable and even with socialization, the worker-foreman hatred might secretly continue. The leadership reflects the union; fierce and sullen independence; irascibility; a brooding, almost prophetic quality; pigheadedness; violence and a hard core of unbreakable integrity. The labor movement is people. It is a group of people banded together for economic advantage.

The article analyzes American sociologist Robert K. Merton's thesis on the relation of science to the "Puritan ethos" of seventeenth-century England. Ill-conceived knowledge has a way of getting embedded in the literature and persisting for generations, only eventually being dislodged with a mighty effort. There are portents that Merton's conclusions are headed for or such a career. The purpose, then, is to halt a trend rather than to make a systematic restatement of a proposition. Merton's declaration is that it is the thesis of this study that the Puritan ethic, as an ideal-typical expression of the value-attitude basic to ascetic Protestantism generally, so canalized the interests of seventeenth-century Englishmen as to constitute one important element of the enhanced civilization of science. The rationale of such a study is not readily apparent. While not deigning to make a formal definition of Puritanism, Merton would list its "dominant tenets." The first characteristic is the "juxtaposition of the spiritual and material" which might be acceptable as an interpretive construct of the Calvinistic "ethos."

The article focuses on the misunderstanding regarding the relation between moral ideals and institutions. Recent social theory has favored to a considerable extent the view that morals somehow reflect the values of the underlying institutional order. According to such doctrine, moral ideals are an integral and organic part of the existing order--institutions and morals mutually supporting each other. Several recent analysts, however, have deviated rather sharply from this interpretation. Karl Mannheim, for example, distinguishes between values which support the prevailing social organization and values which oppose it. Mannheim notes, however, that from time to time the other kind of moral values have appeared. These he refers to as "utopian" values. These values are different from the ones embodied in the contemporary institutions. From the point of view of such utopian values, society must appear immoral. These values are visionary, pointing towards some mode of human conduct or of human relations which is not very well provided by the institutions. And if utopian values come to prevail, the existing order is eventually undermined and social change ensues.

This article presents a psychodynamic analysis of ethical and political orientations. The ethical sentiments that dominate human behavior do not always originate as mass phenomena in the present but often have their roots in the group orientations of early childhood. The first group to which the child belongs is the family and it is now known that early orientations to the significant persons in the family may set the pattern for a person's social relationships throughout life. Even what looks like simple transmission of parental attitudes by precept and instruction may be only a special case of the principle of group orientation. Most children have a strong need for harmony and solidarity with one or both parents. When such a need is dominant the child will tend to incorporate and make his own the ethical sentiments of the parent. As the growing child steps out from his parents' home into the larger community he finds other social situations that are similar in many ways to the family circle which he is leaving.

The article presents a theory of human rights. A fundamental term of ethics is the term human rights. A human right means something a person may do without incurring any blame, liability, opprobrium, and so on. An admissible theory of human rights must rest on one or mere postulates which determine such rights. The only absolute condition that must be satisfied is that such a set of postulates must be consistent, it is desirable, though not absolutely necessary, that the set of postulates be as nearly as possible complete, so that there be as little room as possible for doubt about what is and what is not right according to the postulates. The postulates which determine what is right in the theory are guiding principles according to which it is at least theoretically possible to decide in a given instance what is right. Thus questions of right are not to be settled in each instance by recourse to might, as would be implied by the proposition that might makes right, this would be to distort the fact that adoption or acceptance of the guiding principles themselves rests ultimately on actual or potential might.

Questionnaires from 12,146 Unitarian Universalist members of eighty churches in a representative denominational sample were used to explore the dimensions of religiosity in a post-traditional religion. Mean scores by churches on forty-five varied items were factor-analyzed, producing a large first factor made up of theological values, institutional values, and personal moral values. The second dimension contained all items reflecting social morality. Other dimensions proposed are church sociality, psychological development emphasis, esthetic-worship values, religious education, church as a friendship source, and intrasectarian affirmations. On this basis, modifications of the dimensionality of religiosity are proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Improved conceptualization of interreligious marriage and greater precision of terminology are steps toward improved theories of intermarriage. In a sociological conceptual framework, Interreligious marriage is one type of Interaction between religious groups, subsocieties, or societies that are under constraint not to mingle on an intimate basis because of differences in values. Inter- religious marriage threatens values, security, and continuity of a religion, and is held in check by an endogamous eligibility system that extends to the incorporation of children of intermarried couples into one or the other religion. Internally, intensity of endogamy is related to the degree of independence of the religious group from the larger society. Relationships between religious societies are conceptualized as in-group/out-group relationships. Analysis of antireligious marriage has often been inexact due to limitations of data to coarse categories of religion, such as Jewish, Catholic, and Protestant; to the failure to go beyond formal church affiliations of members in search of their degree of religiosity; and to inexact use of certain terms, such as intermarriage, endogamy, exogamy, homogamy, and heterogamy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The moral basis of advanced societies is the group basis of advanced societies. That was Durkheim's essential Insight and enduring contribution to the sociology of the moral order. He asked, in effect: (1) What is the basis of association or group formation which engenders moral rules? (2) What units of societal organization comprise "moral communities" on this basis? and (3) What ethos or ethical system formulates and regulates these relationships? The classic replies given in On the Division of Labor in Society and subsequent works-the division of labor, occupational associations, and professional ethics-are analyzed for conceptual adequacy and tested for empirical relevance. Although the diagnosis and prescription Durkheim offered are found to be deficient in crucial respects, nevertheless they provide strategic points of departure in the quest for values and the quest for community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The problem of the role of technical data in the formation of ethical norms and ethical judgments actually grows out of a sense of frustration and a sense of excitement that is engendered by contemporary Christian ethical literature. The frustration comes from the fact that sociological data, para-sociological assumptions, theological statements and confessional preferences are frequently juxtaposed indiscriminately, with little awareness of the shifts in ethical method that are required by such trend. The excitement comes from a sense of freshness and an openness to the technical data of the social sciences that is apparently signaling an important shift in the discipline, now that the crest of Barthian and existentialist theology is beginning to ebb and the possibilities of making some proximate judgments in the midst of human relativity is again seen as legitimate. It has been true for some time, of course, that technical data have been used in the making of ethical judgments. In the compilation of statistics on moral behavior by the nineteenth century Lutheran moralist A. von Oettingen, in some branches of the Social Gospel movement, in the growth of courses in "Applied Christianity" during the thirties.

Prince Gautama Siddhartha who became the Buddha, The Enlightened One, married early and happily after having been reared in luxury and carefully protected from any contact with human misery. On the occasion that he was able to elude this solicitous surveillance he encountered a man suffering the infirmities of old age, another ravaged by disease, and, finally, a corpse, all three in sharp contrast to the serenity of a monk in meditation. This experience at the age of twenty-nine and the realization that old age, sickness and death are inexorable consequences of life so shocked him that he abandoned responsibility for country, parents, wife and child for some seven years of wandering, ascetic mortification, fasting and meditation in search of the meaning of suffering all to no avail. Parenthetically, it should be noted that his problem was not the same as though related to the problem of evil; the latter is inherently an ethical one respecting the discrepancy between merit and reward.

The article presents a reply from the author in response to Nicholas Piediscalzi's literary criticism, "The Transmoral Morality," published in the April 1965 issue of the journal "Journal of the Scientific Study of Religion." The author of this article states that what Piediscalzi says about Paul Tillich is mostly not based upon Tillich's "Morality and Beyond," the only book of Tillich's that concerns him. The author adds that in this reply to Piediscalzi he is not going to engage in a general discussion, as it would leave most of Piediscalzi's comments outside the scope of his reply. The author confronted that Piediscalzi simply does not deal with his detailed arguments on the subject showing that Tillich does not create a "relativizing dichotomy between religion and morality," instead he contents himself with general denials and quotes from other Tillich books and even other writers. Piediscalzi's critique, in fact, is less a comment on the author's article than an article on Tillich in disguise.

The one thing that is common to all kinds of moral philosophy is that it cannot ground morality in itself but must necessarily uncover the assumptions underlying morality. The author of this article presents his opinion on morality in context to the book "Morality and Beyond," by Paul Tillich. The author evaluates the work by Tillich, and finds that even Tillich can't avoid some of the pitfalls, defining the values of morality, in his literature. Tillich has attempted to define the moral imperative as personal-self realization, and the author is not agreed to this viewpoint. The author states that, Tillich is more successful than any other thinker in establishing a transmoral source of morality which is itself moral. This is clearest in his discussion of justice and love. Tillich sees love as supplementing abstract justice by mutual participation, involvement, and communion. Tillich not only splits the self, he splits God, into one who judges and one who forgives. Tillich's attempt to establish a transmoral area of human existence, even as the source of the moral, falsifies the human situation and endanger all morality.

The article discusses some of the problems facing children in the U.S. Children face difficulties in developing moral and ethical values by which to live. This is because of the dual standards practiced by adults. This dual standard of moral and ethical values confuse young people. Children are encountering many variations in adult behavior that many of them are having difficulty developing their own value standards. Children also face the problem of becoming a cooperative social human being rather than a competitive one. Adults who instill competitive motives rather than employing cooperative techniques with young people are raising a barrier in human relationships which is hard to surmount. The third problem that many children face has to do with pressure to achieve in accordance with middle class adult standards of the teacher.

The article presents abstracts of general education research. They include "Seniors Survey the High School," "Curriculum Reconstruction and Community Resources: Education Comes of Ages," "A Proposed Educational Plan for National Defense," "Differentiated High Schools," and "Ethics for Teachers."

One of the main implications of a stage hierarchy is that a higher stage is more complex than a lower stage and that a higher stage logically presupposes the simpler lower stage. If logical complexity as parallel to psychological difficulty, then it follows that sociologist L. Kohlberg's stages are increasingly more difficult to comprehend, and that understanding or attainment of a more advanced stage presupposes attainment of the simpler, less advanced stages, that the stages form a Guttman scale of comprehension. Empirical demonstration is important because it would support the theory for why the stages are naturally ordered as they are and why there is not "skipping around." The theory is namely that the lower stages are easier and hence are possible responses for a subject before the more difficult stages. In studies of moral judgment, it is usually assumed that a subject's moral judgments are produced at the highest stage he is capable of. Also it is usually assumed that when a subject later produces moral judgments at a higher stage, that the change represents the acquisition of new capacities It is possible, however that a subject might not produce moral judgments at the highest stage of which he is capable.