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Osnovni je cilj ovog rada utvrditi razlike između pojedinih vrsta timskih obrana s obzirom na varijable početka, ishoda i trajanja obrane u košarci. Usporedni cilj bio je utvrditi razlike između pobjedničkih i poraženih ekipa temeljem istih varijabli. Za ostvarenje navedenog cilja provedeno je istraživanje na uzorku od 4388 entiteta faze obrane, koje su prikupljene na 24 utakmice muškog košarkaškog turnira na Olimpijskim igarama u Pekingu 2008. godine. Uzorak varijabli činila su obilježja faze obrane u košarci i to: početak obrane, vrsta obrane, ishod obrane i trajanje obrane. Svaka od navedenih varijabli, osim varijable trajanje obrane, bile su detaljno opisane i razvrstane na modalitete i submodalitete koji pripadaju svakoj od navedenih varijabli. Sukladno postavljenim ciljevima i definiranim hipotezama za utvrđivanje razlika upotrebljeni su: χ 2 - test, Kruskal-Wallisov test i univarijatna analiza varijance. Rezultati pokazuju da je struktura faze obrane slijedeća: Na Olimpijskom košarkaškom turniru u prosjeku su odigrane 91,4 faze obrane po ekipi s koeficijentom iskoristivosti od 0,88 poena. Faza obrane najčešće započinje ubacivanjem lopte s 57,82% pri kojem je najzastupljeniji modalitet ubacivanje lopte iza čeone crte u polju napada s 42,25% svih. Najčešća je vrsta timske obrane pozicijska obrana s 72,61% zastupljenosti i koeficijentom iskoristivosti od 0,84 poena i trajanjem od 13,61 sekundu. Slijedi ju tranzicijska obrana s 13,81% učešća, koeficijentom iskoristivosti od 1,12 poena i trajanjem od 4,56 sekundi. Obrana u tranzicijskoj ili pozicijskoj igri u posebnim situacijama ima udio od 6,24%, koeficijent iskoristivosti od 1,16 poena i trajanje od 1,81 sekundu. Najmanji udio imaju ostale obrane i obrana s prelazom iz presinga u pozicijsku obranu (4,01% odnosno 3,33%). Faza obrane ima strukturu ishoda od 42,62% pozitivnih, 40,38% negativnih i 17% neutralnih. U skladu s postavljenim hipotezama može se zaključiti da: 1. Razlika između tranzicijske i pozicijske obrane, obrane s prelazom iz presinga u pozicijsku obranu, obrane u tranzicijskoj ili pozicijskoj igri u posebnim situacijama te ostale obrane temeljem varijabli početka, ishoda i trajanja obrane statistički je značajna na razini značajnosti od p The main objective of this paper is to determine the differences between different types of team defenses with respect to the variables of beginning, outcomes and duration of the defense in basketball. A comparative goal was to determine the differences between winning and defeated team based on the same variables. In order to achieve this goal, a survey was conducted on a sample of 4388 entities the defense phase, which were collected in 24 matches of the 2008 Beijing men basketball tournament. The sample of variables consisted of the characteristics of the stage of defense in basketball, namely: beginning of defense, type of defense, outcome of defense and duration of defense. Each of these variables, apart from the duration of the defense variable, were described in detail and categorized into modalities and submodalities belonging to each of the variables. In accordance with the set goal and defined hypotheses, the following were used to determine the differences: χ2 - test, Kruskal-Wallis test and univariate analysis of variance. The results show that the structure of the defense phase is as follows: The Olympic Basketball Tournament has averaged 91,4 defense stages per team with an efficiency ratio of 0.88 points. The defense phase most often begins with the ball insertion at 57.82%, where the modality of inserting the ball behind the front line in the attack field is the most represented with 42.25% of all. The most common type of team defense is positional defense with 72.61% representation and an efficiency ratio of 0.84 points and a duration of 13.61 seconds. This is followed by a transitional defense with 13.81% participation, a 1.12 points efficiency rate and a 4.56 second duration. Defense in a transitional or positional play in special situations has a share of 6.24% an efficiency ratio of 1.16 points and a duration of 1.81 seconds. Other defenses and defense with a transition from pressing to positional defense have the smallest impact (4.01% and 3.33% respectively). The defense phase has an outcome structure of 42.62% positive, 40.38% negative and 17% neutral. In accordance with the hypotheses, it can be concluded that: 1. The difference between transitional and positional defense, defense with a transition from pressing to positional defense, defense in a transitional or positional play in special situations, and other defenses based on the variable beginning, outcome and duration are statistically significant at the significance level of p

Uvod: U ranijim se istraživanjima kao najčešći problemi vezani za tjelesno i zdravstveno odgojno – obrazovno područje u razrednoj nastavi ističu preopširan kurikulum, negativni stavovi učitelja razredne nastave prema nastavi tjelesne i zdravstvene kulture (TZK), loši materijalni uvjeti rada, nedovoljna podrška rukovodstva škole te niska razina kompetentnosti učitelja razredne nastave za provedbu nastave TZK. Stoga je cilj ovog istraživanja bio utvrditi povezanost: (1) podržavajućih čimbenika, (2) percipirane kompetentnosti i (3) stavova učitelja razredne nastave prema nastavi TZK i kvalitete provedbe nastave TZK u primarnoj edukaciji. Metode: Istraživanje je provedeno na prigodnom uzorku od 1598 zaposlenih učitelja razredne nastave na području središnje regije Republike Hrvatske u školskoj godini 2009./2010. Za potrebe istraživanja korišten je novokonstruirani kompleksni upitnik koji je sadržavao pet dijelova. Za sve varijable izračunati su deskriptivni statistički pokazatelji, dok je povezanost između odrednica rada i percipirane kvalitete provedbe nastave TZK utvrđena serijom regresijskih analiza. Rezultati: Najveća povezanost s varijablama koje opisuju kvalitetu provedbe nastave TZK utvrđena je s percipiranom kompetentnošću učitelja, koja opisuje 33% ukupne kvalitete provedbe nastave TZK. Podržavajući čimbenici i stavovi učitelja prema nastavi TZK također su značajno i pozitivno povezani s ukupnom kvalitetom provedbe nastave TZK te je najčvršća povezanost utvrđena s varijablama zadovoljstvo poslom i stavovi učitelja prema korisnosti nastave TZK koje su značajno i pozitivno povezane sa svim varijablama koje opisuju kvalitetu provedbe nastave TZK. Zaključak: Dobiveni rezultati ukazuju da bi za podizanje razine kvalitete provedbe nastave TZK u razrednoj nastavi najviše pažnje trebalo usmjeriti na podizanje razine kompetencija, zadovoljstva poslom i stavova prema korisnosti nastave TZK kod sadašnjih i budućih učitelja razredne nastave. Background: In previous research, the most common issues related to physical education in the primary classroom education are too extensive curriculum, negative attitudes of primary school teachers towards teaching physical education (PE), poor material working conditions, insufficient support from school management and low-level competencies of primary school teachers for the implementation of PE teaching. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between (1) perceived supportive factors, (2) perceived competence and (3) attitudes of classroom teachers towards teaching PE and the quality of PE in primary education. Methods: The research was conducted on a convenience sample of 1598 employed classroom teachers in the central region of the Republic of Croatia during the 2009/2010 academic year. For the purposes of the research, a newly constructed comprehensive questionnaire, comprising five sections, was utilized for the research. Descriptive statistical indicators were calculated for all variables, and the relations between work determinants and the perceived quality of the PE lessons implementation was ascertained through a series of regression analyses. Results: The highest correlation with the variables describing the quality of PE teaching was found with the perceived competence of classroom teachers, accounting for 33% of the total quality of PE teaching variance. Perceived supporting factors and teachers' attitudes towards PE teaching also showed significantly and positive correlation with the overall quality of PE teaching. The strongest relation was found with job satisfaction and teacher attitudes towards the usefulness of PE teaching, which were significantly and positively related to all variables describing the quality of PE implementation. Conclusion: The findings suggest that in order to enhance the quality of PE teaching in primary education, emphasis should be placed on improving competency level, job satisfaction, and attitudes towards the usefulness of PE teaching among current and future classroom teachers.

Proces supkulturalizacije uglavnom se veže uz društvene aktere koji koriste glazbene pravce ili navijanje za klubove kao podlogu za stvaranje životnog stila i identiteta. Manje je poznato da same kineziološke aktivnosti i pojedini sportovi mogu mladim ljudima služiti u tome. Osim u dijelu akademske zajednice (isključivo u inozemstvu), ne postoje istraživanja procesa supkulturalizacije na osnovi kineziološke (sportske) aktivnosti iako u malobrojnim domaćim studijama o supkulturama mladih nalazimo pojmove koji na taj proces upućuju (Perasović, 2001). Istovremeno među mladima, u njihovom svakodnevnom komuniciranju, često se koriste pojmovi koji ukazuju na identitete „bajkera“, „skejtera“ i drugih, paralelno s terminima poput „pankera“, „navijača“ ili „partijanera“. Proces kojim neki mladi čovjek postaje „bajker“, odnosno veza između kineziološke aktivnosti i procesa supkulturalizacije, predstavlja glavnu temu ove disertacije. Dosadašnje promatranje BMX scene u Zagrebu omogućuje uvid u proces koji želimo istražiti. U skladu sa znanstveno-istraživačkom tradicijom, etnografsku metodu smatramo najprimjerenijom za dobivanje relevantnih podataka. Ova disertacija podržava i proširuje neke zaključke drugih znanstvenika koji su istraživali ovaj specifični slučaj na drugim lokacijama (Rinehart, 2008, Wheaton i Thorpe, 2011, Wheaton 2019). Kulturna politika unutar ove skupine jedinstvena je i temelji se na prepoznatljivoj povijesti, ideologiji i identitetu. Lifestyle sportovi pružaju važan okvir za razumijevanje empirijskih i teorijskih dokaza i izazova sporta u dvadeset prvom stoljeću. Ovo istraživanje daje vrijedne podatke o stavovima lokalnih BMX vozača o komercijalizaciji lifestyle sporta i uključivanju njihovog sporta u program Olimpijskih igara. U svojim naporima da ubrzaju uključivanje akcijskih sportova u olimpijski program, MOK (Međunarodni olimpijski odbor) uključio ih je s malo znanja o jedinstvenim kulturnim vrijednostima ili praktičnim zahtjevima sudionika u lifestyle sportu. Mnogi sudionici vide potencijalni gubitak autonomije unutar strogih olimpijskih struktura. Međutim, s obzirom na to da je BMX u Hrvatskoj još uvijek nedovoljno poznat, vozači vide dobrobiti uključivanja u program Olimpijskih igara, a to su rast popularnosti i napredak samog sporta. Iako će brak između lifestyle sportova i Olimpijskih igara zasigurno pridonijeti popularnosti BMX-a širom svijeta, može se pretpostaviti da će doći do daljnjeg razdora unutar BMX scene s obzirom na to da Olimpijske igre isključuju srž i prave vrijednosti lifestyle sporta, barem iz perspektive vozača. Ovaj metodološki pristup može pomoći u rasvjetljavanju složene dinamike komercijalizacije u lifestyle sportu. The subculturalization process is mainly associated with social actors who use music or winding for a football club as a basis for creating their own lifestyle and identity. Less known is that kinesiological activities or a sport can serve young people as a basis for creating subcultural style and identity. Except in one part of the academic community (mostly abroad), there is no research of subculturalization process based on kinesiological (or sport) activities in this region. Although in few national studies of youth subcultures, we can find terms which refer to this process (Perasović, 2001), at the same time among young people, in their everyday communication, we can often find terms that indicate the identity of "bikers", "snowboarders", "skaters" and the other, parallel with terms such as "punks", “football fans "or" clubbers ". How a young man becomes a " biker”, what is the connection between kinesiological activities and subculturalization process, will be the main theme of this dissertation. The previous observation and knowledge of the "BMX scene" in Zagreb provides insight into the process we want to explore. According to scientific research tradition in this area, ethnographic method seemed most appropriate for obtaining relevant data. This research therefore supports and extends some of the conclusions drawn by other scholars who have investigated this specific case (Rinehart, 2008, Wheaton and Thorpe, 2011, Wheaton 2019). The cultural politics within this group is unique, based on a distinctive history, ideology and identity. Lifestyle sports provide an important lens for understanding the empirical and theoretical trajectories and challenges of sport in the twenty-first century. This research provides valuable information about local BMX riders’ attitudes to the commercialization of lifestyle sports, and their inclusion in the Olympic Games. In their efforts to fast-track the inclusion of action sports into the Olympic program, the IOC (International Olympic Committee) incorporated them with little knowledge of the unique cultural values or practical requirements of lifestyle sports participants. Many participants see a potential loss of autonomy within the Olympic structures. However, since BMX is still not well known in Croatia, the riders see the benefits of inclusion only in the popularity and progress of the sport itself. While the marriage between action sports and the Olympic Games will certainly add to the popularity of BMX worldwide, it can be assumed that there will be a further rift within the BMX scene given that the Olympics exclude the core and genuine values of lifestyle sports, at least from the perspectives of riders. This methodological approach can help shed further light on the complex dynamics of commercialization in lifestyle sports.

Primarni cilj ovog rada bio je istražiti koje su odrednice društvenog kapitala povezane s dobrostanjem adolescenata tijekom pandemije bolesti COVID-19. Istraživanje je obuhvatilo 317 sudionika koji su tijekom 2021. godine pohađali završni razred srednjih škola (gimnazijskog i strukovnih smjerova) iz četiri najveća grada u Republici Hrvatskoj: Zagreb (n=82), Split (n=80), Rijeka (n=65), Osijek (n=90). Sudionici su bili u dobi između 17 i 20 godina. Podaci su prikupljeni tako što su sudionici istraživanja ispunjavali anketni upitnik pod nazivom „Društveni kapital i subjektivna procjena dobrostanja adolescenata tijekom pandemije bolesti COVID-19“ koji se je sastojao od četiri dijela. U prvom dijelu upitnika sudionici istraživanja ispunjavali su demografske podatke, subjektivnu procjenu vlastitog zdravlja i razinu obrazovanja oba roditelja. Drugi dio upitnika sastojao se od globalno korištenog Kesslerovog upitnika koji procjenjuje rizik od razvoja mentalnih poremećaja. Treći dio upitnika sastojao se od pitanja za procjenu tjelesne aktivnosti učenika u uobičajenom tjednu (GPAQ), a četvrti dio upitnika procjenjivao je društveni kapital u obitelji, susjedstvu i školi upitnikom društvenog kapitala. Uz kvantitativne metode istraživanja primijenjena je i kvalitativna metoda u obliku polustrukturiranog intervjua licem u lice. Iz svakog grada obuhvaćeno je po šest sudionika. Ukupno su odabrana 24 sudionika i to slučajnim odabirom. Po šest iz Zagreba, Splita, Rijeke i Osijeka tako da su obuhvaćeni gimnazijski, strukovni tehnički i obrtnički obrazovni programi. Kombinirana metodologija istraživanja ponudila je dublju analizu u razmišljanja sudionika o temi društvenog kapitala i subjektivne procjene dobrostanja tijekom pandemije bolesti COVID-19. Za sve kategorijske varijable izračunate su frekvencije, a za set zavisnih varijabli društvenog kapitala izračunati su osnovni statistički parametri (aritmetička sredina (AS), standardna devijacija (SD), minimalni rezultat (MIN), maksimalni rezultat (MAX), medijan (MED), mjera asimetrije (A3), mjera zakrivljenosti (A4)) i Kolmogorov-Smirnovljev test normaliteta distribucije. Zbog standardnih problema s mjernim karakteristikama varijabli na skali Likertovog tipa svim navedenim zavisnim varijablama priloženi su histogrami frekvencija. Razlike između grupa u kategorijskim varijablama SPOL i razina obrazovanja roditelja (ROR) prema setu varijabli društvenog kapitala izračunate su Mann-Whitney U testom. Razlike između grupa u kategorijskim varijablama GRAD i obrazovni program (OP) prema setu varijabli društvenog kapitala izračunate su Kruskal-Wallis testom. Razlika između kategorijskih varijabli SPOL, GRAD, OP i ROR u odnosu na kategorijsku varijablu ZDRAVLJE izračunata je Pearsonovim hi-kvadrat testom, a povezanost među varijablama je izračunata koeficijentom kontigencije. Razina značajnosti promatrana u svim navedenim testovima korigirana je Bonferonijevom korekcijom za kontrolu Family wise error rate (FWER). Povezanost varijable ZDRAVLJE sa setom varijabli društvenog kapitala u obitelji, zatim varijable RIZIK sa setom varijabli društvenog kapitala u susjedstvu, te varijable tjelesna aktivnost (TA) sa setom varijabli društvenog kapitala u školi istražena je sigmoidnom funkcijom logističke regresijske analize. Logističkom regresijskom analizom izračunate su i vrijednosti omnibus testa, Hosmer i Lemeshow testa, Cox i Snellov i Nagelkarkeov koeficijent determinacije, ukupni postotak uspješne klasifikacije prediktivnog modela u odnosu na nul model, te su izračunati koeficijenti regresijske jednadžbe i njihova razina značajnosti. Podaci su obrađeni s programima Microsoft Excel (verzija 2017) i TIBCO Statistica (verzija 13.5), uz izuzetak logističke regresijske analize koja je obrađena programom IBM SPSS Statistics (verzija 23). Rezultati upućuju da su podrška i ohrabrenje roditelja, te zajedničke obiteljske aktivnosti povećale percipiranu vrijednost subjektivne procjene zdravlja kod adolescenata. Također, podrška obitelji koju doživljavaju adolescenti tijekom pandemije bolesti COVID-19 pozitivno je povezana sa zdravim životnim stilovima članova uže obitelji. Rezultati neformalne društvene kontrole sugeriraju kako većina sudionika ne doživljava svoju okolinu kao oslonac za zaštitu i unaprjeđenje mentalnog zdravlja tijekom pandemije bolesti COVID-19. Razina međusobne povezanosti među učenicima pozitivno utječe na ukupnu razinu tjelesne aktivnosti. Naime, sudjelovanje u izvannastavnim aktivnostima ili strukturiranim aktivnostima unutar škole za 37% povećava vjerojatnost visoke tjelesne aktivnosti učenika. Rezultati su pokazali da je tijekom pandemije bolesti COVID-19 u domeni društvenog kapitala u obitelji podjela rada u kućanstvu neravnopravna uz puno veći angažman djevojaka. Razlika prema spolu primijećena je i kod veće potrebe za razgovorom o događajima iz škole kod djevojaka. Rezultati društvenog kapitala u školi ukazuju da učenici gimnazijskih razreda najviše participiraju u izvannastavnim školskim aktivnostima, a najmanja angažiranost primijećena je kod učenika obrtničkih programa. Također, učenici koji pohađaju gimnazijski program više se druže sa školskim kolegama u slobodno vrijeme, dok je najmanja socijalna interakcija sa školskim kolegama uočena kod učenika koji pohađaju obrtnički program. Društveni kapital susjedstva upućuje da učenici čiji su roditelji niže razine obrazovanja susjedstvo percipiraju kao sigurnije mjesto u odnosu na predodžbu sigurnosti susjedstva kod učenika čiji su roditelji višeg stupnja obrazovanja. S obzirom na mjesto stanovanja statistički značajnih razlika nema između sudionika istraživanja po varijablama društvenog kapitala i subjektivne procjene zdravlja. Razlike u samoprocjeni zdravlja prema spolu upućuju da je pandemije bolesti COVID-19 negativno utjecala na zdravlje djevojaka. Kombinirana metodologija istraživanja je potvrdila kvantitativne podatke te pružila dublju analizu sudionika kroz primjenu polustrukturiranih intervjua licem u lice, što je rezultiralo boljim razumijevanjem njihovih razmišljanja o društvenom kapitalu i subjektivnoj procjeni dobrostanja tijekom pandemije COVID-19. Ovo istraživanje daje prikaz učinaka društvenog kapitala na dobrostanje adolescenata tijekom pandemije bolesti COVID-19 i temeljne mehanizme koji objašnjavaju te učinke. Rezultati ovog istraživanja ukazuju da snažne društvene veze i norme reciprociteta mogu olakšati upravljanje u kriznim situacijama, te potaknuti pojedince i zajednice na prilagodljive oblike ponašanja u cilju zaštite i unaprjeđenja dobrostanja adolescenata. S obzirom na dinamičnu prirodu pandemije bolesti COVID-19 i moguće nove varijacije sojeva virusa, doprinos ovog istraživanja obogaćen je relevantnim preporukama za očuvanje i unaprjeđenje dobrostanja adolescenata. The primary objective of this study was to explore the determinants of social capital associated with the well-being of adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic. The research included 317 participants who were in their final year of high school (gymnasium and vocational programs) in four major cities in the Republic of Croatia: Zagreb (n=82), Split (n=80), Rijeka (n=65), and Osijek (n=90). The participants were between 17 and 20 years old. Data were collected through a questionnaire titled „Social Capital and Subjective Assessment of Adolescent Well-being during the COVID-19 Pandemic“, which consisted of four parts. In the first part of the questionnaire, research participants provided demographic information, self-assessment of their health, and the educational level of both parents. The second part of the questionnaire consisted of the globally used Kessler Psychological Distress Scale, which assesses the risk of developing mental disorders. The third part of the questionnaire included questions to assess students' physical activity during a typical week (GPAQ), and the fourth part assessed social capital in the family, neighborhood, and school using the Social Capital Questionnaire. In addition to quantitative research methods, a qualitative method in the form of semi-structured face-to-face interviews was also applied. Six participants were selected from each city, making a total of 24 participants, chosen randomly. Six participants were selected from Zagreb, Split, Rijeka, and Osijek, covering gymnasium, vocational technical, and trade educational programs. The combined research methodology provided a deeper analysis of participants' thoughts on the topic of social capital and subjective assessment of well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frequencies were calculated for all categorical variables, while basic statistical parameters (mean, standard deviation, minimum, maximum, median, skewness, and kurtosis) and the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for normality were calculated for the set of dependent variables related to social capital. Due to issues with the measurement characteristics of Likert-type scale variables, frequency histograms were provided for all the mentioned dependent variables. Differences between groups in the categorical variables of gender and parental education level were analyzed using the Mann-Whitney U test, while differences between groups in the categorical variables of city and educational program were analyzed using the Kruskal-Wallis test. Differences between categorical variables of gender, city, educational program, and parental education level with respect to the categorical variable of health were analyzed using the Pearson chi-square test, and the association among variables was calculated using the contingency coefficient. The significance level observed in all the mentioned tests was corrected using the Bonferroni correction to control for family-wise error rate (FWER). The relationship between the variable HEALTH and the set of family social capital variables, the variable RISK and the set of neighborhood social capital variables, as well as the variable physical activity (PA) and the set of school social capital variables were explored using a sigmoidal logistic regression analysis. Logistic regression analysis was used to calculate the values of the omnibus test, Hosmer and Lemeshow test, Cox and Snell's and Nagelkerke's coefficients of determination, the overall percentage of successful classification of the predictive model compared to the null model, and to calculate the regression equation coefficients and their level of significance. The data were processed using Microsoft Excel (version 2017) and TIBCO Statistica (version 13.5), with the exception of the logistic regression analysis which was processed using the IBM SPSS Statistics program (version 23). The results suggest that parental support and encouragement, as well as shared family activities, have increased the perceived value of subjective health assessment among adolescents. Additionally, the family support experienced by adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic is positively associated with healthy lifestyles of immediate family members. The results of informal social control suggest that the majority of participants do not perceive their environment as a support for the protection and improvement of mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. The level of mutual connectedness among students has a positive effect on the overall level of physical activity. Specifically, participation in extracurricular or structured activities within school increases the likelihood of high levels of physical activity in students by 37%. The results showed that during the COVID-19 pandemic, within the domain of family social capital, household chores were distributed unequally with a much higher engagement of girls. A gender difference was also noticed in the greater need for discussing school events among girls. The results of the school social capital indicate that high school students participate the most in extracurricular school activities, while the lowest engagement is observed among students in vocational programs. Additionally, students in the academic program socialize more with their school peers in their free time, while the least social interaction with school peers is observed among students in vocational programs. The neighborhood's social capital suggests that students whose parents have lower levels of education perceive their neighborhood as a safer place compared to the perception of safety among students whose parents have a higher level of education. Regarding the place of residence, there were no statistically significant differences among study participants in terms of social capital variables and subjective health assessment. Differences in self-rated health by gender suggest that the COVID-19 pandemic has had a negative impact on the health of girls. The combined research methodology confirmed the quantitative data and provided a deeper analysis of the participants through the use of semi-structured face-to-face interviews, resulting in a better understanding of their thoughts on social capital and subjective well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study provides an overview of the effects of social capital on adolescent well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic and the underlying mechanisms that explain these effects. The results of this study suggest that strong social ties and reciprocity norms can facilitate crisis management and encourage individuals and communities to adopt adaptive behaviors to protect and enhance adolescent well-being. Given the dynamic nature of the COVID-19 pandemic and the possibility of new variants of the virus, the contribution of this study is enriched with relevant recommendations for preserving and enhancing adolescent well-being.

Sport i fenomeni vezani za sport sociološki su važni jer su povezani s normama i vrijednostima šireg društva pa se na tom tragu postavlja pitanje uloge sporta kao sredstva stvaranja rodno ravnopravnijih tj. egalitarnijih društvenih odnosa. Koristeći kompleksnu mješovitu metodologiju istražilo se koje su i kakve reakcije studenata i studentica na iskustva bavljenja tipično muškim i tipično ženskim sportom te na koji način takva iskustva mijenjaju stavove o rodnoj ravnopravnosti u sportu i percepciju rodnih uloga. Podatci za kvalitativne dionice istraživanja prikupljeni su polustrukturiranim intervjuima s elementima dubinskog na uzorku dvadeset studenata/ica Kineziološkog fakulteta Sveučilišta u Zagrebu te etnografskom dionicom istraživanja tijekom koje je promatrana jedna grupa studenata na nastavi Ritmičke gimnastike, jedna grupa studenata na nastavi Nogometa, jedna grupa studentica na nastavi Ritmičke gimnastike i jedna grupa studentica na nastavi Nogometa. Tematskom analizom podataka izdvojeno je pet tema, a ključni nalazi ukazuju kako je većina sugovornika/ica svjesna rodne tipizacije sportova, utjecaja medija na popularizaciju sporta i marginalizaciju žena u sportu. Sugovornici/ce podržavaju majčinstvo profesionalnih sportašica i njihov povratak na sportske terene nakon poroda. O tome kakav je nastavni plan i program za studentice i studente Kineziološkog fakulteta Sveučilišta u Zagrebu sugovornici/ce ne razmišljaju. Zadatke koje dobivaju tijekom studija ispunjavaju bez pogovora, ne analiziraju i ne propitkuju te su u svakom trenutku usmjereni na postizanje cilja – polaganje ispita. Studenti/ce na nastavu kolegija Nogomet i Ritmička gimnastika dolaze neopterećeni predrasudama o tome je li neki sport više „ženski“ ili „muški“, je li vježbanje na određenom kolegiju prikladno za njih ili nije, je li šut na gol odraz „muškosti“ i jesu li „graciozni“ pokreti dokaz „ženskosti“. U provedbi kvantitativnog dijela istraživanja koristila se metoda ankete te je u dvije točke mjerenja prikupljen 161 valjano ispunjen anketni upitnik. Rezultati kvantitativnih dionica istraživanja pokazuju da sudionici/ce ovog istraživanja, nakon sudjelovanja u tipično muškom i tipično ženskom sportu, pokazuju manje egalitarne stavove prema rodnoj ravnopravnosti sportu. Stavovi o rodnim ulogama na podskalama rodna radna egalitarnost i reproduktivna prava nisu se mijenjali dok su promjene u smjeru rodne neravnopravnosti detektirane na podskalama tradicionalizam i obrazovno-profesionalna egalitarnost. Studentice i u prvom i u drugom valu istraživanja pokazuju egalitarnije stavove od studenata kako prema rodnoj ravnopravnosti sportu tako i prema rodnim ulogama. Na skali rodne neravnopravnosti u sportu i na svim podskalama rodnih stavova nema statistički značajne razlike između sudionika koji su upisali/odslušali kolegij Nogomet i onih koji su upisali/odslušali kolegij Ritmička gimnastika. U radu su utvrđeni prediktori rodne ravnopravnosti u sportu i rodnih stavova. Jedini prediktor rodne ravnopravnosti u sportu pokazao se spol. Studentice iskazuju egalitarnije stavove o rodnoj ravnopravnosti u sportu. Prediktor rodnih stavova na svim podskalama je spol dok se religijsko uvjerenje i godina studija pokazuju kao prediktori reproduktivnih prava te veličina naselja u kojoj su sudionici proveli veći dio života kao prediktor tradicionalnih rodnih stavova. Sport and phenomena related to sport are sociologically important because they are connected to the norms and values of the wider society, so the question of the role of sport as a means of creating more gender-equal, i.e. more egalitarian social relations arises in this direction. Using a complex mixed methodology, the kind of reactions male and female students have to the experiences of playing typically male and typically female sports were investigated, and also how such experiences change attitudes about gender equality in sports and the perception of gender roles. Data for the qualitative parts of the research were collected through semi-structured interviews with in-depth elements on a sample of twenty students of the Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, and the ethnographic part of the research, during which one group of male students was observed in Rhythmic Gymnastics classes, one group of male students in Football classes, one group of female students in Rhythmic Gymnastics classes and one group of female students in Football classes. The thematic analysis of the data identified five topics: 1. Men's and women's sports, media, female athletes, 2. Curriculum of the Faculty of Kinesiology – everyone everything 3.Football classes 4. Rhythmic Gymnastics classes and 5. After taking the Football and Rhythmic Gymnastics courses. The interviewees are aware of the gender typification of sports, the influence of the media on the popularization of sports and the marginalization of women in sports. Particularly egalitarian views were expressed on the topic of motherhood and sports. The interviewees support the motherhood of professional athletes and their return to sports fields after childbirth. The interviewees do not think about what the curriculum is like for male and female students of the Faculty of Kinesiology at the University of Zagreb. They complete the tasks they receive during their studies without question, they do not analyze or question them, and they are always focused on achieving the goal - passing the exam. Students come to Football and Rhythmic Gymnastics classes unencumbered by prejudices about whether a sport is more "feminine" or "masculine", whether practicing within a certain course is suitable for them or not, whether shooting at a goal is a reflection of "masculinity" and whether "graceful" movements are a proof of "femininity". In the implementation of the quantitative part of the research, a survey method was used, an online survey technique using the Microsoft Forms tool, at two measurement points - at the beginning of the research and after fifteen weeks of the Football and Rhythmic Gymnastics courses attended by the participants. In total, 161 validly completed questionnaires were collected at both measurement points, which were used in further analyses. The results of the quantitative parts of the research show that after participating in typically male and typically female sports, participants show less egalitarian attitudes towards gender equality in sports and that female students in both the first and second waves of the research show more egalitarian attitudes towards gender equality in sports than male students. On the gender inequality scale in sports, there is no statistically significant difference between the participants who enrolled in/finished the Football course and those who enrolled in/finished the Rhythmic Gymnastics course. Attitudes towards gender roles on the subscales of gender work egalitarianism and reproductive rights did not change after participating in typically male and typically female sports in the total sample, while changes towards gender inequality were detected on the subscales of traditionalism and educational-professional egalitarianism. Female students expressed more egalitarian attitudes related to gender than male students in both the first and second waves of the study. No statistically significant differences were found between participants who enrolled in/finished the Football course and those who enrolled in/finished the Rhythmic Gymnastics course on the gender attitudes subscales. Predictors of gender equality in sport and gender attitudes were determined in the paper. Sex proved to be the only predictor of gender equality in sport, but also a predictor of gender attitudes on all subscales. This finding suggests that female students are more likely to express gender egalitarian attitudes than male students. Religious belief and year of study were shown to be predictors of reproductive rights; participants in higher years of study and those who are mostly non-religious express more egalitarian attitudes towards women's reproductive rights. The size of the settlement where the participants spent most of their lives proved to be a significant predictor of traditional gender attitudes, where participants from smaller settlements were more likely to express traditional gender attitudes.

Sport mladih u zadnje je vrijeme postao tema interesa brojnih istraživanja koja se provode s ciljem poticanja optimalnog razvoja sportaša i pružanja podrške svim uključenim osobama. Sudjelovanje djeteta u sportskim aktivnostima može biti značajan izvor stresa za njihove roditelje. Bez obzira na to, tek se manji broj istraživanja bavio ispitivanjem stresa roditelja sportaša. Cilj ovog istraživanja bio je ispitati psihološki stres i strategije suočavanja roditelja djece koja se bave borilačkim sportovima. Kao teorijski okvir korištene su Transakcijska teorija stresa Lazarusa i Folkmana te Lazarusova Kognitivno-motivacijsko-relacijska teorija (CMRT). U istraživanju je sudjelovalo 199 roditelja čija se djeca bave borilačkim sportovima. Prvi problem u ovom istraživanju bio je ispitati koje stresore doživljavaju roditelji djece koja se bave borilačkim sportovima vezano uz sportski razvoj svoje djece. Rezultati ukazuju na to da roditelji sportaša doživljavaju brojne natjecateljske, organizacijske i razvojne stresore čime je potvrđena konzistentnost sličnih nalaza u kontekstima različitih sportova. Drugi problem u ovom istraživanju bio je ispitati rodne razlike u procjenama stresora, načinima suočavanja sa stresom i doživljenim emocijama roditelja sportaša. Rezultati upućuju na zaključak da se majke i očevi djece sportaša ne razlikuju značajno u načinima na koji procjenjuju stresore, kao ni u strategijama suočavanja koje koriste u suočavanju sa stresorima vezanim uz sport svoje djece. S druge strane, u ovom je istraživanju dobivena razlika u emocijama koje doživljavaju majke i očevi mladih sportaša pri čemu su majke doživljavale više razine anksioznosti, uzbuđenja i sreće u odnosu na očeve. Treći problem bio je ispitati prediktivnost procjena stresora za načine suočavanja sa stresorima koje koriste roditelji sportaša. Rezultati našeg istraživanja pokazuju da su procjena kontrole i procjena gubitka pozitivni prediktori strategije suočavanja koja je usmjerena na rješavanje problema. Nadalje, rezultati ovog istraživanja pokazali su da se procjena gubitaka jedina pokazala značajnim i pozitivnim prediktorom strategije suočavanja usmjerene na ventiliranje emocija. Naposljetku, procjene kontrole i gubitka pokazale su se pozitivnim prediktorima strategije suočavanja usmjerene na izbjegavanje situacije i traženje distrakcije. Četvrti problem na koji se željelo odgovoriti ovim istraživanjem bio je ispitati prediktivnost procjena stresora i načina suočavanja za ugodne i neugodne emocije koje roditelji sportaša doživljavaju kao reakciju na stresore vezane za sport svoje djece. Vezano uz ugodne emocije, rezultati ovog istraživanja pokazuju da je procjena stresora kao dobitaka pozitivan prediktor uzbuđenja i sreće, te da je procjena stresora kao gubitaka negativan prediktor sreće. Vezano uz neugodne emocije, procjena stresa kao gubitka i suočavanje sa stresom putem ventiliranja emocija pokazali su se kao pozitivni prediktori anksioznosti, ljutnje i utučenosti. Nadalje, doživljaj stresora kao dobitak pokazao se negativnim prediktorom ljutnje i utučenosti. Istraživanje pridonosi razumijevanju roditeljskog stresa u sportskom kontekstu, točnije razumijevanju doživljavanja stresa i suočavanja sa stresom roditelja djece koja se bave borilačkim sportovima. Introduction: Youth sport has recently become topic of interest in growing number of research. They are conducted with general aim of fostering the optimal development of young athletes as well as providing support to people involved in youth sports. In these research, the focus is put not only on the athletes and their coaches, but also on the parents who represent an important part of their children's sport experience (Wuerth et al., 2004). Alongside of coaches, parents are the most important adults involved in youth sport (Byrne, 1993) and their role remains important even when sport activities reach the level of elite sport (Gould et al., 2002). However, past research suggests that parents experiece different types of stressors and use numerous coping strategies to cope with them (Burgess et al., 2016; Harwood & Knight, 2009a,b; Harwood et al., 2019). Therefore, it can be concluded that supporting children in ther sport participation can bring in many positive experiences for their parents, but also represent an unique challenge because role of the sport parent is not an easy one and requires many sacrifices (Wiersma & Fifer, 2008). There are numerous studies that have investigated stress, stress appraisal and coping among athletes and coaches (Britton et al.,2019; Crocker & Graham, 1995; Didymus, 2017; Doron & Martinent, 2016; Dugdale et al., 2002; Gaudreau & Blondin, 2002; Levy et al., 2009). However, only a small number of studies investigated stress of parents in sport context (Burgess et al., 2016; Harwood et al., 2019; Harwood et al., 2010; Harwood & Knight, 2009a,b). Two theories are most commonly used as theoretical framework in this area: (1) Transactional theory of stress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) and (2) Cognitive-motivationalrelational theory (Lazarus, 1991, 1999, 2000). Lazarus and Folkman (1984) define psychological stress as a relationship between a person and it's environment when the person experiencing stress assesses it as reaching or exceeding his/her available resources and jeopardizing his/her well-being. In doing so, cognitive apraisal and coping with stress are considered fundamental theoretical constructs of stress and emotions that together constitute the process (Lazarus, 1999). According to the aforementioned theories, this process begins with the individual facing an environmental requirement (stressor) that is estimated as important for his personal well-being and which either threatens that well-being or is greater than the resources that the person estimates he has (Lazarus, 1999; Lazarus and Folkman, 1984). The psychological meaning that a person constructs about what happens (the so-called cognitive appraisal) is crucial in creating the reaction of stress and the emotions that arise from it (Lazaurs, 1999). Building on Transactional theory of stress (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984), Cognitive-motivational-relational theory (CMRT; Lazarus, 1991) describes 3 levels of this process: (1) antecedents (environmental and personal factors), (2) mediation processes (stressor appraisals, readiness for action and coping) and (3) outcomes (immediate: physiological changes, affect, quality of outcomes, and long-term: social functioning, wellbeing and physical health/disease). Research aim and problems: Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine the psychological stress and coping strategies of parents of children engaged in martial arts. Whithin this aim the four problems are stated: (1) Examine what stressors are experienced by parents of children who play martial arts related to the sports development of their children (2) Examine whether there are gender differences in stress appraisals, ways of coping with stress and emotions of parents of athletes, (3) Examine the predictiveness of stress appraisals for ways of coping with stressors used by the parents of athletes and (4) Examine the predictiveness of stress appraisals and coping methods for the pleasant and unpleasant emotions that parents of athletes experience as a reaction to stressors related to their children's sports. Methods: A total of 199 parents participated in this study. There were 61 (30.7%) fathers and 138 (69.3%) mothers. Average age of parents was 42.7 (SD = 5.76) years. Parents reffered to (61.3%) boys and 77 (38.7%) girls. Average age of their children was 11.8 (SD = 3.27) years. Parents reported that their children were involved in following sports: judo (N=125; 62.8%), taekwondo (N=33; 16.6%), karate (N=30; 15.1%), wrestling (N=6; 3%) and kickboxing (N=5; 2.5%). Accoring to parents, their children were involved in martial arts for average of 5.68 (SD = 3.22) years. The stressors that parents experience were measured with one open-ended question. All the following questionnaires were filled in reference to that particular stressor. Stress appraisal was measured using the Stress appraisal measure (Peacock & Wong, 1990) expanded with subscales of loss and benefit which are adapted from the research conducted by Thompson and colleagues (2020). After that, participants filled the Coping of sports parents questionnaire constructed for this research. Furthermore, in order to measure the emotions of parents the Sport emotion questionnaire (Jones i sur. 2005) was used. Qualitative hierarchical content analysis was used to answer the first research problem. MANOVA and multilevel regression analysis were used to answer the second, third and fourth research problems. Results and discussion: The results confirm that the parents of athletes experience numerous competitive, organisational and developmental stressors, thus confirming the consistency of similar findings in the contexts of different sports. Furthermore, the results indicate that there is no statistically significant differences between mothers and fathers of young athletes in the ways in which they appraise stressors, as well as in the coping strategies they use in dealing with stressors related to their children's sports. On the other hand, this study confirmed a difference in the emotions experienced by mothers and fathers of young athletes. Mothers experienced higher levels of anxiety, excitment and happiness related to the stressor compared to fathers. Related to the third research problem, resutls of this study indicate that control appraisal and loss appraisal are positive predictors of the problem solving coping strategy. Participants who assessed that they had a higher level of control over the situation and who assessed the stressful situation to a greater extent as a loss used the coping strategy aimed at solving the problem more. Furthermore, the loss appraisal was the only one that proved to be a significant and positive predictor of the venting emotions coping strategy. In particular, participants who assessed stressors to a greater extent as losses made greater use of a coping strategy aimed at venting emotions. Control and loss appraisals proved to be a positive predictor of the avoiding the situation and seeking distraction coping strategy. The parents that perceived they had more control over the stressful situation and who assessed the stressful situation to a large extent as a loss, used the coping strategy of avoiding the situation and seeking distraction more often. Regarding pleasant emotions, the results of our research indicate that the gains appraisal is a positive predictor of emotions of excitment and happiness, and that the loss appraisal is a negative predictor of the emotion of happiness. Participants who assessed stressors more as gain experienced higher levels of excitement and happiness, and participants who evaluated stressors more as losses experienced lower levels of happiness. Regarding unpleasant emotions, loss appraisal and coping with stress through venting emotions have proven to be statistically significant and positive predictors of anxiety, anger and dejection. Participants who assessed the situation more as a loss and who made greater use of the coping strategy of venting emotions experienced higher levels of unpleasant emotions (anxiety, anger and dejection). Furthermore, the gain appraisal has proven to be a negative predictor of anger and dejection. Conclusion: This research represents a significant step forward in understanding parents’ stress in sport context because it represents the first such research conducted in Croatia and certainly one of the few conducted outside the territory of Great Britain. Also, this study is the first study to examine the stress faced by parents of children engaged in martial arts and the first to involve parents from multiple sports. Furthermore, this study took into account the categories of primary appraisal used in the study conducted by Harwood and colleagues (2019), as well as secondary appraisal, and linked them to the emotions and coping strategies of athletes' parents. This methodology is logical with regard to theoretical constructs in the field (Lazarus, 1991, 1999, 2000; Lazarus and Folkman, 1984) and has not been used before in any study of stress that parents of the athletes experience. Although there are numerous studies of how other participants are coping with stress in a sporting context (e.g. Britton et al., 2019; Didymus, 2017; Nicholls et al., 2005) the methodologies used in them are very different and there is no consensus on the most appropriate one. There are several questionnaires that are designed to measure how to cope with stress, both in general and within the sports context, but none of them have so far been used on a sample of athletes' parents. So the logical next step was to construct and validate new coping questionnaire aimed at parents of the young athletes which has been done in this study. Also, two questionnaires (Stress appraisal measure and Sport emotion questionnaire) has been translated to Croatian, adapted and validated. Lastly, there are no research so far which investigated gender differences in stress appraisal, coping and emotions of parents in sport context. Therefore, this research will contribute in understanding of how these concepts differ according to the gender of parents. At the end it is important to mention that this research is the first research of athlete's parents stressors conducted during and after the Covid-19 pandemic which provide an unique opportunity to investigate the scope of influence that pandemic had on parents in sport. The main limitation of this study is low number of participants and the fact that information about stressors, appraisal, coping and emotion were collected retrospectivelly and not during the stressful event.

CILJ: Cilj ovog istraživanja je, usporedbom učinkovitosti Bobath koncepta i konvencionalne medicinske gimnastike kao dva najčešće korištena habilitacijska koncepta, dokazati da ne postoji razlika učinkovitosti ispitivanih habilitacijskih programa, odnosno da će pravovremena i pravilna primjena starijeg i jeftinijeg programa konvencionalne medicinske gimnastike u jednakoj mjeri dovesti do redukcije neuromotoričkih odstupanja kao novija i skuplja Bobath habilitacijska metoda. Time bi se identificirala optimalna metoda liječenja, što bi dovelo do konsenzusa struke. METODE: Istraživanjem je obuhvaćeno 100 djece starosti do 3 mjeseca s dijagnozom blagog neuromotoričkog odstupanja potvrđenog od strane dječjeg fizijatra temeljem kliničkog pregleda, testa Münchenske funkcionalne razvojne dijagnostike za 1. godinu života te Ages and Stages upitnika. Istraživanje se provodilo na Klinici za reumatologiju, fizikalnu medicinu i rehabilitaciju KBC Sestre milosrdnice u trajanju od 6 mjeseci. Ispitanici su randomizirani u dvije skupine metodom računalnog slučajnog odabira. Jedna je skupina habilitirana po Bobath metodi od strane licenciranog Bobath terapeuta frekvencijom od 1 sata tjedno ambulantno te svakodnevno od strane roditelja/ skrbnika tijekom 2 sata dnevno podijeljeno u nekoliko serija ovisno o dnevnim aktivnostima i potrebama djeteta. Druga je skupina istom frekvencijom habilitirana od strane fizioterapeuta i domicilno od strane roditelja/skrbnika metodom konvencionalne medicinske gimnastike. Dojenčad je po dječjem fizijatru klinički pregledana nakon 3 i 6 mjeseci provođenja terapije, kada je ponovljena i procjena navedenim testovima. Pri završnoj procjeni sakupljeni su Dnevnici rada i Upitnici. Rezultati su analizirani od strane nezavisnog statističara. REZULTATI: Rezultati statističke obrade prikupljenih podataka potvrdili su hipotezu i ciljeve istraživanja. Promatrani parametri bili su fina i gruba motorika, vještina rješavanja problema i komunikacije te psiho-socijalni status dojenčeta. Usporedbom dvaju habilitacijskih metoda nije nađeno statistički značajne razlike učinkovitosti po pitanju redukcije odstupanja nakon 3 mjeseca provođenja terapije. Također, obje su metode dovele do normalizacije promatranih parametara nakon 6 mjeseci provođenja habilitacije. ZAKLJUČAK: Ovim istraživanjem dokazana je jednaka učinkovitost dviju ispitivanih habilitacijskih programa u liječenju blagog neuromotiričkog odstupanja dojenčadi nakon 6 mjeseci provođenja terapije. Ukazana je potreba za što ranijim postavljanjem dijagnoze i početkom stimulacije kroz preporučen proces habilitacije, s ciljem minimaliziranja neuromotoričkog odstupanja u fazi najveće plastičnosti mozga. Jednako tako, istraživanjem je dokazana jednaka učinkovitost jeftinijeg i starijeg koncepta konvencionalne medicinske gimnastike i novijeg i skupljeg Bobath koncepta habilitacije, čime je postavljen temelj konsenzusa struke prilikom odabira optimalne metode liječenja dojenčadi s blagim neuromotoričkim odstupanjem. AIM: The main objective of this research was, by comparing the effectiveness of the Bobath concept and conventional medical gymnastics, as the two most commonly used habilitation concepts, to prove that there is no difference in the effectiveness of habilitation programs. Timely and correct execution of the older and cheaper program of conventional medical gymnastics will equally lead to reduction of neuromotor disorder as a newer and more expensive Bobath habilitation method. This would identify the optimal method of treatment, which would lead to professional consensus of physiatrists. METHODS: The study included 100 children up to 3 months of age with diagnosed mild neuromotor disorder confirmed by a pediatric physiatrist based on a clinical examination, the Münich Functional Developmental Diagnostic Test for the 1st year of life, and the Ages and Stages questionnaire. The research was conducted at the Clinic for Rheumatology, Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation of the Sisters of Charity Hospital Zagreb for 6 months. The respondents were randomized into two groups using the computer random selection method. One group was habilitated according to the Bobath method by a licensed Bobath therapist with a frequency of 1 hour per week on an outpatient basis and daily by parents/guardians for 2 hours per day divided into several series depending on the daily activities and needs of the child. The second group was habilitated with the same frequency by a physiotherapist and at home by parents/guardians using the method of conventional medical gymnastics. The infants were clinically examined by a pediatric physiatrist after 3 and 6 months of therapy, when the assessment with the mentioned tests was repeated. During the final assessment, work diaries and questionnaires were collected. The results were analyzed by an independent statistician. RESULTS: The results of statistical analysis of collected data confirmed the hypothesis and objectives of the research. The observed parameters were fine and gross motor skills, problem-solving and communication skills, and the infant's psycho-social status. By comparing the two habilitation methods, no statistically significant differences in effectiveness were found in the reduction of deviations after 3 months of therapy. Also, both methods led to the normalization of the observed parameters after 6 months of habilitation. CONCLUSION: This research proved the equal effectiveness of two tested habilitation programs in mild neuromotor disorder treatment in infants after 6 months of therapy. The need for the earliest possible diagnosis and the beginning of stimulation through the recommended habilitation process was indicated, with the aim of minimizing neuromotor disorder during the phase of brain's greatest plasticity. Also, this research proved the equal effectiveness of the cheaper and older concept of conventional medical gymnastics and the newer and more expensive Bobath concept of habilitation, which laid the foundation for professional consensus when choosing the optimal treatment method for infants with mild neuromotor disorder.

Cilj istraživanja je utvrditi povezanost socioemocionalnog i motoričkog razvoja, ali i njihovu razvojnu i spolnu uvjetovanost na uzorku djece predškolske dobi. U istraživanju je sudjelovalo ukupno 563 djece, djevojčica i dječaka u dobi od tri do sedam godina starosti, koji polaze dječje vrtiće u gradu Zagrebu te njihovi roditelji. Kako bi glavni cilj bio istražen postavljeni su parcijalni ciljevi koji su utvrđivali povezanost ukupnog motoričkog i socioemocionalnog razvoja djece predškolske dobi na cjelokupnom uzorku, povezanost manipulativog motoričkog i socioemocionalnog razvoja, lokomotornog motoričkog i socioemocionalnog razvoja po dobnim skupinama i po spolu. Razina socioemocionalnog razvoja procjenjivana je upitnikom „Ages and Stages Questionnaire: Social Emotional - Second edition (Squires, i sur., 2015), a stupanj motoričkog razvoja s testovima: “Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency- Second Edition˝ short form (Bruininks i Bruininks, 2005) i „The Test of Gross Motor Development- Second Edition“ (Urlich, 2000). Upitnik za procjenu socioemocionalnog razvoja preveden je i prilagođen te su njegove mjerne karakteristike provjerene u pilot istraživanju (Masnjak i sur., 2016). Dosadašnja istraživanja ukazala su na povezanost socioemocionalne i motoričke razvojne domene, no u ovom se istraživanju nastojala utvrditi i povezanost ovisna o dobi i spolu djece predškolske dobi. Uzorak je podijeljen na poduzorke prema dobi, odnosno dobne skupine od tri do četiri godine, od četiri do pet godina, od pet do šest godina i od šest do sedam godina. Podaci su analizirani primjenom kanoničke korelacijske analize i kanoničke korelacijske analize kovarijanci tj. kvazikanoničke korelacijske analize. Postavljeno je devet hipoteza i u svima je potvrđena statistički značajna povezanost socioemocionalnog i lokomotornog i manipulativnog motoričkog razvoja na cjelokupnom uzorku i prema dobi i spolu. Ispitivana je povezanost ukupnog motoričkog razvoja te lokomotornog i manipulativnog zasebno. Kanoničkom korelacijskom analizom nisu nađene statistički značajne povezanosti u svim hipotezama, no primjenom kanoničke korelacijske analize kovarijanci utvrđene su statistički značajne povezanosti za sve postavljene hipoteze. Utvrđena je značajna pozitivna povezanost između motoričkog i socioemocionalnog razvoja na cjelokupnom uzorku djece predškolske dobi. Također je utvrđena značajna pozitivna povezanost socioemocionalnog i lokomotornog te manipulativnog motoričkog razvoja na cjelokupnom uzorku. Analizom po dobnim skupinama utvrđena je značajna pozitivna povezanost motoričkog i socioemocionalnog razvoja u svim dobnim skupinama. Također je utvrđenastatistički značajna pozitivna povezanost između socioemocionalnog razvoja i lokomotornog i manipulativnog motoričkog razvoja, dok se struktura povezanosti razvojnih domena razlikovala s obzirom na dobne skupine. Analizom po spolu utvrđena je povezanost između motoričkog i socioemocionalnog razvoja i kod dječaka i kod djevojčica. Također je utvrđena i značajna povezanost između socioemocionalnog razvoja i lokomotornog i manipulativnog motoričkog razvoja i kod djevojčica i kod dječaka koja se razlikuje po strukturi povezanosti. Zbog malih uzoraka i reprezentativnosti samo za grad Zagreb postoji ograničenje generalizacije dobivenih rezultata. Dobiveni rezultati mogu omogućiti bolje razumijevanje povezanosti dviju razvojnih domena, jer je primjenjenim analizama dobivena i priroda odnosno struktura th povezanosti. Također mogu pomoći u planiranja i stvaranja preduvjeta za kreiranje dobno primjerenih programa za usvajanje motoričkih znanja u predškolskoj dobi. Doprinos ovog istraživanja ogleda se u tome što se rezultati i nove spoznaje mogu primijeniti i u smjernicama za neposredni praktični rad s djecom i u vidu planiranja i provođenja intervencija kada se utvrdi odstupanje od tipičnog razvoja kod djece. Primjenom motoričkih aktivnosti koje uključuju lokomotorne i manipulativne vještine može se potaknuti razvoj socioemocionalnih vještina, tj. pospješiti razvoj samoregulacije, suradnje, adaptivnog funkcioniranja, afekata, autonomije i socijalne komunikacije odnosno interakcije s odraslima i vršnjacima. Također je moguće i obrnuto, potaknuti motorički razvoj kroz primjenu socioemocionalnih aktivnosti, tj. dječjom igrom. Time dobiveni rezultati omogućavaju i unapređenje znanja o razvoju djeteta i pridonose kvaliteti obrazovanja stručnjaka u radu sa djecom predškolske dobi. The aim of this study is to determine not only the intercorrelation between the social-emotional and motor proficiency developmental domains, but also their age and gender determination. The sample included a total of 563 children attending preschool facilities in the city of Zagreb, aged from three to seven years and of both sexes, and their parents. Social-emotional development was assessed using the Ages and Stages Questionnaire: Social emotional- Second edition (Squires, Bricker & Twombly, 2015), the motor proficiency domain was assessed using the Bruininks- Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency - Second Edition˝ short form (Bruininks and Bruininks, 2005) and The Test of Gross Motor Development - Second Edition (Urlich, 2000) for locomotor and manipulative skills. For the purposes of this study the Ages and Stages Questionnaire: Social Emotional - Second edition (Squires, et al., 2015) was translated into Croatian and adapted, and the metric characteristics were checked in a pilot study (Masnjak, Fulgosi- Masnjak & Masnjak Šušković, 2016). Research has already shown the connection between the developmental domains of social-emotional and motor proficiency. The aim of this study was to determine if there is a connection between social and emotional and motor development among preschool children within the whole sample, as well as according to age and gender. The sample was divided into subsample groups by age: from three to four years old, from four to five years old, from five to six years old and from six to seven years old. The data obtained were processed using canonical correlation analysis and canonical correlation analysis of covariance, or quasi-canonical correlation analysis because of the small sample sizes and distribution of the results. Nine hypotheses were proposed and confirmed by the statistically significant connections between socio-emotional and motor development. Canonical analysis did not produce statistically significant connections for all the hypotheses, but canonical correlation analysis of covariances (quasi-canonical analysis) determined statistically significant connections for all the hypotheses. A significant positive correlation, assumed in the first hypothesis, between motor and social-emotional development, was established in the entire sample of preschool children and the first hypothesis was confirmed. By applying canonical correlation analysis, one significant relationship was found which indicates the connection between better social communication and better overall motor development, that is: fine motor control, manual coordination, body coordination, and strength, and agility. The results of the quasi-canonical analysis indicate a connection between the developmental domains so that better overall motor development, that is, fine motor control, manual coordination, body coordination and strength and agility, is associated with better social communication, cooperation and self-regulation. The second hypothesis was confirmed because significant connections were established between motor development and the level of socioemotional development in all age groups by quasi-canonical analysis. No significant associations were obtained by applying canonical analysis. For the age group from three to four years, quasi-canonical analysis established a significant relationship, which indicates that children with better self-regulation, cooperation, affects, social communication and interaction with peers are better developed in terms of fine motor control. For the age group from four to five years, we obtained two possible quasi-canonical relationships. The first connection indicates that better overall motor development, that is, fine motor control, manual coordination, body coordination, strength and agility are associated with better interaction with peers and social communication. Another quasi-canonical relationship indicates that better body coordination is associated with better interaction and cooperation with adults. In children aged five to six years, we found a connection based on the correlation between better manual coordination, body coordination and strength and agility, and better self-regulation, cooperation and affects. For the age group of children between six and seven years, we again found two possible quasi-canonical relationships; the first connection indicates that better manual coordination, body coordination, and strength and agility are associated with better self-regulation, cooperation, adaptive functioning, and interaction with peers; and the second that better social communication is associated with better fine motor control. Analysis by gender revealed a positive connection between motor and socioemotional development in both boys and girls. The third hypothesis was confirmed because it assumed significant connections between motor and socioemotional development, and these were extracted by canonical and quasi-canonical analysis in both boys and girls. Canonical analysis revealed a correlation indicating that better social communication is associated with better fine motor control in boys. Quasi-canonical analysis indicated that boys with better self-regulation, cooperation, adaptive functioning and social communication are better in overall motor development, that is, fine motor control, manual coordination, body coordination and strength and agility. In the case of girls, a quasi-canonical relationship was established, which found that girls with better social communication are better in overall motor development: fine motor control, manual coordination, body coordination and strength and agility. A significant positive association was also established between locomotor motor development and socioemotional development, which was assumed in the fourth hypothesis. The canonical analysis established a significant relationship whereby better social communication is associated with better jumps, long jumps and side movements, while the quasi-canonical analysis showed a significant relationship whereby children with better jumps, jumps, long jumps and side movements have better social communication, self-regulation and cooperation. The fifth hypothesis was also confirmed which assumes that there is a statistically significant positive connection between the locomotor motor development and socioemotional development of preschool children with regard to the child's age, that is, significant connections were found in all age groups. For the age group from three to four years, three significant relationships were determined by quasi-canonical analysis: the first showed that children with better self-regulation, adaptive functioning, affects and interaction with adults are better at galloping, jumping and moving sideways; the second one showed that children with better self-regulation, cooperation, autonomy and affects are better at jumping and long jump, but worse at galloping, and the third link showed that children with worse self-regulation, cooperation, adaptive functioning, autonomy and social communication are better in running and jumping. For the age group from four to five years, the results indicated two possible significant quasi-canonical relationships: the first showed that children with better self-regulation, cooperation, adaptive functioning, autonomy, affects, social communication and interaction with adults are worse at running, galloping, jumping and moving sideways, and the second that children with better autonomy and interaction with peers are worse in jumping, long jumping, and moving to the side. For the age group of children between five and six years, two quasi-canonical significant relationships were found: the first quasi-canonical relationship indicated that children with worse affects and interaction with peers are better at jumps, long jumps and sideways movements, and the second indicated that children with better autonomy and affects are better at jumps and gallops. In children aged six to seven years, three significant quasi-canonical relationships were established: the first indicated that children with better affect, cooperation, interaction with adults and interaction with peers are better at galloping and jumping, the second link showed that children with better autonomy, social communication and interaction with peers are better at long jump and jumping, and the third that children with better adaptive functioning and interaction with adults, but worse affects, are worse at jumping. We confirmed the sixth hypothesis, which refers to the fact that there is a significant connection between the locomotor motor development and socio-emotional development of children with regard to the gender of the child, that is, the quasi-canonical analysis found significant connections in both boys and girls. In boys, two quasi-canonical relationships were established: the first indicating that better social communication is associated with better jumps, and the second link indicated that poorer self-regulation, cooperation and interaction with adults is associated with better jumping and worse galloping. In girls, two quasi-canonical relationships were established: the first one indicated that better social communication is associated with better jumps, jumps, long jumps and sideways movements, and the second link also established that better autonomy is associated with worse jumps. A significant connection between manipulative motor development and socioemotional development was also established, thus confirming the seventh hypothesis. Canonical analysis revealed two significant relationships: the first connected the domains whereby better autonomy, social communication, interaction with peers, and interaction with adults are associated with better baseball hitting and catching, and the second connected the domains whereby better self-regulation, adaptive functioning, and interaction with adults are associated with better dribbling and catching a ball, kicking a ball, catching a ball and rolling a ball. Applying quasi-canonical analysis, two significant relationships were also established: the first connected the domains so that better self regulation, cooperation, adaptive functioning and social communication were related to better overall manipulative motor development, that is, hitting, driving and catching a baseball, catching the ball, kicking the ball, throwing the ball and rolling the ball, and the second that better self-regulation, adaptive functioning, autonomy, affect, interaction with peers and interaction with adults are associated with better baseball hitting and kicking. The eighth hypothesis was confirmed relating to the fact that there is a significant positive connection between manipulative motor development and socioemotional development of children with regard to the age of the child, that is, significant connections were found in all age groups by quasi-canonical analysis. For the three to four year old group, the quasi-canonical relationship indicated a connection between better self regulation, adaptive functioning, social communication, interaction with adults and better ball rolling. For the age group from four to five years, two significant relationships were established: the first showed that better overall socioemotional development (self regulation, cooperation, adaptive functioning, affects, autonomy, social communication, interaction with peers and interaction with adults) is associated with worse catching and rolling a ball, but better kicking a ball, while the second relationship indicates that better social communication and poorer peer interaction are associated with better baseball hitting and pitching. For the five- to six-year-old age group, the quasi-canonical relationship indicated that better adaptive functioning, affects, and social communication are associated with poorer kicking and catching. For the age group of children from six to seven years, three significant quasi-canonical relationships were established: the first relates to the connection between better self-regulation, cooperation, adaptive functioning, autonomy, interaction with adults, interaction with peers and better kicking a ball, rolling a ball, leading and catching a ball, the second that worse interaction with peers and better interaction with adults are related to better rolling and throwing a ball, and the third that better self-regulation and adaptive functioning are associated with better handling and catching and kicking a ball. The ninth hypothesis, which assumes the existence of a significant positive connection between the manipulative motor development and socioemotional development of preschool children with regard to the gender of the child, was confirmed because significant connections were found by canonical and quasi-canonical analysis. In boys, the canonical analysis established a relationship showing a connection between poorer autonomy, affect and interaction with adults and better baseball hitting and catching a ball. Two quasi-canonical relationships were also found, the first relating to the connection between better social communication and better overall manipulative motor development (hitting, driving and catching a baseball, catching the ball, kicking the ball with the foot, throwing the ball and rolling the ball), and the second about the connection between better overall socioemotional development (self-regulation, cooperation, adaptive functioning, affects, autonomy, social communication, interaction with peers, interaction with adults) and worse hitting and catching a baseball and better kicking the ball. In girls, three quasi canonical significant relationships were found: the first one showing that better social communication is associated with better handling and catching a ball, catching a ball, kicking a ball, throwing a ball and rolling a ball, the second link indicates that better autonomy is associated with better kicking a ball, and the third that better interaction with peers is associated with worse ball rolling. Possible limitations of the study lie in the fact that the subsamples are small, the sample is only representative for the city of Zagreb and the distribution of the results was not normal. The results obtained will possibly allow a better understanding of the connection between the two domains of development because we have found the structures and nature of the determined connections. The results can help form the prerequisites for creating age-appropriate programs for the acquisition of motor skills at preschool age. The contribution of this research is also reflected in the fact that the results and new knowledge can also be applied in direct practical work with children in the form of planning and implementing interventions when a deviation from the orderly development of children is determined. By applying motor activities that include locomotor and manipulative skills, the development of socioemotional skills can be encouraged, that is, the development of self-regulation, cooperation, adaptive functioning, affects, autonomy and social communication, and interaction with adults and peers, can be promoted. Moreover, planned, and targeted socioemotional activities for children such as play can have a positive impact on their motor development. Thereby these results enable the improvement of knowledge about child development and contribute to the quality of education of specialists working with children of preschool age.

Znanstvena istraživanja i spoznaje o tjelesnoj aktivnosti tijekom zadnjih desetljeća pokazuju poražavajuć i zabrinjavajuć pad u bavljenju sportom i rekreacijom, osobito kod mlade populacije koja uključuje i studente. Trend sedentarnog načina života među mladima danas sve češće uključuje uporabu interneta i igranje online igara koje je u svakodnevnom velikom porastu na svjetskoj razini, a koje s jedne strane predstavlja zabavnu aktivnost (što uključuje i brojne pozitivne učinke), no prekomjerno igranje dovodi do ozbiljnih problema u zdravstvenom, privatnom, radnom i društvenom statusu i funkcioniranju pojedinca (Haagsma i sur., 2013) odražavajući se osobito na fizičko i psihičko zdravlje pojedinca te njegovo opće zadovoljstvo životom. Do danas je zabilježen relativno mali broj kinezioloških istraživanja usmjerenih na odnos i povezanost igranja online igara, kinezioloških varijabli i varijabli koje se odnose na emocionalna stanja studentske populacije. Osobito su oskudne informacije koliko uključenost u sport i kineziološke programe doprinosi smanjenju vremena igranja online igara te u kojoj mjeri ona utječe na ukupno zadovoljstvo životom i emocionalna stanja studentske populacije. Stoga je primarni cilj ovog istraživanja bilo istražiti povezanost vremena provedenog u igranju online igara s kineziološkim aktivnostima te samoprocjenom zadovoljstva životom i intenzitetom emocionalnih stanja studentske populacije. Ovaj rad usmjeren je na istraživanje tih odnosa s kineziološkog aspekta te s aspekta promocije tjelesne aktivnosti i aktivnog zdravog načina života. Ovim radom željelo se utvrditi činjenično stanje među studentskom populacijom Sveučilišta u Zagrebu te doći do novih spoznaja koje bi bolje rasvijetlile međuodnos vremena provedenog u igranju online igara i poveznica s kineziološkim aktivnostima te prisutnošću različitih emocionalnih stanja i zadovoljstva životom među studentskom populacijom. Stoga je definiran uzorak ispitanika u istraživanju kojeg je činilo 1000 studentica i studenata Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, od kojih je bilo 480 studenata i 520 studentica koji studiraju u različitim područjima znanosti. Prikupljanje podataka je provedeno na način da je proveden online anonimni upitnik sastavljen od sljedećih 5 validiranih upitnika: Ten-item Internet Gaming Disorder Test (IGDT-10), International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ SF), Upitnik dosadašnjeg angažmana u kineziološkim aktivnostima (KINAKT), subjektivna II samoprocjena zadovoljstva životom te procjena učestalosti i intenziteta neugodnih emocionalnih stanja (DASS-21), te mjera procjene ugodnih emocija (PANAS). Za obradu podataka koristio se programski paket SPSS (inačica 26.0, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, SAD), u okviru kojeg su za sve analizirane varijable izračunati deskriptivni parametri izraženi putem prikazanih frekvencija i postotaka, aritmetičkih sredina i standardnih devijacija. Kolmogorov-Smirnovljevim testom testirana je normalnost distribucija korištenih varijabli, dok je analiza varijance korištena za utvrđivanje statističke značajnosti dobivenih razlika. Za provjeru hipoteza korištene su univarijatne i multivarijatne metode, za prvu i drugu hipotezu korelacijska analiza, a za treću i četvrtu multipla linearna regresija. Za provjeru razlika s obzirom na sociodemografske i druge pokazatelje korišten je Kruskal Wallis H test, a za testiranje razlika kod nezavisnih varijabli s dvije razine (razina kineziološke aktivnosti, vrijeme igranja, godina studija), korištena je neparametrijska zamjena za t-test (Mann-Whitney U test). Sukladno cilju ovog istraživanja (utvrditi povezanost vremena provedenog u igranju online igara s kineziološkim aktivnostima, subjektivnom samoprocjenom zadovoljstva životom i intenzitetom emocionalnih stanja studenata i studentica Sveučilišta u Zagrebu koji studiraju u svim područjima znanosti), izračunate su relativne frekvencije odgovora za svaku varijablu. U svrhu utvrđivanja razlika angažmana u kineziološkim aktivnostima prema spolu, dobi i području znanosti, korištene su sljedeće analize: eksploratorna faktorska analiza i kanonička korelacijska analiza. Za provjeru hipoteza korištena je i višestruka linearna regresijska analiza. Kanonička korelacijska analiza i regresijska analiza korištene su s ciljem utvrđivanja različitosti povezanosti između spola i angažiranosti u kineziološkim aktivnostima. Multipla linearna regresijska analiza je korištena s ciljem procjene stupnja linearne povezanosti prema dobi ispitanika i skupine varijabli kojima je mjerena kineziološka aktivnost ispitanika. Za prikaz upitničkih mjera, osim deskriptivne analize, korištena je eksploratorna faktorska analiza te Cronbach alfa koeficijent kao mjera pouzdanosti tipa unutarnje konzistencije. Povezanosti među varijablama procijenjene su korištenjem Pearsonovog koeficijenta korelacije i multiple regresijske analize. Sukladno prvoj hipotezi (H1: Vrijeme provedeno u online igrama je značajno negativno povezano s uključenošću u kineziološke aktivnosti) rezultati su pokazali da su sve vrijednosti III tjelesne aktivnosti negativno povezane s vremenom igranja online igara, pa možemo zaključiti da se sa češćim i dužim igranjem online igara, vrijednosti u tjelesnoj aktivnosti smanjuju. Također, pokazalo se da je ukupno tjedno sjedenje u statistički značajnoj pozitivnoj korelaciji s učestalošću igranja online igara, temeljem čega možemo utvrditi da češće i duže igranje online igara povećava učestalost i vrijeme provedeno u sjedenju, čime se tjelesna aktivnost smanjuje. Što se rezultata za drugu hipotezu (H2: Vrijeme provedeno u online igrama je značajno pozitivno povezano s razvojem prekomjernog igranja) tiče, pokazalo se da dnevnim povećanjem vremena korištenja računala (ili mobitela) dolazi do porasta vrijednosti na IGDT-10, ukupnog tjednog sjedenja; rastu vrijednosti depresivnosti, anksioznosti i stresa kao i neugodnih afektivnih doživljaja, dok istovremeno s učestalijim korištenjem računala padaju vrijednosti umjerene i ukupne tjelesne aktivnosti, hodanja, zadovoljstva životom i ugodnih afektivnih stanja. Faktor IGDT-10, kao direktan pokazatelj rizika od prekomjernog igranja, statistički je značajno povezan s ukupnim tjednim sjedenjem, depresivnošću, anksioznošću, stresom i neugodnim afektivnim doživljajima, a negativno povezan s umjerenom tjelesnom aktivnošću, hodanjem, zadovoljstvom životom i ugodnim afektivnim doživljajima. Zanimljivo je i da su se zadovoljstvo životom i ugodni afektivni doživljaji pokazali statistički značajnima jer što je kraće vrijeme provedeno u online igranju, vrijednosti rezultata aritmetičkih sredina rangova su veće. Ukoliko se vrijeme igranja povećava, vrijednosti tih dviju varijabli se smanjuju sve do igranja online igara duže od 6 sati dnevno, odnosno 42 sata tjedno kada vrijednosti rezultata aritmetičkih sredina rangova opet postaju visoke za zadovoljstvo životom i za ugodne afektivne doživljaje. Rezultati koji se tiču treće hipoteze (H3: Angažman u kineziološkim aktivnostima u posljednjih sedam dana je u značajnoj pozitivnoj korelaciji sa zadovoljstvom životom i ugodnim emocionalnim stanjima, te u značajnoj negativnoj korelaciji s neugodnim emocionalnim stanjima) pokazali su kako 48,8% ispitanika sudjeluje u izrazito napornim tjelesnim aktivnostima, 36,1% u umjerenim, a 15,1% ih redovito hoda odnosno sudjeluje u aktivnostima niskog intenziteta. Najaktivniji su studenti iz područja društvenih znanosti, pri čemu je zanimljivo da se 54,3% onih najaktivnijih redovito bavi izrazito napornim tjelesnim aktivnostima visokog intenziteta. Zabrinjavajući je rezultat od čak 42,0% studenata koji se trenutno ne bave nikakvim oblikom tjelesne aktivnosti. IV Više vremena provedenog u kineziološkim aktivnostima rezultira i višim rezultatom u zadovoljstvu životom te ugodnim afektivnim doživljajima. Niži rezultat ostvario se kod depresivnosti, anksioznosti i neugodnih afektivnih doživljaja što se pokazalo statistički značajnim. Stoga je utvrđeno da više intenzivne tjelesne aktivnosti rezultira smanjenjem vremena provedenog u igranju online igara, ali i većom količinom stresa. Pozitivna povezanost između stresa i vremena provedenog u izrazito napornim kineziološkim aktivnostima može se tumačiti i tako da studenti koji su više pod stresom više vremena provedu u kineziološkim aktivnostima, kako bi se oslobodili stresa. Također bi se ta povezanost mogla protumačiti na način da visoka razina stresa utječe kao motiv za postizanje uspjeha i pobjede u sportu (kao motivacijski stres). Vrijednosti rezultata aritmetičke sredine rangova neugodnih afektivnih doživljaja, depresivnosti i anksioznosti također su se u našem istraživanju pokazale statistički značajnima te su visoke vrijednosti za osobe koje nisu vježbale padale s porastom učestalosti tjednog vježbanja. Gledajući naše rezultate dobivene na upitnicima DASS-21 i PANAS može se uočiti značajna razlika prema spolu. Studenti generalno postižu niže vrijednosti u odnosu na djevojke na svim promatranim pokazateljima konstrukta procjene emocionalnih doživljaja. Što se faktora zadovoljstva životom tiče, možemo uočiti da je on u statistički značajnoj pozitivnoj korelaciji s faktorima ukupna tjelesna aktivnost, tjelesnom aktivnosti niskog intenziteta, umjerenom tjelesnom aktivnosti te tjelesnim aktivnostima visokog intenziteta, te također i sa ugodnim afektivnim doživljajima s kojima je u visokoj pozitivnoj korelaciji. Što se neugodnih emocionalna stanja (depresivnosti, anksioznosti i stresa) tiče, pokazale su se različite korelacije s intenzitetom i modalitetima tjelesne aktivnosti. Depresivnost je u značajnoj negativnoj korelaciji s izrazito napornim tjelesnim aktivnostima, umjerenim tjelesnim aktivnostima te ukupnom tjelesnom aktivnošću, dok je anksioznost u značajnoj negativnoj korelaciji s izrazito napornim tjelesnim aktivnostima te u značajnoj pozitivnoj korelaciji s hodanjem tj. s niskom razinom tjelesne aktivnosti. Stres se pokazao statistički značajnim u negativnoj povezanosti s izrazito napornom tjelesnom aktivnošću. Neugodni afektivni doživljaji pokazuju statistički visoku značajnost i pozitivnu korelaciju s depresivnošću, anksioznošću i stresom te IGDT-10, a negativnu korelaciju sa zadovoljstvom životom. Rezultati vezani uz posljednju hipotezu (H4: Količina vremena provedena u online igrama je u značajnoj pozitivnoj korelaciji s neugodnim emocionalnim stanjima i značajnoj V negativnoj korelaciji sa stupnjem zadovoljstva životom) pokazuju da je vrijeme provedeno u igranju online igara u negativnoj korelaciji sa zadovoljstvom životom što se pokazalo statistički značajnim. Od svih faktora vezanih uz neugodna emocionalna stanja, jedina korelacija koja se pokazala statistički značajnom je negativna korelacija s faktorom stresa, dok ostali faktori (depresivnost, anksioznost i neugodni afektivni doživljaji) koji bi mogli karakterizirati potencijalne neugodne emocije povezane s vremenom igranja online igara, nisu pokazali značajnost. S druge strane, vrijeme provedeno u igranju online igara pokazalo je negativnu korelaciju s ugodnim afektivnim doživljajima. Zaključno, rezultati ovog istraživanja pokazuju kako se studenti sve manje uključuju u bilo kakav oblik kinezioloških aktivnosti, a s druge strane previše vremena provode sjedeći, na internetu ili u sve učestalijem igranju online igara što dovodi do povećanog rizika od IGD a. Također, uključenost u razne oblike tjelesne aktivnosti opada s višim godinama studija. Pokazalo se kako su studenti koji se bave nekim oblikom tjelesne aktivnosti zadovoljniji životom, dok je slabije zadovoljstvo životom kod onih koji više igraju online igre. Također, bavljenje tjelesnom aktivnošću doprinosi razvoju ugodnih afektivnih doživljaja kod studenata te opadanje neugodnih doživljaja, depresivnosti i anksioznosti. Stoga se i znanstveni doprinos ovog istraživanja očituje kroz nove spoznaje o povezanosti bavljenja tjelesnom aktivnošću i igranja online igara kao i utjecaja navedenog na psihosocijalne aspekte života studentske populacije Sveučilišta u Zagrebu kroz samoprocjenu zadovoljstva životom i intenziteta emocionalnih stanja. Također, važnost je i u činjenici da takvo istraživanje, koliko je autoru poznato, na studentskoj populaciji u Hrvatskoj do sad nije provedeno. Dakle, ovo istraživanje je još jedan od poticaja za izradu i provođenje nacionalnih sveučilišnih programa i strategija za kontinuirani razvoj kinezioloških aktivnosti među studentskom populacijom koji bi studente konstantno trebao motivirati i usmjeravati na bavljenje sportsko-rekreacijskim sadržajima kako bi očuvali svoje fizičko, ali i mentalno zdravlje. Ovo istraživanje pokazuje kako je pritom izrazito važno mladima osvijestiti mogućnost potencijalnih rizika koje sa sobom nosi virtualni svijet igranja online igara i sedentarni način života koji sa sobom donosi neželjene i negativne posljedice za sveukupno zdravlje pojedinca, ali i za cjelokupno društvo u kojem živi i djeluje Scientific research and knowledge of physical activity over the last decades shows a devastating and worrying reduction in sports and recreation, especially among the young population that includes students. The trend of sedentary lifestyle among young people, today increasingly includes the use of the internet and online games, which is on a daily basis developing global problem, and which on the one hand represents a fun activity (includes some positive effects), but excessive gaming leads to serious problems in health, private, working and social status and functioning of the individual (Haagsma et al., 2013) reflecting in particular on the physical and mental health of the individual and his satisfaction with life. To date, a relatively small number of kinesiology studies have been focused on the relationship and connection between online gameplay, kinesiological variables, and variables related to the emotional states of the student population. Particularly scarce is the information on how much involvement in sports and kinesiology programs contributes to reducing the playing time of online games, and the extent to which it affects overall life satisfaction and self-assessment of the emotional states of the student population. Therefore, the primary goal of this research was to explore the connection of time spent playing online games with kinesiology activities and self-assessment of satisfaction with life and intensity of emotional states of the student population. This paper focuses on exploring these relationships from a kinesiological aspect and from the aspect of promoting physical activity and an active healthy lifestyle. This paper sought to establish the situation at this moment among the student population of the University of Zagreb and to come to new insights that would shed better light on the interrelationship of time spent playing online games with kinesiological activities and by the presence of different emotional states and life satisfaction among the student population. Therefore, a sample of respondents in the study was defined by 1000 students of the University of Zagreb (480 males and 520 female students), studying in different science fields. Anonymous online questionnaire composed of the following 5 validated questionnaires was conducted: Ten-item Internet Gaming Disorder Test (IGDT-10), VII International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ-SF), Questionnaire of the former engagement in kinesiological activities (KINAKT), subjective self-assessment of life satisfaction and assessment of the frequency and intensity of unpleasant emotional states (DASS-21), and a measure of the assessment of positive emotions (PANAS). The SPSS ( version 26.0, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) software package was used for data processing. Descriptive parameters expressed through the displayed frequencies and percentages, arithmetic means and standard deviations are calculated for all analyzed variables. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test has tested the normality of distributions of used variables, while the analysis of variance was used to determine the statistical significance of the obtained differences. Univariate and multivariate methods were used to check hypotheses, correlation analysis for the first and second hypotheses, and for the third and fourth multiple linear regression. To check the differences with regard to sociodemographic and other indicators, the Kruskal Wallis H test was used, and to test the differences in independent variables with two levels ( level of kinesiology activity, playing time, year of study), a nonparametric replacement was used for t-test (Mann-Whitney U test). In accordance with the aim of this research (to determine the connection of time spent playing online games with kinesiological activities, by self-assessment of satisfaction with the life and intensity of emotional states of students from the University of Zagreb studying in all areas of science), the relative response frequencies for each variable were calculated. For the purpose of determining the differences in engagement in kinesiology activities by gender, age, and field of science, the following analyzes were used: exploratory factor analysis and canonical correlation analysis. Multiple linear regression analysis was also used to check hypotheses. Canonical correlation analysis and regression analysis were used to determine the diversity of gender-related connections and engagement in kinesiological activities. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to estimate the degree of linear association by age of subjects and the group of variables by which the kinesiological activity of subjects was measured. To display the questionnaire measures, in addition to the descriptive analysis, a exploratory factor analysis and the Cronbach alpha coefficient were used as a measure of the reliability of the internal consistency. The connections between the variables were estimated using the Pearson coefficient of correlation and multiple regression analysis. VIII According to the first hypothesis (H1: Time spent in online games is significantly negatively associated with involvement in kinesiology activities) the results showed that all values of physical activity are negatively associated with the time of playing online games, so we can conclude that with more frequent and longer playing online games, values in physical activity decrease. Also, the total weekly sitting was shown to be in a statistically significant positive correlation with the frequency of playing online games, so we can determine that more frequent and longer playing online games increases the frequency and time spent sitting, thus reducing physical activity. Regarding the results for the second hypothesis (H2: Time spent in online games is significantly positive related to the development of problematic/pathological playing) it has been shown that a daily increase in computer usage time (or cell phone) increases in value on IGDT-10, total weekly sitting; growing values of depression, anxiety and stress as well as unpleasant affective experiences, while with more frequent use of computers fall the values of moderate and total physical activity, walking, life satisfaction, and pleasant affective states. The IGDT-10 factor, as a direct indicator of the risk of over-playing, is statistically significantly associated with total weekly sitting, depression, anxiety, stress and unpleasant affective experiences, and negatively associated with moderate physical activity, walking, life satisfaction and pleasant affective experiences. Interestingly, life satisfaction and pleasant affective experiences was also statistically significant because the shorter the time spent in online gaming, the higher the arithmetic mean results of ranks. If the playing time increases, the values of these two variables decrease until playing online games for more than 6 hours a day, or 42 hours a week when the values of the results of arithmetic rang environments again become high for life satisfaction and for pleasant affective experiences. Results related to the third hypothesis (H3: Engagement in kinesiological activities in the last seven days is in significant positive correlation with life satisfaction and pleasant emotional states, and in significant negative correlation with unpleasant emotional states) showed that 46.7% of respondents participate in vigorous physical activities, 46.7% in moderate activities, and 48% of them is walking. The most active are students in the field of social sciences. It being interesting that 54.3% of those most active regularly participate in vigorous high-intensity kinesiological activities. The worrying result is that 42.0% of students who are not currently engaged in any form of kinesiological activity. IX More time spent in kinesiology activities results in both higher results and satisfaction with life and pleasant affective experiences. A lower result was achieved in depression, anxiety, and unpleasant affective experiences, and was statistically significant. Therefore, it has been found that more intensive physical activity reduce the time spent playing online games, but also increase amount of stress. The positive correlation between stress and time spent in extremely vigorous kinesiological activities can also be interpreted so that students who are more stressed spend more time in kinesiology activities, to reduce stress. Also, this connection could be interpreted as affecting high levels of stress as a motive for achieving success and winning in sport ( as motivational stress). Values of arithmetic mean results of ranks of unpleasant affective experiences, depression and anxiety also showed statistically significant in our study, and high values for people who did not exercise fell with the increase in the frequency of weekly exercise. Looking at our results obtained on the DASS-21 and PANAS questionnaires, a significant gender difference can be observed. Students generally achieve lower values compared to girls on all observed indicators of the emotional experience assessment construct. As far as life satisfaction factor is concerned, it is in statistically significant positive correlation with factors total physical activity, walking, moderate physical activity, and vigorous physical activity, and also with pleasant affective experiences with high positive correlation. As for the uncomfortable emotional states (depression, anxiety, and stress) are concerned, different correlations have been shown with the intensity and modalities of physical activity. Depression is in significant negative correlation with vigorous physical activities, moderate physical activities, and total physical activity, while anxiety is in significant negative correlation with vigorous physical activities and in significant positive correlation with walking. Stress has been shown to be statistically significant in the negative association with vigorous physical activity. Negative affective experiences show statistically high significance and positive correlation with depression, anxiety, stress, and IGDT-10, but negative correlation with life satisfaction. Results related to the last hypothesis (H4: The amount of time spent in online games is significantly positive correlated with unpleasant emotional states and significant negative correlation with the degree of life satisfaction) show that time spent playing online games is in negative correlation with satisfaction with life which was also statistically significant. Of all the factors related to unpleasant emotional states, the only correlation that has been shown X to be statistically significant is a negative correlation with the stress factor, while other factors (depression, anxiety and unpleasant affective experiences) that could characterize the potential unpleasant emotions associated with playing online games, did not show significance. On the other hand, the time spent playing online games has shown a negative correlation with positive/pleasant affective experiences. In conclusion, the results of this research show that students are less and less involved in any form of kinesiological activity. On the other hand, they spend too much time in a sitting position, on the internet or playing more and more time online games, which can lead to an increase in the risk of IGD. Also, involvement in different forms of physical activity decreases with higher years of study. Students who engage in some form of physical activity have been shown to be more satisfied with life, while the lower satisfaction of life is in those who usually play online games. Also, engaging in physical activity contributes to the development of pleasant/positive affective experiences in students and the decline of negative/unpleasant experiences, depression and anxiety. Therefore, the scientific contribution of this research is reflected through new insights into the connection between physical activity and online gaming as well as the impact of the psychosocial aspects of the life of student population of the University of Zagreb, through self-assessment life satisfaction and intensity of emotional states. Also, the importance is in the fact that such research, as far as the author knows, has not been conducted on the student population in Croatia so far. This research is another way of encouraging to develop and implement national university programs and strategies for the continuous development of kinesiology activities among the student population that should constantly motivate and guide students to engage in sports recreational facilities to preserve their physical but also mental health. This research shows how it is extremely important for young people to become aware of the potential risks that the virtual world of online gaming and the sedentary lifestyle brings, because it always brings with it the unwanted and negative consequences for the overall health of the individual, and also for the entire society in which the individual lives and acts.

Uvod. Bitan dio sadržaja ljudske kulture danas odnosi se na kvalitetno organizirano slobodno vrijeme, u kojem sportska rekreacija ima jedno od istaknutih mjesta. O tome svjedoči noviji društveni fenomen masovnog pokreta rekreativnog trčanja organiziranog kroz škole trčanja hrvatskih trkačkih klubova, sportskih udruga i društava za rekreaciju. Cilj istraživanja bio je utvrditi motivacijsku strukturu rekreativaca, polaznika škola trčanja i ispitati razlike u intrinzičnoj motivaciji i ciljnoj orijentaciji polaznika s obzirom na njihova sociodemografska obilježja (spol, dob i razinu obrazovanja). Metode. U istraživanju je sudjelovalo 819 sudionika – polaznika škola trčanja za rekreativce, koje djeluju u okviru hrvatskih trkačkih klubova, sportskih udruga i društava za sportsku rekreaciju u Zagrebu, Splitu, Rijeci, Osijeku, Zadru, Šibeniku, Puli i Čakovcu – od čega je bilo 384 muškaraca i 435 žena. U provedenom istraživanju korišteni su sljedeći mjerni instrumenti: hrvatska verzija Upitnika intrinzične motivacije (Intrinsic Motivation Inventory, IMI), hrvatska verzija Upitnika ciljne orijentacije u sportu (Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire, CTEOSQ) i hrvatska verzija Upitnika motivacije za vježbanje EMI-2 (Exercise Motivations Inventory). Rezultati. Dobiveni rezultati pokazali su da je kod rekreativaca, polaznika škola trčanja općenito, snažno izražena intrinzična motivacija za vježbanjem, s tim da je najizraženija dimenzija interesa i uživanja u trčanju, a nešto slabije dimenzija kompetentnosti, zatim napora, te najslabije dimenzija pritiska. Također je utvrđeno da su rekreativni trkači više orijentirani na zadatak i učenje nego na ishod i rezultat, te da u školama trčanja najviše treniraju radi revitalizacije i zbog pozitivnog utjecaja na zdravlje, snage i izdržljivosti, uživanja i pokretljivosti, a najmanje radi društvenog priznanja i zbog zdravstvenih pritisaka. Rezultati s obzirom na spol pokazali su da je kod trkača u odnosu na trkačice znatno izraženiji intrinzični motiv kompetentnosti, ali i da osjećaju znatno veći pritisak za napretkom i postizanjem rezultata, a što se slaže sa sljedećim nalazom, koji pokazuje da je kod trkača znatno izraženija ciljna orijentacija na ishod i rezultat, dok je kod trkačica ista znatno izraženija na učenje i usavršavanje vještina. Za razliku od trkača, kod kojih su uvelike izraženi motivi društvenog priznanja i natjecanja, kod trkačica su više izraženi motivi održavanja težine, izbjegavanja bolesti, izgleda, upravljanja stresom, pozitivnog utjecaja na zdravlje, pripadnosti, zdravstvenih pritisaka i pokretljivosti. Rezultati s obzirom na dob pokazali su da postoje poprilične razlike u izraženosti intrinzičnih motiva ulaganja napora u aktivnost i vježbanja zbog osjećaja kompetentnosti. Tako je motiv ulaganja napora slabije izražen kod trkača starijih od 55 godina, u odnosu na one u dobi do 45 godina, dok je vježbanje zbog osjećaja kompetentnosti najizraženije kod mlađih od 35 godina, u odnosu na sve starije trkače. Kod trkača mlađih od 35 godina, u odnosu na sve starije, primjetno je izraženija ciljna orijentacija na ishod i rezultat. Ciljna orijentacija na učenje i usvajanje vještina znatno je izraženija kod osoba mlađih od 45 godina u odnosu na one starije od 55 godina. Kod osoba mlađih od 35 godina najizraženiji su motivi društvenog priznanja, povećanja snage i izdržljivosti, uživanja u vježbanju te natjecanja i izazova, dok trkači svrstani u dobne kategorije 35 – 34 godina i 45 – 55 godina uglavnom imaju podjednako izražene motive za treniranje kao i ostale dobne skupine, s tim da su kod njih, u odnosu na mlađe i starije od njih, izraženiji motivi treniranja zbog upravljanja stresom, održavanja težine i pokretljivosti. Kod trkača starijih od 55 godina najizraženiji motivi za treniranje su oni vezani za zdravlje (izbjegavanje bolesti i različiti zdravstveni pritisci). Rezultati s obzirom na razinu obrazovanja pokazali su da je izraženost intrinzičnog motiva ulaganja napora najjača u trkača srednje stručne spreme; da su trkači svih razina obrazovanja podjednako ciljno orijentirani na postizanje rezultata i ishod, s time da im je svima podjednako visoko izražena orijentacija na učenje i usavršavanje vještina – kao dominantan kriterij za procjenu osobne uspješnosti u treniranju trčanja. Kod trkača s visokom stručnom spremom najizraženiji motivi za treniranje su: održavanje težine, revitalizacija, izgled, utjecaj na zdravlje, pokretljivost i zdravstveni pritisci; a kod onih sa srednjom stručnom spremom motivi su: društveno priznanje, snaga i izdržljivost te natjecanje. Kod trkača više stručne spreme podjednako su zastupljeni motivi kao i kod ostalih, osim motiva zdravstvenog pritiska, koji im je puno izraženiji nego trkačima srednje stručne spreme. Dobiveni rezultati pokazali su da s porastom razine obrazovanja znatno raste izraženost motiva izbjegavanja bolesti i upravljanja stresom. Zaključak. Na temelju dobivenih rezultata, može se reći da su sociodemografske razlike (spol, dob i razina obrazovanja) važni čimbenici koji utječu na motivaciju za vježbanje rekreativaca, polaznika škola trčanja. Znanje o motivacijskoj strukturi rekreativnih trkača s obzirom na ove varijable važno je za mogućnost primjene u praksi, tj. za kreiranje preporuka i sportsko rekreativnih programa, koji bi u konačnici mogli pomoći rekreativcima, polaznicima škola trčanja, da zadovolje svoje potrebe i ustraju u odabranoj tjelesnoj aktivnosti. Introduction. An important part of the content of human culture today relates to quality organized leisure time, in which sports recreation has one of the prominent places. This is evidenced by the recent social phenomenon of the recreational running mass movement organized by the running schools of Croatian running clubs, sports associations and recreational societies. The aim of the research was to determine the motivational structure of recreational runners, running schools’ students, and to examine the differences in intrinsic motivation and goal orientation of participants regarding their socio-demographic characteristics (gender, age and level of education). Methods. The research involved 819 participants, students at recreational running schools, which operate within Croatian running clubs, sports associations and societies for sports recreation in Zagreb, Split, Rijeka, Osijek, Zadar, Šibenik, Pula and Čakovec. 384 participants were males and 435 females. In the research the following measurement instruments were used: Croatian version of the intrinsic motivation questionnaire (Intrinsic Motivation Inventory, IMI), Croatian version of the goal orientation questionnaire in sport (Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire, CTEOSQ) and the Croatian version of the exercise motivation questionnaire EMI-2 (Exercise Motivations Inventory). Results. The obtained results showed that among recreational runners, students of running schools in general, there is a strongly expressed intrinsic motivation for exercise, with the most expressed dimension being interest and enjoyment in running, and somewhat weaker the dimension of competence, following effort, and the weakest dimension of pressure. Furthermore, the results showed that recreational runners are rather task and learning than outcome and result oriented, and that they train in running schools mostly for revitalization motives, positive impact on health, strength and endurance, enjoyment and mobility, and the least because of social recognition and health pressures. The results regarding gender showed that the intrinsic motive of competence is significantly more pronounced in male runners compared to female runners, but also that they feel significantly more pressured to progress and achieve results. This agrees with the finding that male runners have more prononunced ego goal orientation while the task goal orientation is significantly more pronounced among female runners. Unlike male runners who are significantly more motivated for social recognition and competition, female runners have significantly more motivation for weight maintenance, disease avoidance, appearance, stress management, positive impact on health, affiliation, health pressures and mobility. The results regarding age showed that there are significant differences in the expressiveness of intrinsic motives for investing effort in activity and exercise due to a sense of competence. Thus, the motive for investing effort is less expressed among runners over the age of 55, compared to those under the age of 45, while exercising due to a sense of competence is most expressed among those under the age of 35 compared to all older runners. For runners under the age of 35, the goal orientation towards the outcome and the result is significantly more pronounced in relation to all the older ones. The goal orientation to learning and acquiring skills is significantly more noticeable in persons younger than 45 years of age than in those older than 55 years. Among persons under the age of 35, the most expressed motives are those for social recognition, increased strength and endurance, enjoyment of exercise and competition and challenges, while runners classified in the age categories 35-34 and 45-55, mostly have the same motives for training as other age groups, with the fact that, compared to younger and older people, they have more pronounced motives for training due to stress management, weight maintenance and mobility. For runners over the age of 55, the most observable motives for training are those related to health due to avoiding illness and due to various health pressures. The results regarding the level of education showed that the expression of the intrinsic motive for investing effort is strongest among runners with secondary education; that runners of all levels of education are equally ego goal oriented, with an equally highly expressed orientation to learning and improving skills- which serves as dominant criterion for assessing personal success in running. For highly educated runners, the most pronounced motives for training are weight maintenance, revitalization, appearance, impact on health, mobility and health pressures, compared to high school graduates, whose motives are social recognition, strength and endurance, and competition. Among runners with a higher education, motives are equally represented as among others, except for the motive of health pressure, which is much more pronounced for them than among runners with a secondary education. The obtained results showed that with the increase in the level of education, the expression of motives for avoiding illness and managing stress increases significantly. Conclusion. Based on the obtained results, socio-demographic differences (gender, age and level of education) are important factors influencing the motivation for exercise of recreational runners, students of running schools. Knowledge of the recreational runners’ motivational structure regarding these variables is important for the possibility of application in practice, i.e., to create recommendations for sports and recreational programs, which could ultimately help recreational runners, participants of running schools, to meet their needs and persist in the selected physical activity.

This dissertation identified the most effective programs in the school environment aimed at combatting childhood obesity, provided evidence for the effectiveness of a long-lasting program at the population level, and offered evidence for a time-efficient intervention within physical education (PE) as a tool to improve fitness among students. It includes three distinct studies with related research questions and aims. Study 1 involved a systematic search of the literature performed to compare the effects of interventions that targeted reduction of sedentary behaviours or increase of physical activity (PA) or physical fitness on primary prevention of obesity in 6- to 12-year-old children. The search identified 146 reports that provided relevant data for meta-analysis. Point estimates in % body fat were higher for fitness interventions compared with PA interventions (standardised mean difference = −0.11%; 95%CI = −0.26 to 0.04, and −0.04%; 95%CI = −0.15 to 0.06). Including sedentary behaviour in a PA- or fitness-oriented intervention was not accompanied by an increase in intervention effectiveness as evidenced by the point estimates being slightly smaller compared with those for PA- or fitness-only interventions. Overall, the effects tended to be larger in girls than in boys, especially for PA + sedentary behaviour interventions. There was some evidence of inequality in that the effects on body mass index (BMI) were seen when interventions were delivered in the general population (standardised mean difference = −0.05, 95%CI = −0.07 to −0.02), but not in groups of disadvantaged children (standardised mean difference = −0.01, 95%CI = −0.29 to 0.19). Study 2 involved an examination of the effectiveness of a population-based, real-world, long-duration, PA intervention for children aged 6–14 in Slovenia, called Healthy Lifestyle. The intervention provided two or three additional lessons of PE per week. Although the focus was the improvement of physical fitness, it examined the intervention’s effectiveness from the perspective of body mass index (BMI) units decreased and obesity cases reversed. The study studied over 34,000 participants from the Healthy Lifestyle project/cohort and compared their results with a matched sample of nonparticipants from the same schools. It employed generalised estimating equations to assess the effects of different durations of exposure to the program on BMI (from 1 to 5 consecutive years of participation) in children who enrolled with normal weight, overweight, or obesity at the start of the program. The intervention group had a significantly greater reduction in BMI than did the control group across all participation durations and irrespective of baseline weight status. The largest effect was observed in girls with obesity at baseline, whose BMI was 1.4 kg/m2 lower after 3 years of intervention compared with controls. The reversal of obesity was more pronounced in girls for whom statistically significant differences were observed between the control and intervention group after 2 years (𝜒2(1,1112) = 5.776, p = 0.016), 3 years (𝜒2(1, 669) = 9.570, p = 0.002), 4 years (𝜒2(1, 343) = 5.107, p = 0.024), and 5 years of participation (𝜒2(1, 192) = 4.551, p = 0.033). In boys, obesity reversal-rate differences between intervention and control groups attained statistical significance only after 3 years (𝜒2(1, 766) = 6.435, p = 0.011) and 5 years (𝜒2(1, 198) = 4.863, p = 0.027) of participation. Also, the number needed to treat (NNT) decreased steadily with the duration of the program in both sexes, with generally lower numbers for girls. The lowest NNTs were seen for 5 years of participation in the program (NNT = 17 and 12 for girls and boys, respectively). The proportion of obesity cases stratified by intervention participation and sex across all five years was 5-7%. Notably, a reduction in intervention effectiveness was evident in the year the program was hindered by a lack of funding. Intervention was effective with the largest BMI reduction in children presenting initially with obesity, and smallest in normal-weight children, indicating that the PA intervention(s) were able to benefit the children needing it most. Study 3 determined the efficacy of a high-intensity interval training (HIIT) intervention lasting 12 weeks on the health-related fitness and adiposity of 10- to 15-year-old students implemented during PE. The focus of this study was to compare two approaches for increasing fitness level among adolescents, one approach focusing on regular PE sessions in accordance with the curriculum and the other on regular PE classes augmented by HIIT. A cluster randomised control trial (RCT) (pretest/posttest) was conducted. The total number of students across both groups was 207. I used general linear models to compare fitness and adiposity changes in both groups based on the Eurofit fitness test battery. A significant effect of the HIIT intervention was present for the 20-meter shuttle-run test scores (p = 0.001). The effect of the intervention compared with the control was estimated as an additional 181.2 metres, 95% CI (70.4 to 292.0). An additional intention-to-treat (ITT) analysis showed that the effect of the HIIT intervention on the 20-meter shuttle-run test remained statistically significant (p < 0.011), although the magnitude of the estimated effect was reduced from 181.2 meters; SE = 55.4 to 119.6 meters; SE = 46.4. The effect on the 20-meter shuttle run test scores occurred with a relatively low dose of HIIT in PE lessons undertaken twice a week. Whilst it appears HIIT had the opposite of the expected effect on body fat percentiles, the effect on body composition was inconsistent. The effect of the regular PE classes compared to HIIT intervention is estimated as 2.76 percentiles, 95% CI (0.3, 5.1), with lower values among controls. However, this was also no longer evident following the ITT analysis (from p=0.03 to p=0.086). The intervention is registered with the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR) [ACTRN12622000209796]. The overall and final conclusion resulting from this dissertation is that school-based PA programs represent a powerful tool for obesity management and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) enhancement. Tailoring interventions toward increasing fitness among children and adolescents should be a priority because these interventions have a twofold benefit: 1) they are effective in preventing and treating obesity, and 2) if implemented using an HIIT approach, they can effectively increase CRF in a relatively short period of time. A scaled-up, long-lasting approach should be the goal of any intervention because this approach was shown to be effective not only for preventing obesity but also for reversing obesity among children and adolescents. The longer the intervention lasts, the more effective it becomes, especially for individuals who need the intervention the most, that is, those who suffer from obesity. Glavni cilj ove doktorske disertacije bio je ispitati učinke različitih školskih programa povezanih s tjelesnom aktivnošću na prevenciju pretilosti i poboljšanje fitnesa. U ovoj disertaciji identificirani su najučinkovitiji programi u školskom okruženju usmjereni na prevenciju pretilosti u dječjoj dobi (studija 1), pruženi dokazi o učinkovitosti dugotrajnog programa tjelesne aktivnosti na populacijskoj razini (studija 2) i ponuđeni dokazi za vremenski učinkovitu intervenciju visoko intenzivnog intervalnog treninga unutar nastave tjelesne i zdravstvene kulture, kao alata za poboljšanje fitnesa učenika i učenica (studija 3). Ova disertacija imala je trostruku svrhu: 1) izvršiti sustavni pregled i meta-analizu kako bi se usporedili učinci školskih intervencija usmjerenih ka sjedilačkom ponašanju, tjelesnoj aktivnosti ili fitnesu na prevenciju dječje pretilosti; 2) ispitati učinke populacijske, dugotrajne, fitnes orijentirane intervencije tjelesne aktivnosti kod učenika slovenskih osnovnih škola na prevenciju pretilosti; 3) utvrditi djelotvornost tromjesečne intervencije temeljene na intervalnom treningu visokog intenziteta uklopljenog u satove tjelesne i zdravstvene kulture na zdravstveni fitnes učenika. Rezultati ovog istraživanja pomoći će u optimizaciji i davanju prioriteta školskim programima tjelesne aktivnosti u prevenciji dječje pretilosti. Metode Studija 1 Ova studija uključivala je sustavni pregled i meta-analizu studija koje izvještavaju o učincima školskih politika povezanih s tjelesnom aktivnošću na ishode povezane s pretilošću. Pretražili su se MEDLINE, The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), Scopus, LILACS, OpenGrey, Open Access Thesis and Dissertations, Clinical Trials i WHO International Clinical Trials Registry. Recenzirane studije objavljene od 1.1.1994. uzete su u obzir. Istraživačko pitanje dizajnirano je pomoću PICOT okvira, koristeći MeSH pojmove u Medline plus pretrazi ključnih riječi. Kriteriji uključivanja bili su: (1) randomizirani ili nerandomizirani kontrolirani pokus, studija sa kontrolom prije i poslije ili prirodni pokus; (2) kontrolna grupa; (3) ispitanici od 6 do 12 godina (srednja vrijednost godina na početku studije = 5.5 do 12.49); (4) intervencije bilo kojeg trajanja usmjerene na: a) povećanje tjelesne aktivnosti i/ili tjelesnog fitnesa; b) smanjenje sjedilačkog ponašanja; (5) provedene primarno u školskom okruženju; (6) nastavak praćenja u trajanju od minimalno 12 tjedana od početka intervencije; (7) mjereni ishodi povezani sa pretilošću. Ekstrahirale su se sljedeće informacije: autori, godina, period studije, broj klastera i ispitanika, demografske karakteristike, detalji o tipu intervencije i sadržaju, trajanje intervencije i perioda praćenja, i štetni ishodi. Ishodi povezani sa pretilošću zasebno su se ekstrahirali. Korišteni su Cochrane “Rizik od pristranosti” alat za procjenu za randomizirane studije i modificirana Newcastle-Ottawa skala za nerandomizirane studije. Studije koje su uključivale sljedeće ishode uključene su u ovaj sustavni pregled: indeks tjelesne mase, indeks tjelesne mase z-vrijednosti i % tjelesne masti, opseg struka, te učestalost i zastupljenost pretilosti. Meta-analiza provedena je pomoću modela slučajnih učinaka koji uzima u obzir heterogenost unutar i između studija. Pristranost publikacija procijenila se uz pomoć Egger testa na asimetriju. Intervencije koji su utjecale na tjelesnu aktivnost, tjelesni fitnes ili sjedilački oblik ponašanja kategorizirane su. Zatim su intervencije razvrstane na one koji koriste jednu komponentu ili više komponenti (tj. tjelesna aktivnost + sjedilačko ponašanje ili tjelesni fitnes + sjedilačko ponašanje). Analize su stratificirane po jednokomponentnim i višekomponentnim intervencijama kao i po spolu. Za analizu osjetljivosti, analize su stratificirane, odvojeno za jednokomponentne i višekomponentne intervencije, prema dizajnu studije, riziku pristranosti, razdoblju studije, i prosječnoj dob sudionika. Rezultati Studija 1 Pretragom je identificirao 146 studija koje su pružile relevantne podatke za meta-analizu. Procjene bodova u % tjelesne masti bile su veće za fitness intervencije u usporedbi s intervencijama usmjerenih na tjelesnu aktivnost (standardizirana srednja razlika = −0,11%; 95% CI = −0,26 do 0,04, odnosno −0,04%; 95%CI = −0,15 do 0,06). Uključivanje sjedilačkog ponašanja u intervenciju orijentiranu na tjelesnu aktivnost ili fitnes nije bilo popraćeno povećanjem učinkovitosti intervencije, jer su bodovne procjene bile nešto manje u usporedbi s onima za intervencije usmjerene samo na tjelesnu aktivnost ili fitnes. Sveukupno, učinci su obično bili veći kod djevojčica nego kod dječaka, posebno za intervencije usmjerena na tjelesnu aktivnost + sjedilačko ponašanje. Bilo je nekih dokaza za nejednakost, budući da su učinci na indeks tjelesne mase vidljivi kada su intervencije provedene u općoj populaciji (standardizirana srednja razlika = −0,05, 95% CI = −0,07 do −0,02), ali ne i u skupinama djece u nepovoljnom položaju (standardizirana srednja razlika = −0,01, 95% CI = −0,29 do 0,19). Zaključak Studija 1 Školske intervencije tjelesne aktivnosti učinkovita su strategija u primarnoj prevenciji pretilosti kod djece od 6 do 12 godina starosti, ali usmjerenost na smanjenje sjedilačkog ponašanje uz povećanje tjelesne aktivnosti ili fitnesa ne doprinosi povećanju učinkovitosti intervencije. Metode Studija 2 Nacionalna intervencija „Healthy Lifestyle“ provođena je u Sloveniji od 2011 do 2018. Intervencijom je osigurana svakodnevna nastava tjelesna aktivnost za djecu od 6 do 14 godina. Intervencija je bila organizirana u obliku izbornog predmeta na temelju dobrovoljnog sudjelovanja i bila je dostupna svoj djeci. Prvi krug uključivanja započeo je sa 78 škola u školskoj godini 2010/11., 32 u 2011/12., 19 u 2012/13., 17 u 2013/14., 16 u 2014/15., 33 u 2015/16., 8 u 2016/17. i 13 u 2017/18., Ukupno je bilo uključeno 216 škola (između 18000 i 35000 učenika) tijekom zadnje godine provedbe. Kako bi se uočile moguće promjene u zastupljenosti pretilosti, potreban je bio podatak o zastupljenosti prije početka programa. Uključeni su oni učenici koji su sudjelovali najmanje jednu godinu u intervenciji. Štoviše, u analizu su bila uključena samo ona djeca koja su upisana u pojedinu školu već godinu dana prije prvog uključivanja škole u intervenciju. Oko 30000 bilo je uključeno u intervencijsku skupinu, a oko 35000 djece činilo je kontrolnu skupinu. Kvazi-eksperimentalni nacrt koristio se na temelju usporedbe intervencijske i kontrolne skupine s brojem uzastopnih godina sudjelovanja ili nesudjelovanja u intervenciji. Hi-kvadrat test koristio se za provjeru početnih razlika u broju dječaka i djevojčica u intervencijskoj i kontrolnoj skupini, a t-test za nezavisne uzorke za provjeru osnovnih razlika u dobi, triceps kožnom naboru, visini i početnoj prevalenciji pretilosti u pojedinoj školi ispitane na temelju podataka dobivenih putem SLOfit sustava praćenja između intervencijske i kontrolne skupine. Jednadžba generalizirane procjene koristila se za analizu mogućeg učinka intervencije na zastupljenost pretilosti u intervencijskoj i kontrolnoj skupini. Statistička značajnost bit će postavljena na 𝛼 = 0,05. Rezultati Studija 2 Intervencijska skupina imala je značajno veće smanjenje trenda porasta indeksa tjelesne mase od kontrolne skupine tijekom svih pet mogućih trajanja sudjelovanja i bez obzira na početni status tjelesne mase. Najveći učinak primijećen je kod djevojčica s pretilošću na početku intervencije, čiji je indeks tjelesne mase bio 1,4 kg/m2 niži nakon 3 godine intervencije u usporedbi s kontrolama. Preokret pretilosti prema normalnoj tjelesnoj masi bio je izraženiji kod djevojčica za koje su primijećene statistički značajne razlike između kontrolne i intervencijske skupine nakon 2 godine (𝜒2(1,1112)=5,776, p=0,016), 3 godine (𝜒2(1,669)= 9,570, p=0,002), 4 godine (𝜒2(1, 343)=5,107, p=0,024) i 5 godina sudjelovanja (𝜒2(1, 192)=4,551, p=0,033). Kod dječaka, razlike u stopi preokreta pretilosti između intervencijske i kontrolne skupine dosegnule su prag statističke značajnosti tek nakon 3 godine (𝜒2(1, 766)=6,435, p=0,011) i 5 godina (𝜒2(1,198)=4,863, p= 0,027) sudjelovanja. Potreban broj uključene djece da bi se preokrenuo jedan slučaj pretilosti također se ravnomjerno smanjivao s trajanjem programa u oba spola, s općenito nižim brojevima za djevojčice. Najniži brojevi zabilježeni su za 5 godina sudjelovanja u programu (17 odnosno 12 za djevojčice i dječake). Također, smanjenje učinkovitosti intervencije bilo je vidljivo u godini kada je program bio ometen nedostatkom financijskih sredstava. Zaključak Studija 2 Utvrđeno je da je intervencija tjelesne aktivnosti na populacijskoj razini provedena u stvarnim uvjetima usmjerena na djecu i adolescente u dobi od 6 do 14 godina učinkovita u smanjenju stope pretilosti. Štoviše, ta su smanjenja bila najveća kod djece koja su u početku imala pretilost, a najmanja kod djece normalne tjelesne mase, što znači da je intervencija najviše koristila onoj djeci kojoj je bila i najpotrebnija. Metode Studija 3 Ova intervencija provedena je u jednoj osnovnoj školi u Zagrebu tijekom drugog polugodišta školske godine 2021/2022. Intervencija je pružila dva podražaja visoko intenzivnog intervalnog treninga tjedno uklopljena u nastavu tjelesne i zdravstvene kulture djeci od 10 do 15 godina starosti. Intervencijska skupina započinjala je svaki nastavni sat sa 10 minuta visoko intenzivnog programa. Petra Jurić, mag. cin. provodila je intervenciju te je bila potpuno uključena u proces provedbe. Studenti Kineziološkog fakulteta, Sveučilišta u Zagrebu trenirani za postupke mjerenja, provodili su ista s punom transparentnošću, zasljepljeni od grupne raspodijele. Efekti intervencije procijenili su se prije početka intervencije, te nakon tri mjeseca provedbe. Vezano uz prijenos instrumenata, isti su se kalibrirali prije svakog novog ciklusa uporabe, dok je prijenos biti izveden uz mjere opreza s ciljem minimiziranja mogućnosti oštećenja. Netaknuti razredi nasumično su se podijeliti u intervencijsku ili kontrolnu skupinu. Izvješće o zdravstvenom statusu dostavio je roditelj, a utvrđen je od strane liječnika. Glavni cilj intervencije bio je poboljšanje zdravstvenog fitnesa kao primarnog ishoda, te pretilost kao sekundarnog ishoda. Proveo se klaster randomizirani kontrolirani pokus. Intervencijska skupina provodila je visoko intenzivan intervalan trening na početku nastave, a kontrolna uobičajenu nastavu propisanu planom i programom. Eurofit baterija testova koristila se za procjenu učinaka intervencije. Opći linearni modeli korišteni su za usporedbu konačnih vrijednosti fitnessa i adipoznosti između intervencijske i kontrolne skupine, prilagođenih za početne rezultate testova, početnu dob, početne vrijednosti percentila postotka tjelesne masti i spola pomoću MinitabTM statističkog softvera. Rezultati Studija 3 Značajan učinak intervencije bio je prisutan za rezultate 20-meter shuttle run testa (p=0,001; d=0,31). Učinak intervencije u usporedbi s kontrolom procijenjen je kao dodatnih 181,2 metra, 95% CI (70,4 do 292,0). Dodatna analiza namjere liječenja (eng. intention-to-treat) pokazala je da je učinak intervencije na 20-meter shuttle run testu ostao statistički značajan (p

Cilj ovog istraživanja bio je utvrditi dovodi li desetodnevni boravak i skijanje na visinama do 2000 metara do promjena na pokazateljima krvi koji su uključeni u sustav prijenosa kisika i eritropoezu. Boravak i trening na nadmorskoj visini često je korištena metoda pripreme vrhunskih sportaša čiji je glavni cilj utjecati na poboljšanje funkcioniranja prijenosnog sustava za kisik putem povećanja broja eritrocita i hemoglobina. Visine na kojima su takva istraživanja provedena su uglavnom veće od 2 i 3 tisuće metara, te traju po nekoliko tjedana (3 i više), jer se smatra da je toliko potrebno za postići utjecaj na vrhunsko treniran organizam. U ovom istraživanju odabran je boravak od 10 dana na visini do 2000 metara s ispitanicima koji su dio rekreativne populacije, upravo kako bi se vidjelo ima li takav boravak utjecaja na osobu koja nije vrhunski sportaš. Eksperimentalna skupina je živjela na visini od 1250 m te 6-7 sati dnevno skijala na visinama do 2000 m, dok je kontrolna skupina živjela svoj uobičajeni svakodnevni život na razini mora (122 m). U dva navrata izvršena je laboratorijska dijagnostika pokazatelja krvi, u razmaku od 12 dana, prvo mjerenje dan prije i drugo mjerenje dan nakon intervencije kod eksperimentalne skupine (N=17, DOB= 21,52, SD=1,06) te u isto vrijeme kod kontrolne skupine koja nije prolazila intervenciju (N=15, DOB= 21,47, SD=1,07). Statističkom obradom podataka (t-test, ANOVA) utvrđeno je da je eksperimentalna skupina pokazala značajnu promjenu u vrijednostima eritropoetina (pad, p The research objective was to determine if 10 days of alpine skiing at altitudes up to 2000 m can lead to improvements on oxygen transport system blood parameters which are showed by erythropoetic changes. Altitude stay and training is regularly used method for elite athletes training regime and it's aim is to enhance oxygen transport system by raising red blood cell and hemoglobin levels. Altitudes at which such endeavours are usually partaken are higher than 2 or 3 thousand meters above sea level and they last 2, 3 weeks or more. It is considered that such altitude and duration is needed to obtain effects for an elite athlete. It was opted that this research intervention lasts for 10 days and at altitude lower than 2000 meters with subjects who are not elite athletes but active general population, exactly for reason to see if it's possible for them to obtain effects on such „lower altitudes“. Experimental group has lived at 1250 m and skied for 6-7 hours per day at altitudes up to 2000 m, while control group lived their usual everyday life at sea level (122 m). Laboratory measurements were conducted at two occasions, 12 days apart, one day before and one day after the experimental group (N=17, AGE= 21,52, SD=1,06) had their skiing trip. Control group was also measured at the same time (N=15, AGE= 21,47, SD=1,07). Statistical analysis (t test, ANOVA) has shown that experimental group had significant change of erythropoeitin levels (fall, p

The main aim of this doctoral thesis was to investigate factors that have a strong theoretical basis for their relationship to running performance in soccer but have not been sufficiently investigated among professional elite-level players. Specifically, Study 1 aimed to examine possible associations that may exist between match running performance (MRP) and soccer match performance; Study 2 aimed to examine possible associations that may exist between running performance during matches (e.g., MRP) and training (e.g., the weekly external training load); Study 3 aimed to examine possible associations that may exist between the weekly external training load and match outcomes; and Study 4 aimed to examine possible associations that may exist between MRP and direct measures of aerobic performance (e.g., VO2max, AnT, and AeT). The studies were carried out on professional soccer players from a single team that competed in the highest national soccer competition in Croatia. All running performance data were collected from training sessions and official matches during the 2018/2019 and 2019/2020 seasons using global positioning system technology (Optim-Eye S5 & X4, Catapult, Melbourne, Australia). Players’ performance was classified into five groups according to their playing positions in the game: central defenders (CD), fullbacks (FB), central midfielders (CM), wide midfielders (WM), and forwards (FW). The MRP included the total distance covered; distance covered in the different speed zones of walking, jogging, low-intensity running, running, high-speed running, sprinting, and high-intensity running; total number of accelerations; number of high-intensity accelerations; total number of decelerations; and number of high-intensity decelerations. The results of Study 1 indicated significant associations between MRP and soccer match performance assessed by the InStat Index for players in specific playing positions. Specifically, the InStat Index was correlated with running (r = 0.42, p = 0.03) and high intensity accelerations (r = 0.49, p = 0.01) for CDs, number of decelerations for FBs (r = −0.43, p = 0.04), and sprinting for FWs (r = 0.80, p = 0.02). The results of study 2 indicated that high-intensity accelerations (r = 0.42, p = 0.01) and high-intensity decelerations (r = 0.52, p = 0.01) during training were correlated with the corresponding match running performance for FBs. Running (r = 0.52, p = 0.01), high speed running (r = 0.56, p = 0.01), sprinting (r = 0.64, p = 0.01), high-intensity accelerations (r = 0.59, p = 0.01), and high-intensity decelerations (r = 0.52, p = 0.01) during training were correlated with the corresponding match running performance for CMs. High-intensity accelerations (r = 0.48, p = 0.02), running (r = 0.51, p = 0.02), and high-speed running (r = 0.47, p = 0.03) during training were correlated with the corresponding match running performance for CDs. The results of Study 3 indicated that match outcome was negatively related to the weekly amount of total distance (OR: 0.98; 95%CI: 0.98-0.99), low-intensity running (OR: 0.99, 95%CI: 0.97-0.99), running (OR: 0.99; 95%CI: 0.98-0.99), high-intensity running (OR: 0.98; 95%CI: 0.97-0.99), total accelerations (OR: 0.99; 95%CI: 0.98-0.99), total decelerations (OR: 0.98; 95%CI: 0.96-0.99), high-intensity accelerations (OR: 0.96; 95%CI: 0.95-0.99), and high-intensity decelerations (OR: 0.98; 95%CI: 0.97-0.99). The results of Study 4 indicated that the anaerobic threshold was correlated with high speed running (r = 0.52, p < 0.01) and sprinting (r = 0.53, p < 0.01) among side players (e.g., FBs and WMs). For central players (e.g., CDs, CMs, and FWs), the aerobic threshold was correlated with the total distance covered (r = 0.47, p < 0.05), low-intensity running (r = 0.49, p < 0.05), and running (r = 0.39, p < 0.05). The results of this doctoral thesis show that (i) increased MRP may directly provoke increased soccer match performance, (ii) an increased weekly external training load may provoke increased MRP, (iii) an increased weekly external training load may negatively affect match outcomes in subsequent matches, and (iv) increased aerobic performance may provoke increased MRP. These findings offer new knowledge on factors affecting running performance in elite-level soccer, consequently enabling soccer coaches to design soccer-specific training programs aiming to optimize the whole training process and maximize player performance. In addition, since the MRP of soccer players competing in the Croatian first division was, for the first time, analysed, this doctoral thesis ultimately provides a detailed understanding of the physical demands placed on Croatian elite-level soccer players during matches and training. Glavni cilj ove doktorske disertacije bio je istražiti čimbenike koji imaju snažnu teorijsku pozadinu za povezanost s trkačkim performansama u nogometu, a koji nisu dovoljno istraživani među profesionalnim igračima elitne razine natjecanja. Konkretno, Studija 1 imala je za cilj ispitati moguću povezanost između trkačkih performansi i nogometnih performansi na utakmicama; Studija 2 imala je za cilj ispitati moguće povezanost između trkačkih performansi tijekom utakmica i treninga (tjedno vanjsko trenažno opterećenje); Studija 3 je imala za cilj ispitati moguću povezanost između tjednog vanjskog trenažnog opterećenje i ishoda utakmice; Studija 4 je imala za cilj ispitati moguću povezanost između različitih direktnih mjera aerobnih performansi (maksimalni primitak kisika, anaerobni i aerobni prag) i trkačkih performansi na utakmici. Istraživanja su provedena na profesionalnim igračima iz jedne momčadi koja se natjecala na najvišem rangu državnog nogometnog natjecanja u Hrvatskoj. Svi podaci o trkačkim performansama prikupljeni su s treninga i službenih utakmica u sezonama 2018/2019 i 2019/2020 koristeći tehnologiju globalnog sustava za pozicioniranje (Optim-Eye S5 & X4, Catapult, Melbourne, Australija). Trkačke performanse igrača su klasificirane u pet skupina prema njihovim pozicijama u igri: središnji braniči, bekovi, središnji vezni, krilni vezni i napadači. Trkačke performanse su uključivale: ukupnu prijeđenu udaljenost, udaljenost prijeđenu u različitim zonama trčanje: hodanje, kaskanje, nisko intenzivno trčanje, trčanje, trčanje velikom brzinom, sprint, visoko intenzivno trčanje, ukupan broj akceleracija, broj visoko intenzivnih akceleracija, ukupan broj deceleracija, broj visoko intenzivnih deceleracija. Rezultati Studije 1 pokazali da postoji značajna povezanost između trkačkih performansi i nogometnih performansi determiniranih InStat Indeksom za igrače na određenim igračkim pozicijama. Konkretno, InStat Index bio je povezan s trčanjem (r = 0.42, p = 0.03) i visoko intenzivnim akceleracijama (r = 0.49, p = 0.01) kod središnji braniča, deceleracijama kod bekova (r = −0.43, p = 0.04) i sprintom kod napadače (r = 0.80, p = 0.02). Rezultati Studije 2 pokazali su da postoji značajna povezanost između visoko intenzivnih akceleracija (r = 0.42, p = 0.01) i visoko intenzivne deceleracija (r = 0.52, p = 0.01) na treninzima i na utakmicama kod bekova. Kod središnji veznih postojala je značajna povezanost između trčanja (r = 0.52, p = 0.01), trčanja velikom brzinom (r = 0.56, p = 0.01), sprinta (r = 0.64, p = 0,01), visoko intenzivnih akceleracija (r = 0.59, p = 0.01) i visoko intenzivnih deceleracija (r = 0.52, p = 0.01) na treninzima i na utakmicama. Kod središnji braniča postojala je značajna povezanost između visoko intenzivnih akceleracija (r = 0.48, p = 0.02), trčanja (r = 0.51, p = 0.02) i trčanja velikom brzinom (r = 0.47, p = 0.03) na treninzima i na utakmicama. Rezultati Studije 3 pokazali su da je ishod utakmice bio negativno povezan s tjednom količinom: ukupnog trčanja (OR: 0.98; 95%CI: 0.98-0.99), trčanja niskim intenzitetom (OR: 0.99, 95%CI: 0.97-0.99), trčanja (OR: 0.99; 95%CI: 0.98-0.99), trčanja visokim intenzitetom (OR: 0.98; 95%CI: 0.97-0.99), akceleracija (OR: 0.99; 95%CI: 0.98-0.99), deceleracija (OR: 0.98; 95%CI: 0.96-0.99), visoko intenzivnih akceleracija (OR: 0.96; 95%CI: 0.95-0.99) i visoko intenzivnih deceleracija (OR: 0.98; 95%CI: 0.97-0.99). Rezultati Studije 4 pokazali su da postoji značajna povezanost između anaerobnog praga i trčanja velikom brzinom (r = 0.52, p < 0.01) i sprinta (r = 0.53, p < 0.01) kod igrača koji igraju na vanjskim pozicijama (bekovi i krilni vezni). Kod igrača koji igraju na centralnim pozicijama (središnji braniči, središnji vezni i napadači) postojala je značajna povezanost između aerobnog praga i ukupne prijeđene udaljenosti (r = 0.47, p < 0.05), trčanja niskim intenzitetom (r = 0.49, p < 0.05) i trčanja (r = 0.39, p < 0.05). Rezultati ove doktorske disertacije pokazuju da (i) veće trkačke performanse na utakmicama mogu potaknuti bolje nogometne performanse, (ii) veće tjedno vanjsko trenažno opterećenje može potaknuti veće trkačke performanse na utakmicama, (iii) veće tjedno vanjsko trenažno opterećenje može negativno utjecati na ishod utakmice, (iv) bolje aerobne performanse mogu potaknuti veće trkačke performanse na utakmicama. Ovi nalazi pružili su nova saznanja o faktorima koji utječu na trkačke performanse u nogometu elitne razine, što posljedično može omogućiti nogometnim trenerima kreiranje trenažnih programa koji mogu optimizirati cjelokupni proces treninga i maksimizirati učinak igrača na utakmicama. Osim toga, s obzirom da su u ovome istraživanju prvi puta analizirane trkačke performanse nogometaša najvišeg ranga natjecanja u Hrvatskoj, ova doktorska disertacija u konačnici omogućuje detaljno razumijevanje fizičkih zahtjeva s kojima se susreću elitni nogometaši tijekom utakmica i treninga u Hrvatskoj.

Cilj ovog rada je utvrditi razlike u efektima treninga sprinta i treninga ponavljanih sprintova na različite pokazatelje kondicijske pripremljenosti u prostoru funkcionalnih, motoričkih te sposobnosti ponavljanih sprintova. Eksperimentalni program, odnosno istraživanje provedeno je na 26 ispitanika (visine tijela: 180,93 ± 7,63 cm, mase tijela: 79,55 ± 8,47 kg), studenata prve godine redovnog studija Kineziološkog fakulteta Sveučilišta u Zagrebu. Studenti, osim u eksperimentalnom programu, nisu sudjelovali u drugim tjelesnim aktivnostima (bili su oslobođeni praktičnog dijela nastave te su samo pohađali teorijsku nastavu na fakultetu). Ispitanici su bili podijeljeni u dvije eksperimentalne grupe. Grupa koja je provodila eksperimentalni program treninga sprinta (grupa S) sastojala se od 13 studenata i grupa koja je provodila eksperimentalni program treninga ponavljanih sprintova (grupa RSA) od također 13 studenata. Eksperimentalni proces započeo je inicijalnim testiranjem, zatim je slijedio proces treninga koji je trajao 6 tjedana s frekvencijom treninga tri puta tjedno (ukupno 18 treninga) i završio je završnim tjednom u kojemu je obavljeno finalno testiranje. Ukupno trajanje eksperimenta bilo je 8 tjedana (s uključenim inicijalnim i finalnim testiranjem). Kondicijska pripremljenost testirana motoričkim testovima (test za procjenu eksplozivne snage tipa sprinta - test 25 metara), test za procjenu eksplozivne snage tipa skoka (skok s pripremom, uzastopni skokovi), test za procjenu agilnosti (20 jardi), testom za procjenu funkcionalnih sposobnosti (progresivni test opterećenja na pokretnom sagu) i testom za procjenu sposobnosti ponavljanja sprinta (6 x 25 metara). Rezultati ovog istraživanja pokazali su značajne razlike u rezultatima kod nekih varijabli, dok su u varijablama u kojima nije bilo značajnih razlika zabilježeni različiti trendovi promjene. U varijablama za procjenu sprinta (sprint na 5 metara (SP5), sprint na 10 metara (SP10), sprint na 25 metara (SP25), eksplozivne jakosti tipa skoka – skok sa pripremom (CMJ), ponavljani skokovi (RJ) i agilnosti (20 jardi)) nisu nađene značajne razlike između grupa nakon eksperimentalnog postupka niti su utvrđene značajne promjene između inicijalnog i finalnog mjerenja. U području funkcionalnih sposobnosti 5 za varijablu maksimalni primitak kisika (VO2max) program treninga nije proizveo značajne učinke. Varijabla maksimalne brzine trčanja na pokretnom sagu (vmax) nije pokazala značajne razlike između grupa nakon eksperimentalnog postupka, no razlike između inicijalnog i finalnog mjerenja uočene su kod obje grupe. U varijabli brzine trčanja pri maksimalnom primitku kisika (vVO2max) nisu zabilježene značajne razlike između grupa, niti između inicijalnog i finalnog testiranja. Unutar varijable maksimalna frekvencija srca na progresivnom testu opterećenja (FSmax) nije zabilježena značajna razlika između grupa nakon eksperimentalnog programa, međutim između inicijalnog i finalnog mjerenja rezultat grupe RSA se značajno poboljšao. U izoliranoj varijabli (RSApro) testiranja sposobnosti ponavljanja sprintova nisu zabilježene značajne razlike između grupa nakon eksperimentalnog postupka. U varijabli (RSAnaj) zabilježena je značajna razlika kod grupe koja je izvodila trening ponavljanih sprintova. Kod varijable postotak opadanja sprinta (RSAs%dec) zabilježena je značajna razlika između grupa no nije zabilježeno značajno poboljšanje rezultata između inicijalnog i finalnog testiranja kod obje grupe. Varijabla za procjenu koncentracije laktata u krvi nakon testa ponavljanih sprintova (RSAla) nije pokazala značajnu razliku između grupa, a nisu zabilježene ni značajne razlike između inicijalnog i finalnog testiranja ni za jednu grupu. Rezultati testa za procjenu subjektivnog osjećaja opterećenja nakon testa ponavljanih sprintova (RSArpe) pokazali su značajne razlike između grupa odnosno subjektivni osjećaj opterećenja značajno se smanjio između inicijalnog i finalnog testiranja kod obje grupe. Varijabla koja je procjenjivala vršnu frekvenciju srca u testu ponavljanih sprintova (FSpeakRSA) pokazala je značajnu razliku između grupa nakon intervencije, a izoliranim promatranjem pojedine grupe vidljiva je značajna promjena koja je nastupila kod grupe koja je izvodila trening ponavljanih sprintova. The basic idea of this research is to determine the impact of sprint training and repeated sprint ability training on physical conditioning parameters. The experimental program and research was conducted on 26 respondents, first-year students of the Faculty of Kinesiology University in Zagreb. Apart from the experimental program, the students did not participate in any activities (they were exempted from the practical part of the classes and only attended theoretical classes at the faculty). Respondents were divided into two experimental groups (13 students in the group who conducted sprint training and 13 students who conducted repeated sprint ability training). The experimental process began with initial testing, followed by a training process that lasted 6 weeks with a training frequency of 3 times per week (18 trainings in total) and ended with the final week in which the final testing was done. The total duration of the experiment was 8 weeks (with initial and final testing included). Physical conditioning parameters were tested by tests for motoric ability (sprint test - 25 meters test, jump performance - counter movements jump and repeated jump, agility test - 20 yards, functional ability test - progressive load test on a treadmill and repeated sprint ability test - 6 x 25 meters). The results of this study showed statistically significant differences in the results of some variables, while in the variables in which there were no significant differences, there were recorded different trends of changes. In all variables (SP5, SP10, SP25) for the sprint, jump preformance (CMJ, RJ) and agility (20 yards) no significant differences were found between groups after the experimental procedure or between initial and final measurements. In the area of functional abilities for the variable maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max), the intervention did not cause significant differences between groups or between initial and final measurements. The variable of maximum running speed on the treadmill (vmax) did not show significant differences between the groups after the experimental procedure, however, significant differences between the initial and final measurements are visible for both groups. In the variable running speed at maximum oxygen uptake (vVO2max) no significant differences were observed between groups and between initial and final testing after the experimental program. Within the variable 7 maximum heart rate on the progressive load on treadmill test (FSmax), no significant difference was observed between the groups after the experimental program, however, a significant difference in the results of initial and final measurements was observed in the group performing repeated sprint training. No significant changes in results between groups after the experimental procedure were observed in the isolated variable (RSApro) of repeated sprint ability test. In the variable (RSAnaj), significant differences were noted between the groups, namely in the group that performed the training of repeated sprints. In the variable sprint decline percentage (RSAs%dec), significant results were recorded between groups under the influence of the experimental program. The variable for estimating concentration of blood lactate after the repead sprint test (RSAla) did not show a significant difference between the groups under the influence of the experimental procedure, nor were there significant differences between the initial and final testing for both groups. The results of the variable for assessing the subjective feeling of load after the repeated sprint test (RSArpe) showed a significant difference between groups. Results were significantly lower for both groups of subjects between the initial and final testing. The variable that assessed heart rate peak in the repeated sprint ability test (FSpeakRSA) showed a significant difference between the groups after the intervention, isolated observation of each group showed a significant difference in the results of the group that performed repeated sprint training.

Pretilost je povezana s inzulinskom rezistencijom i rizikom za razvoj disglikemije. Izrazito pretili adolescenti te oni s visokim udjelom visceralne masti češće razvijaju metaboličke poremećaje. Povezanost kardiorespiratorne sposobnosti s metaboličkim rizikom u osoba s različitim stupnjevima pretilosti nije sustavno proučena. Nedostaju spoznaje o učincima kardiorespiratorne sposobnosti na inzulinsku rezistenciju u adolescenata s visokim stupnjem pretilosti, premda je broj takvih adolescenata u stalnom porastu. Ciljevi ovog istraživanja bili su ispitati povezanost kardiorespiratorne sposobnosti s inzulinskom osjetljivosti i beta staničnom funkcijom u pretilih adolescenata, osobito u onih s teškom i vrlo teškom pretilosti, te istražiti je li ta povezanost uvjetovana isključivo visceralnom pretilosti. U ovom prospektivnom, presječnom istraživanju sudjelovalo je 200 pretilih adolescenata u dobi od 10-18 godina, u kojih je uz antropometrijska mjerenja, određen sastav tijela bioelektričnom impedancijom, učinjen test oralnog opterećenja glukozom te procijenjena kardiorespiratorna sposobnost submaksimalnim testom na pokretnoj traci. Površine visceralnog i potkožnog masnog tkiva izmjerene su odgovarajućim alatima radiološkog sustava, na presječnom prikazu magnetske rezonance abdomena, u 90 pretilih adolescenata. U ispitivanoj populaciji, ustanovljena je slaba negativna korelacija između kardiorespiratorne sposobnosti i homeostatskog modela procjene inzulinske rezistencije (HOMA-IR) te slaba pozitivna korelacija između kardiorespiratorne sposobnosti i indeksa inzulinske osjetljivosti (ISI). Upotrebom univarijatne analize varijance uz Bonferroni korekciju za višestruke usporedbe, utvrđen je statistički značajan glavni učinak kardiorespiratorne sposobnosti na inzulinsku osjetljivost, poglavito uz maksimalni primitak kisika iskazan u odnosu na ukupnu tjelesnu masu. Naknadne analize pokazale su da pretili adolescenti s lošom kardiorespiratornom sposobnosti imaju značajno viši HOMA-IR te niži ISI od adolescenata s dobrom kardiorespiratornom sposobnosti. Uz maksimalni primitak kisika iskazan u odnosu na nemasnu tjelesnu masu, pretili adolescenti s dobrom kardiorespiratornom sposobnosti imali su viši oralni dispozicijski indeks od adolescenata s lošom kardiorespiratornom sposobnosti. Navedeni rezultati potvrđuju pozitivan učinak dobre kardiorespiratorne sposobnosti na inzulinsku osjetljivost i beta staničnu funkciju u pretilih adolescenata. Dvosmjernom analizom kovarijance utvrđeno je da teško/vrlo teško pretili adolescenti imaju viši HOMA-IR od blago pretilih i uz dobru i uz lošu kardiorespiratornu sposobnost. Istovremeno, HOMA-IR se nije razlikovao između teško/vrlo teško pretilih adolescenta s dobrom i blago pretilih s lošom kardiorespiratornom sposobnosti. Ovi rezultati pokazuju da na inzulinsku osjetljivost utječu i stupanj pretilosti i kardiorespiratorna sposobnost. Uz upotrebu omjera površine visceralnog masnog tkiva i kvadrata tjelesne visine kao indikatora visceralne pretilosti, serijom regresijskih analiza potvrđeno je da je povezanost kardiorespiratorne sposobnosti iskazane u odnosu na ukupnu tjelesnu masu i inzulinske osjetljivosti posredovana visceralnom pretilosti. Sveukupno, rezultati istraživanja pokazuju da je za razinu inzulinske rezistencije u pretilih adolescenata, osim stupnja pretilosti važna i kardiorespiratorna sposobnost. Stoga bi procjena kardiorespiratorne sposobnosti trebala predstavljati sastavni dio dijagnostičke obrade, a podizanje kardiorespiratorne sposobnosti važan segment terapijskog pristupa pretilim adolescentima. Obesity is associated with insulin resistance and risk of dysglycemia. Extremely obese adolescents and those with high proportion of visceral fat more often develop metabolic disorders. The association of cardiorespiratory fitness with metabolic risk in individuals with varying degrees of obesity has not been systematically studied. There is a lack of knowledge about the effects of cardiorespiratory fitness on insulin resistance in adolescents with severe obesity, although the number of such adolescents is continuously increasing. The objectives of this study were to investigate the association of cardiorespiratory fitness with insulin sensitivity and beta cell function in obese adolescents, especially in those with severe and morbid obesity, and to explore whether this association relies entirely on visceral adiposity. This prospective, cross-sectional study included 200 obese adolescents, 10-18 years of age, in which anthropometric measurements, bioelectrical impedance for body composition, oral glucose tolerance test and submaximal treadmill test for cardiorespiratory fitness assessment were performed. Visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue areas were measured with appropriate radiological system tools on cross-sectional magnetic resonance images of the abdomen in 90 obese adolescents. In the study population, a weak negative correlation between cardiorespiratory fitness and the homeostatic model of insulin resistance assessment (HOMA-IR) and a weak positive correlation between cardiorespiratory fitness and insulin sensitivity index (ISI) was found. A statistically significant main effect of cardiorespiratory fitness on insulin sensitivity was determined by univariate analysis of variance with Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons, especially with maximal oxygen uptake expressed relative to total body mass. Subsequent analyzes showed that obese adolescents with poor cardiorespiratory fitness have significantly higher HOMA-IR and lower ISI than adolescents with good cardiorespiratory fitness. With maximal oxygen uptake expressed relative to lean body mass, obese adolescents with good cardiorespiratory fitness had higher oral disposition index than adolescents with poor cardiorespiratory fitness. These results confirm positive effect of good cardiorespiratory fitness on insulin sensitivity and beta cell function in obese adolescents. The two-way analysis of covariance confirmed that severely/morbidly obese adolescents have higher HOMA-IR than mildly obese, with either good or poor cardiorespiratory fitness. At the same time, HOMA-IR did not differ between severely/morbidly obese adolescents with good and mildly obese with poor cardiorespiratory fitness. These results show that insulin sensitivity is influenced not only by the degree of obesity but also by the level of cardiorespiratory fitness. With the ratio of visceral adipose tissue surface area and body height squared as indicator of visceral obesity, a series of regression analyzes confirmed that the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness expressed relative to total body mass and insulin sensitivity is mediated by visceral obesity. Overall, the results of this study show that cardiorespiratory fitness is important determinant of insulin resistance in obese adolescents, as well as the degree of obesity. Therefore, assessment of cardiorespiratory fitness should be an integral part of diagnostic procedure, while the improvement of cardiorespiratory fitness level should be an important part of therapeutic approach to obese adolescents.

Problem nedovoljne tjelesne aktivnosti i s tim povezan problem smanjenja mjera stanja fitnesa globalni je problem kojemu su dodatno pridonijeli pandemija bolesti COVID-19 i mjere socijalnog distanciranja. Tjelesna pismenost i povećanje razine tjelesne pismenosti mogli bi pomoći povećanju tjelesne aktivnosti i razine stanja fitnesa. Ovome bi osobito mogla pridonijeti činjenica da se tjelesna pismenost može razvijati i metodama učenja na daljinu. Glavni cilj ovoga istraživanja bio je utvrditi učinkovitost originalno razvijenog programa edukacije na daljinu u pogledu poboljšanja domene znanja i razumijevanja tjelesne pismenosti i kvantitativnog povećanja tjelesne aktivnosti adolescenata. Dodatni ciljevi bili su: utvrditi pouzdanost i valjanost mjernog instrumenta za procjenu tjelesne pismenosti adolescenata, utvrditi povezanost tjelesne pismenosti s tjelesnom aktivnosti i utvrditi povezanost tjelesne pismenosti sa stanjem fitnesa. U istraživanju je sudjelovalo 544 (365 Ž, 179 M) adolescenta Osječko-baranjske županije u dobi od 14 do 18 godina, uključenih u redoviti srednjoškolski sustav Republike Hrvatske, a koji su bili podijeljeni u intervencijsku i kontrolnu skupinu. Intervencijska skupina dobivala je u razdoblju od 12 tjedana animirane videomaterijale kojima se željelo utjecati na poboljšanje tjelesne pismenosti. Varijable uključene u istraživanje bile su: tjelesna aktivnost, morfološke antropometrijske varijable, stanje fitnesa i domena znanje i razumijevanje tjelesne pismenosti. Ispitanici su testirani u svim varijablama na početku i na kraju studije. Pouzdanost je analizirana izračunavanjem Kappa koeficijenta za test-retest protokole, valjanost upitnika utvrđena je analizom razlika karakterističnih skupina ispitanika (dob, spol, sportski status), a učinci intervencije utvrđeni su primjenom višefaktorske analize varijance za ponovljena mjerenja (vrijeme × skupina). Pouzdanost upitnika za procjenu tjelesne pismenosti bila je odgovarajuća i u skladu s dosadašnjim istraživanjima. Razlike po spolu u tjelesnoj pismenosti nisu utvrđene, ali se zapravo potvrđuje valjanost primijenjenih upitnika. S druge strane, uočavaju se razlike po dobi te su stariji adolescenti imali bolju tjelesnu pismenost od mlađih adolescenata. Konačno, sportaši imaju bolju tjelesnu pismenost od nesportaša, čime je potvrđena valjanost upitnika za procjenu tjelesne pismenosti. Intervencija je imala značajne učinke u pogledu poboljšanja srčano-žilne izdržljivosti i održavanja indeksa tjelesne mase. Dodatno, u istraživanju je zabilježen porast indeksa tjelesne mase s porastom tjelesne mase kod kontrolne skupine te se može reći da je kontrolna skupina pratila uobičajene biološke trendove promjena u 8 adolescenciji, dok je intervencija omogućila pozitivne učinke u tom smislu (održavanje odnosa prirasta tjelesne mase i tjelesne visine, što je rezultiralo održavanjem indeksa tjelesne mase). Nisu uočeni učinci u pogledu poboljšanja (i) tjelesne pismenosti i (ii) tjelesne aktivnosti ispitanika, što je objašnjeno (i) visokom razinom tjelesne pismenosti na početku studije i (ii) činjenicom da je završno testiranje provedeno krajem školskih praznika, a što je bilo uvjetovano pandemijom bolesti COVID-19. Istraživanje je dalo jasnu sliku da je u predmetnom kurikulumu Tjelesne i zdravstvene kulture u Hrvatskoj u određenoj mjeri zanemaren dio koji se odnosi na razvoj teorijskih znanja o važnosti i zdravstvenim dobrobitima tjelesne aktivnosti, odnosno dio usmjeren na razvoj tjelesne pismenosti. Stoga bi u budućnosti kreatori politika, kao i svi ostali dionici sustava odgoja i obrazovanja, trebali razmisliti o uvođenju koncepta tjelesne pismenosti u predmetni kurikulum Tjelesne i zdravstvene kulture te od najranije životne dobi djeteta početi s njezinim razvojem. The problem of physical inactivity and the related issue of a decrease of physical fitness measures is a global problem additionally aggravated by the COVID-19 pandemic and social distancing measures. Physical literacy and an increase of physical literacy (PL) levels could contribute to an increase of physical activity and fitness status. This could be further facilitated by the fact that PL can also be developed through distance learning methods. The main aim of this research is to determine the effectiveness of a created authentic distance education program in terms of improving the domain of knowledge and understanding of PL and the quantitative increase in physical activity levels among adolescents. Additional objectives are: to determine the reliability and validity of the measuring instrument for assessing physical literacy among adolescents, to determine the relationship between physical literacy and physical activity and to determine the relationship between physical literacy and fitness status. The study included 544 (365 female, 179 male) adolescents from Osijek-Baranja County, aged 14 to 18, included in the regular high school system of the Republic of Croatia. They were divided into an intervention and a control group. Over the period of 12 weeks, the intervention group received animated videos aimed at improving PL. The variables included in the study were: physical activity, morphological anthropometric variables, fitness status, knowledge and understanding of PL. Participants were tested in all the named variables at the beginning and at the end of the study. Reliability was analysed by calculating the Kappa coefficient for test-retest protocols. The validity of the questionnaire was determined by analysing differences in characteristic groups of participants (age, gender, sports status), while intervention effects were determined using the multivariate analysis of variance for repeated measurements (time x groups). The reliability of the questionnaire for PL was appropriate and in line with previous research. The differences in PL based on gender were not determined, but the validity of the applied questionnaires was verified. On the other side, the age differences are evident, i.e. older adolescents have a better PL than younger adolescents. Finally, athletes have a better PL than respondents not involved in sports, which also confirmed the validity of the questionnaire for the assessment of physical literacy. An intervention had significant effects on improving the cardiovascular endurance, and maintaining the physical mass index. Additionally, the study proved an increase in body mass index with an increase of physical mass in the control group and thus it can be concluded that the control group followed the common biological trends of 10 changes in adolescence while the intervention enabled positive effects (maintaining the ratio of body mass gain and height increase thus resulting in maintaining the physical mass index). The effects in relation to the improvement of (i) PL and (ii) physical activity of respondents was recognised and the named is explained by (i) a high level of PL at the beginning of study and (ii) by the fact that the final testing was, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, conducted at the end of the school holidays. The study indicates that the physical education curriculum in Croatia to a certain extent neglects the development of theoretical knowledge on the importance and health benefits of physical activity, i.e. the segment aimed at developing PL. Therefore, in future policy makers, as well as other stakeholders in the educational system, should consider the introduction of the physical literacy concept in the physical education curriculum and thus start developing it from the earliest age.

Uzimanje dopinga jedan je od najaktualnih problema modernog sporta, unatoč sve češćim kontrolama i ozbiljnim disciplinskim postupcima prema doping pozitivnim sportašima. Tematika dopinga istraživački je intrigantna i relevantna a jedna od najčešće korištenih teorija u istraživanjima dopinga je Ajzenova Teorija planiranog ponašanja prema kojoj je odluka o pribjegavanju dopingu povezana s brojnim psihološkim faktorima. Cilj ovog istraživanja bio je identificirati upravo psihološke faktore koji su povezani sa stavovima prema dopingu i uzimanjem dopinga na uzorku hrvatskih sportašica i sportaša te ukazati na njihovu važnost u intervencijama vezanim za doping. Istraživanje je provedeno na 988 aktivnih sportaša prosječne dobi 25.03 godine (SD = 7.15). Od toga je u uzorku bilo 631 (64%) muškaraca i 357 (36%) žena, većinom iz ekipnih (N = 722; 73%), a dijelom iz individualnih sportova (N = 266; 27%); njih 426 (43%) je nastupilo na europskom prvenstvu, 226 (23%) na svjetskom prvenstvu, dok 72 (7%) ima nastup na Olimpijskim igrama. Nadalje, 175 (18%) sudionika je osvojilo medalju na europskom prvenstvu, 80 (8%) na svjetskom prvenstvu, dok ih je 33 (3%) osvojilo medalju na Olimpijskim igrama. U istraživanju su korišteni sljedeći mjerni instrumenti: Stavovi prema dopingu (Lazuras, Barkoukis, Rodafinos i Tzorbatzoudis, 2010), Subjektivne norme (Lazuras i sur. 2010), Percipirani stupanj bihevioralne kontrole (Lazuras i sur., 2010), Deskriptivne norme (Lazuras i sur. 2010), Namjera uzimanja dopinga (Lazuras i sur., 2010), Upitnik ciljne orijentacije u sportu, CTEOSQ (Barić i Horga, 2006), Upitnik samopoštovanja (Lacković-Grgin, 1994), Upitnik sportske motivacije (Pelletier, Tuson, Fortier, Vallerand, Brière i Blais, 1995), Uzimanje dopinga (Barkoukis, Lazuras, Tsorbatzoudis i Rodafinos, 2011), Stavovi prema sredstvima za poboljšanje izvedbe - PEAS (Petróczi i Aidman, 2009), te skala za procjenu demografskih podataka, ranga kvalitete i samopercipirane kompetentnosti. Od ukupnog uzorka sportaša, njih 913 (92.4%) izjavilo je da nikada nije uzimalo zabranjene supstance, dok je 75 (7.6%) sudionika izjavilo da je uzimalo doping, od toga su njih 54 bili muškarci koji čine 8.6% ukupnog uzorka sportaša, a 21 su bile žene koje čine 5.9% sportašica ovog uzorka. U istraživanju je ispitano i opće mišljenje sportaša o dopingu slijedećim pitanjima: (1) “Biste li koristili doping kada biste imali garanciju da ćete pobijediti i da nećete biti uhvaćeni?”na koje je 246 (24.8%) sudionika odgovorilo potvrdno te (2) “Biste li koristili doping kada biste bili sigurni da će vam to donijeti medalju na svakom natjecanju u narednih 5 godina, a da ćete potom umrijeti?”na koje je 73 (7.4%) sudionika je odgovorilo potvrdno. Rezultati istraživanja psiholoških varijabli općenito pokazuju da sportaši nisu naklonjeni dopingu tj. da u prosjeku prema tome nemaju pozitivne stavove, da percipiraju nisku razinu pritiska za uzimanje dopinga, osjećaju visok stupanj osobne kontrole nad tom odlukom, ali i da vjeruju da otprilike četvrtina drugih sportaša koristi doping. Također, sportaši ovog uzorka pokazuju visoku razinu samopoštovanja, u prosjeku su više orijentirani na zadatak i usavršavanje vještina no izražena je i ciljna orijentacija na ishod i rezultat, a imaju izraženu i ekstrinzičnu i intrinzičnu motivaciju. Rezultati pokazuju da su samopoštovanje, ciljna orijentacija na zadatak i intrinzična motivacija negativno povezani sa stavovima prema dopingu i sredstvima za poboljšanje izvedbe te negativno s namjerom uzimanja dopinga, dok su ciljna orijentacija na ishod, ekstrinzična motivacija i amotivacija pozitivno povezane sa stavovima prema dopingu i sredstvima za poboljšanje izvedbe te pozitivno s namjerom uzimanja dopinga. Najsnažnijim prediktorom namjere uzimanja dopinga pokazali su se stavovi prema dopingu. Sportaši s pozitivnijim stavovima prema uzimanju dopinga i sredstvima za poboljšanje izvedbe te oni koji vjeruju da njihova okolina ima pozitivne stavove o dopingu pokazivali su i veću namjeru uzimanja dopinga. Također rezultati nam pokazuju da muškarci, sportaši individualnih sportova te sportaši nižeg ranga kvalitete imaju statistički značajno pozitivnije stavove prema dopingu i uzimanju sredstava za poboljšanje izvedbe te snažniju namjeru uzimanju dopinga u odnosu prema ženama, sportašima ekipnih sportova i sportašima višeg ranga kvalitete. Rezultati ovog istraživanja daju uvid u rasprostranjenost korištenja dopinga među hrvatskim sportašima i njihovih stavova o dopingu te doprinose razumijevanju psiholoških faktora koji stoje u pozadini takvog ponašanja, što je ključno za kreiranje prevencijskih i intervencijskih programa. Taking doping is one of the most current problems of modern sports, despite increasingly frequent controls and serious disciplinary procedures against doping-positive athletes. The topic of doping is intriguing and relevant for research, and one of the most commonly used theories in doping research is Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior, according to which the decision to resort to doping is linked to numerous psychological factors. The aim of this research was to identify precisely the psychological factors that are related to attitudes towards doping and the use of doping in a sample of Croatian female and male athletes, and to point out their importance in interventions related to doping. The research was conducted on 988 active athletes with an average age of 25.03 years (SD = 7.15). Of these, there were 631 (64%) men and 357 (36%) women in the sample, mostly from team sports (N = 722; 73%), and partly from individual sports (N = 266; 27%); 426 of them (43%) performed at the European Championship, 226 (23%) at the World Championship, while 72 (7%) performed at the Olympic Games. Furthermore, 175 (18%) participants won a medal at the European Championships, 80 (8%) at the World Championships, while 33 (3%) of them won a medal at the Olympic Games. The following measuring instruments were used in the research: Attitudes towards doping (Lazuras et al., 2010), Subjective norms (Lazuras et al., 2010), Perceived degree of behavioral control (Lazuras et al., 2010), Descriptive norms (Lazuras et al., 2010), Intention to doping (Lazuras et al., 2010), Questionnaire of goal orientation in sport, CTEOSQ (Barić & Horga, 2006), Self-esteem questionnaire (Lacković-Grgin, 1994), Sports motivation questionnaire (Pelletier et al., 1995), Taking doping (Barkoukis et al., 2011), The Performance Enhancement Attitude Scale - PEAS (Petróczi & Aidman, 2009), and Demographic Assessment Scale, Rank quality and self-perceived competence. Of the total sample of athletes, 913 (92.4%) stated that they had never taken prohibited substances, while 75 (7.6%) participants stated that they had taken doping, of which 54 were men, who make up 8.6% of the total sample of athletes, and 21 were women, who make up 5.9% of the athletes in this sample. The research also examined the general opinion of athletes about doping with the following questions: (1) ”Would you use doping if you had a guarantee that you would win and not be caught?”, to which 246 (24.8%) participants answered yes, and (2) ”Would you use doping if you were sure that it would bring you a medal in every competition for the next 5 years, and then you would die?” to which 73 (7.4%) participants answered yes. The results of the research on psychological variables generally show that athletes are not in favor of doping, i.e. that on average they do not have positive attitudes towards doping, that they perceive a low level of pressure to take doping, feel a high degree of personal control over that decision, but also that they believe that approximately a quarter of other athletes use doping. Also, the athletes of this sample show a high level of self-esteem, on averagethey are more oriented towards the task and the improvement of skills, but the goal orientation towards the outcome and result is also expressed, and they have expressed both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. The results show that self-esteem, goal orientation to the task and intrinsic motivation are negatively related to attitudes towards doping and performance enhancing agents and negatively to the intention to take doping, while goal orientation to the outcome, extrinsic motivation and amotivation are positively related to attitudes towards doping and performance enhancing agents and positively with the intention of doping. Attitudes towards doping proved to be the strongest predictor of intention to doping. Athletes with more positive attitudes towards taking doping and performance enhancing agents and those who believe that their environment has positive attitudes towards doping also showed a greater intention to take doping. Also, the results show us that men, athletes of individual sports and athletes of a lower quality rank have statistically significantly more positive attitudes towards doping and taking performance enhancing agents and a stronger intention to take doping in relation to women, athletes of team sports and athletes of a higher quality rank. The results of this research provide insight into the prevalence of doping use among Croatian athletes and their attitudes about doping, and contribute to the understanding of the psychological factors behind such behavior, which is crucial for the creation of prevention and intervention programs

Uvod: Evaluacija F-v profila vertikalnoga skoka sve je učestalija u procesu dijagnostike, a ispitivanje učinaka usmjerenog treninga na temelju takve vrste dijagnostike provedeno je u nekoliko studija dosad. Međutim, pregledom literature je utvrđeno da ne postoji istraživanje koje je na ispitanicima iste vrste F-v profila provjeravalo utjecaj različitih vrsta opterećenja na izvedbu vertikalnoga skoka. Stoga, temeljni cilj ovoga istraživanja je bio evaluirati akutni i kronični utjecaj dvije različite vrste opterećenja na izvedbu bilateralnoga vertikalnoga skoka kod ispitanika deficitarnih silom u F-v profilu. Metode: U istraživanju akutnih učinaka je sudjelovalo osamnaest ispitanika koji su bili podvrgnuti provedbi dvije vrste predopterećenja. Jedan protokol se odnosio na izvedbu stražnjeg polučučnja s opterećenjem u vrijednosti 85% od jednog maksimalnog ponavljanja (1RM) i označavao je predopterećenje u smjeru sile, dok se u drugom izvodio skok iz čučnja s rasterećenjem od 25% tjelesne mase te je označavao predopterećenje u smjeru brzine. U ovome dijelu istraživanju analizirala se vršna visina u skoku iz čučnja pri inicijalnom mjerenju te 1'30'', 4', 6'30'' i 9' nakon provedbe predopterećenja. Jednosmjernom i dvosmjernom ANOVOM za ponovljena mjerenja provjeravala se postavljena hipoteza. Ukupno trideset ispitanika, jedankobrojno podijeljenih u dvije grupe, participiralo je u istraživanju kroničnih učinaka. Grupa sila je tijekom sedmotjednog programa treninga izvodila stražnji polučučanj s opterećenjem u vrijednosti 80 – 85% 1RM, dok je grupa brzina tijekom jednakog perioda provodila treninge skokova iz čučnja s rasterećenjem od 25% tjelesne mase. Razlike u izvedbi vertikalnoga skoka između inicijalnog i finalnog mjerenja unutar protokola testirane su t – testom za zavisne uzorke ili Wilcoxonovim testom sume rangova. Značajnost interakcije faktora vrijeme mjerenja i program treninga ispitivana je 2 x 2 miješanim ANOVA modelom. Rezultati: Jednosmjernom ANOVOM je utvrđena statistička značajnost tijekom protokola predopterećenja u smjeru brzine, s naglaskom na značajnoj nižoj vrijednosti visine skoka iz čučnja u 9.' nakon provedbe predopterećenja u komparaciji s inicijalnim mjerenjem. Suprotno tome, unutar protokola predopterećenja u smjeru sile nisu zabilježene značajnosti. Dvosmjernom ANOVOM je notirana značajnost interakcije faktora vrijeme mjerenja i protokola predopterećenja, no Bonferroni testom nisu pronađene statističke značajnosti između analiziranih parova. U istraživanju kroničnih učinaka primjetne su neznačajne promjene u svim kinematičkim i kinetičkim varijablama vertikalnoga skoka kod grupe brzina. Također, kod spomenute grupe nije došlo do značajnih promjena u F-v profilu. Grupa sila bilježi suprotne trendove, pa su u većini kinematičkih i kinetičkih varijabli primjetne značajnosti, s naglaskom na poboljšanjima. Navedena poboljšanja su popraćena značajnom optimizacijom mehaničkog F-v profila. Vrijedi istaknuti velik učinak provedenog treninga na promjenu u vršnoj visini skoka iz čučnja, vršnoj snazi skoka iz čučnja, vršnoj snazi skoka iz čučnja s pripremom te srednji učinak na promjenu u vršnoj visini skoka iz čučnja s pripremom. Zaključak: Rezultati grupe brzina u istraživanju kroničnih učinaka, kao i rezultati protokola predopterećenja u smjeru brzine pri istraživanju akutnih učinaka, potkrjepljuju hipotezu da dominantno izvođenje podražaja koji su oprečni deficitarnoj komponenti mehaničkog F-v profil mogu prouzrokovati nepromjenjivost u izvedbi ili čak izazvati pogoršanje. Hipotezu o efikasnosti programa treninga usmjerenog ka razvoju deficitarne komponente F-v profila uvelike argumentiraju rezultati grupe sila u istraživanju kroničnih učinaka, dok evidentirani akutni učinci predopterećenja u smjeru sile pokazuju samo blagi potencijal za takvo što, nipošto snažne indikacije. Introduction: Evaluation of the F-v profile of the vertical jump has become increasingly common in the diagnostic process, and examination of the effects of targeted training based on this type of assessment has been conducted in several studies up to today. However, by reviewing the literature it has been found that there is no study of the influence of different types of loads on the performance of a bilateral vertical jump examined on subjects of the same type of F-v profile. Therefore, the basic goal of this study was to evaluate the influence of two different types of loads on the performance of squat jumps in subjects deficient in force in the F-v profile. Methods: Eighteen subjects participated in the part of research concerning acute effects. All subjects were tested in two different protocols. One protocol referred to the performance of a half back squat with a load of 85% of one maximum repetition (1RM) and indicated a pre-load in the direction of force. During another protocol subjects performed a squat jump with an unloading of 25% of body weight and that indicated a preload in the direction of velocity. Peak height of squat jump was analyzed during the initial measurement and 1'30 '', 4 ', 6'30' 'and 9' after the pre-load. The set hypothesis was tested with one-way and two-way ANOVA for repeated measurements. A total of thirty subjects, equally divided into two groups, participated in the study of chronic effects. During the seven-week training program, the force group performed a half back squat with a load of 80-85% 1RM, while the velocity group performed squat jumps with an unloading of 25% of body weight during the same period. Differences between initial and final measurements within the protocol were tested by t - test for dependent samples or Wilcoxon signed-rank test. The significance of the interaction of the measurement time factor and the training program was examined with a 2 x 2 mixed ANOVA model. Results: Statistical significance was determined by one-way ANOVA during the pre-load protocol in the direction of velocity, with an emphasis on a significantly lower value of squat jump height at 9' after the pre-load performance in comparison with the initial measurement. In contrast, no significance was observed within the pre-loading protocol in the force direction. The significance of the interaction between the measurement time factor and the preloading protocol was noted with two-way ANOVA, but the Bonferroni test did not find statistical significance between the analyzed pairs. In the study of chronic effects, non-significant changes in all kinematic and kinetic variables of the vertical jump at the velocity group are noticeable. Also, in the mentioned group there were no significant changes in the F-v profile. The group of forces records opposite trends, so in most kinematic and kinetic variables they are of noticeable significance, with an emphasis on improvements. These improvements are accompanied by significant optimization of the mechanical F-v profile. It is worth noting the large effect of the training on the change in the peak height of the squat jump, the peak force of the squat jump and the peak power of the countermovement jump. Medium effect on the change in the peak height of the squat jump with preparation. Additionally, a medium effect on the change in peak height of countermovement jump squat was observed. Conclusion: The results of the velocity group in the study of chronic effects, as well as the results of the pre-loading protocol in the direction of velocity in the study of acute effects, support the hypothesis that dominant performance of stimuli contrary to the deficient component of mechanical F-v profile may cause invariance or even a decrease in performance. The hypothesis of the effectiveness of a training program aimed at developing a deficient component of the F-v profile is largely argued by the results of force group in the study of chronic effects, while recorded acute effects of pre-load in the direction of force show only slight potential for such strong indications.

Cilj ovog istraživanja bio je usporediti postoje li razlike u učincima između dviju tehnika mehaničkoga podraživanja mišićne fascije pjenastim valjkom (roling) na redukciju simptoma sindroma odgođenog mišićnog bola (DOMS). Istraživanje je provedeno na prigodnom uzorku od 56 muških ispitanika, studenata druge godine Kineziološkog fakulteta Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, slučajnim odabirom podijeljenim u dvije skupine. U prvom dijelu istraživanja provedena su predtestna mjerenja te je učinjen protokol za oštećenje mišića inducirano vježbom (EIMD), koji se sastojao od tri serije maksimalnih sunožnih skokova s pripremom do otkaza. Odmah nakon EIMD-protokola provedeno je mehaničko podraživanje mišićne fascije pjenastim valjkom tako da je prva skupina provodila kontinuirane kretnje uzdužno po tretiranoj mišićnoj skupini (skupina RK), dok je druga skupina provodila kratke undulirajuće kretnje niz mišićnu skupinu uz brzu kontinuiranu kretnju natrag (skupina RU). Drugi dio istraživanja proveden je 48 sati nakon provođenja EIMD-protokola te su učinjena završna mjerenja opsega natkoljenice, intenziteta bola na vizualno-analognoj ljestvici, aktivnosti kreatin-kinaze, jakosti kvadricepsa, visine maksimalnog sunožnog skoka s pripremom, fleksibilnosti te bola prilikom provođenja rolinga. Nije uočena statistički značajna razlika u promatranim parametrima između dviju tehnika rolinga. Na temelju dobivenih rezultata možemo zaključiti da nema razlike u učincima dviju promatranih tehnika mehaničkoga podraživanja mišićne fascije pjenastim valjkom na redukciju pojave simptoma DOMS-a te da se tehnika rolinga u oporavku nakon intenzivne tjelesne aktivnosti može izabrati prema vlastitoj preferenciji, dok su potrebna daljnja istraživanja koja bi razjasnila moguću povezanost odnosa tehnike rolinga i vrste mišićne kontrakcije. The aim of this study was to compare whether there are differences in the effects between the two techniques of selfmyofascial release with a foam roller (rolling) on reducing the symptoms of delayed onset of muscle soreness (DOMS). The research was conducted on a convenience sample of 56 male subjects, second-year students at the Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, who were randomly divided into two groups. In the first part of the study, pre-test measurements and exercise induced muscle damage (EIMD) protocol were performed, which consisted of three sets of countermovement jumps with preparation for exhaustion. Immediately after the EIMD protocol, selfmyofascial release was performed with a foam roller in such a way that the first group performed continuous movements in the longitudinal direction of the treated muscle group (group RK), while the second group performed short undulating movements downward into the muscle group with a rapid continuous movement back (group RU). The second part of the study was conducted 48 hours after the EIMD protocol. This included final measurements of thigh circumference, pain intensity, creatine kinase activity, quadriceps strength, maximal countermovement jump, flexibility, and pain sensation during foam rolling. No statistically significant difference was found in the observed parameters between the two foam rolling techniques. Based on the obtained results, we can conclude that there are no differences in the effects of the two observed techniques of selfmyolfascial release with a foam roller on the reduction of DOMS symptoms, and that the rolling technique can be chosen according to personal preference during recovery from intense physical activity, while further research is needed to elucidate the possible relationship between the rolling technique and the type of muscle contraction.

Istraživanje genoma, skupa podataka koji uz okolišne čimbenike određuje sposobnosti i karakteristike pojedinca, predstavlja najveći napredak i izazov u modernoj znanosti. Posljednjih tridesetak godina svjedoci smo velikog napretka u istraživanju genoma na svim razinama. U kontekstu sporta potvrđena je povezanost više od 200 genskih polimorfizama s motoričkim i funkcionalnim sposobnostima. Svrha ovog istraživanje je bila utvrditi pojavnost genotipova polimorfizma R577X u genu ACTN3, polimorfizma Trp64Arg u genu ADRB3 i insercijsko-delecijskog (Ins-Del) polimorfizma ACE gena kod igrača ekipnih sportova najvišeg natjecateljskog ranga na prostoru Hrvatske. Za navedene genske polimorfizme dosadašnja istraživanja ukazivala su na moguću povezanost s uspjehom u energetski ekstremnim sportovima kao što su power lifting i sprint te, s druge strane, maratonom i sportovima visoke dominacije aerobne izdržljivosti. Podatci o utjecaju navedenih gena u ekipnim sportovima u dosadašnjim istraživanjima bili su nekonzistentni. Uzorak se sastojao od 56 nogometaša, 40 košarkaša i 31 odbojkaša. Pretpostavljeni superioran genotip RR za sposobnost eksplozivnosti i snage polimorfizma R577X ACTN3 gena je bio zastupljen u 37% osoba u selekcioniranom uzorku vrhunskih sportaša. Istraživanje je pokazalo da postoje statistički značajne razlike u distribuciji RR genotipa polimorfizma ACTN3 gena između vrhunskih sportaša sva tri sporta koje smo analizirali u usporedbi s neselekcioniranom općom populacijom iz rada Massada i sur., 2015 koji je prvotno uzet kao referenca kontrolne neselekcionirane opće populacije. S druge strane, razlika nije bila značajna između selekcionirane populacije vrhunskih sportaša ovog rada s općom populacijom iz novije studije koja je geografski idealno odgovarala populaciji vrhunskih sportaša Republike Hrvatske iz ovog rada (Konakli i sur.,2017). Nije primijećena povećana učestalost genotipa Ins /Ins ACE gena niti genotipova Trp/Trp i Trp/Arg ADRB3 gena kod vrhunskih sportaša našeg istraživanja za koje se pretpostavljalo da bi bili učestaliji u sportu s naglašenom aerobnom komponentom. Rezultati su ukazali na statistički značajne razlike 'genskog sportskog indeksa' između nogometaša na pozicijama veznog reda i napada. Na temelju analiziranih podataka zaključeno je da ne postoji statistički značajna razlika u incidenciji određenih polimorfizama između sportaša ekipnih sportova i opće populacije ove regije. Ovo istraživanje otvara pitanje određivanja koeficijenta utjecaja genskih polimorfizama i njihove interakcije na razvoj sportskih sposobnosti i vještina koje determiniraju sportski uspjeh. Genome research, a set of data that together with environmental factors determines the abilities and characteristics of an individual, represents the greatest progress and challenge in modern science. In the last thirty years, we have witnessed great progress in genome research at all levels. In the context of sports, the association of more than 200 gene polymorphisms with motor and functional abilities has been confirmed. The purpose of this research was to determine the occurrence of genotypes of the R577X polymorphism in the ACTN3 gene, the Trp64Arg polymorphism in the ADRB3 gene, and the insertion-deletion (Ins-Del) polymorphism of the ACE gene in players of the highest competitive team sports in Croatia. For the aforementioned gene polymorphisms, previous research has indicated a possible connection with success in energy-extreme sports such as power lifting and sprinting and, on the other hand, with marathons and sports with a high dominance of aerobic endurance. Data on the influence of the mentioned genes in team sports in previous research were inconsistent. The sample consisted of 56 soccer players, 40 basketball players and 31 volleyball players. The presumed superior RR genotype for explosiveness and strength of the R577X ACTN3 gene polymorphism was present in 37% of individuals in a selected sample of elite athletes. The research showed that there are statistically significant differences in the distribution of the RR genotype of the ACTN3 gene polymorphism between top athletes of all three sports that we analyzed compared to the unselected general population from the work of Massad et al., 2015, which was originally taken as a reference of the control unselected general population. On the other hand, the difference was not significant between the selected population of top athletes in this paper and the general population from a recent study, which geographically ideally corresponded to the population of top athletes in the Republic of Croatia from this paper (Konakli et al., 2017). An increased frequency of the Ins /Ins ACE gene genotype or the Trp/Trp and Trp/Arg ADRB3 gene genotypes was not observed in the elite athletes of our study, which were assumed to be more frequent in sports with an emphasized aerobic component. The results indicated statistically significant differences in the 'genetic sports index' between football players in midfield and attacking positions. Based on the obtained data, it was concluded that there is no statistically significant difference in the incidence of studied polymorphisms between team sports athletes and the general population of this region. This research raises the question of the ability to asses the coefficient of influence of gene polymorphisms and their interactions on sport abilities and skills that determine the sports success.

Effects Of Sensorimotor Training On Motor Control And Dynamic Balance In Hearing Impaired Handball Players Temeljni cilj ovog istraživanja bio je istražiti učinke senzomotornoga treninga na motoričku kontrolu u koljenom zglobu i dinamičku ravnotežu rukometaša s oštećenjem sluha. Sekundarni cilj istraživanja bio je utvrditi utjecaj senzomotornoga treninga na motoričku kontrolu u koljenom zglobu i dinamičku ravnotežu rukometaša s oštećenjem sluha u uvjetima umora. Prema dosadašnjim spoznajama iz područja neurofiziologije, sportskog treninga i motoričke kontrole, postavljene su četiri hipoteze: provedeni senzomotorni trening proizvesti će statistički značajno poboljšanje motoričke kontrole u koljenom zglobu rukometaša s oštećenjem sluha (H1), provedeni senzomotorni trening proizvesti će statistički značajno poboljšanje dinamičke ravnoteže rukometaša s oštećenjem sluha (H2), provedeni senzomotorni trening proizvesti će statistički značajno poboljšanje motoričke kontrole u koljenom zglobu rukometaša s oštećenjem sluha u uvjetima umora (H3) i provedeni senzomotorni trening proizvesti će statistički značajno poboljšanje dinamičke ravnoteže rukometaša s oštećenjem sluha u uvjetima umora (H4). Istraživanje je provedeno na prigodnom uzorku od dvadeset i četiri rukometaša s oštećenjem sluha Zagrebačke županije i Grada Zagreba, muškog spola, prosječne dobi od 28 godina (± 6,3 godine), koji su nasumično raspoređeni ili u kontrolnu (12) ili u eksperimentalnu (12) skupinu. U trenažnom razdoblju od pet tjedana ispitanici eksperimentalne skupine proveli su ukupno 20 trenažnih jedinica senzomotornoga treninga, dok su ispitanici kontrolne skupine nastavili s njihovim uobičajenim aktivnostima. Utjecaj provedenog senzomotornoga treninga na dinamičku ravnotežu i motoričku kontrolu ispitanika procijenjen je zvjezdolikim testom ravnoteže, zadatkom precizne reprodukcije kuta fleksijom potkoljenice i testom brzine kretanja braniča kliznim koracima u dva trokuta. Za sve varijable izračunati su osnovni centralni i disperzivni parametri u inicijalnom i finalnom mjerenju. Promjene između početnog i završnog mjerenja za svaku skupinu ispitanika posebno, provjerene su uz pomoć t-testa za zavisne uzorke. Veličina učinka trenažnih programa procijenjena je Cohenovim indexom veličine učinka. Razlika u promjenama između skupina nakon trenažnog razdoblja u svakoj od zavisnih varijabli, utvrđena je pomoću dvofaktorske analize varijance (grupa x vrijeme) s ponovljenim mjerenjima na jednom faktoru (vrijeme). Razina statističke značajnosti postavljena je na p < 0,05. Istraživanjem je utvrđen pozitivan utjecaj provedenog senzomotornoga treninga na motoričku kontrolu u koljenom zglobu i dinamičku ravnotežu rukometaša s oštećenjem sluha u uvjetima odmora i smanjeni utjecaj umora na motoričku kontrolu u koljenom zglobu i dinamičku ravnotežu rukometaša s oštećenjem sluha. Zaključno, istraživanjem otkriveni lokalni mehanizmi specifične adaptacije na trening i mogućnost odgode utjecaja umora na stabilnost koljena sportaša s oštećenjem sluha predstavljaju značajan znanstveni doprinos području koji proučava prevencijske strategije u smislu smanjenja iznimno često ozlijeđenog koljenog zgloba. Dobiveni rezultati predstavljaju i praktičan doprinos unapređenju planiranja i programiranja prevencijskih strategija u radu sa sportašima s oštećenjem sluha, a pogotovo rukometašima. Purpose: The main goal of this research was to investigate the effects of sensorimotor training on postural control in the knee joint and the dynamic balance of hearing-impaired male handball players. The secondary goal was to investigate the effects of sensorimotor training on postural control in the knee joint and the dynamic balance of hearing-impaired male handball players in conditions of fatigue. According to recent insights in neurophysiology, sports training and motor control, the four main hypotheses were set: the conducted sensorimotor training will significantly improve postural control in the knee joint of hearing-impaired male handball players (H1), the conducted sensorimotor training will significantly improve the dynamic balance of hearing-impaired male handball players (H2), the conducted sensorimotor training will significantly improve postural control in the knee joint of hearing-impaired male handball players in conditions of fatigue (H3) and the conducted sensorimotor training will significantly improve the dynamic balance of hearing-impaired male handball players in conditions of fatigue (H4). Methods: The research was conducted on a suitable sample of twenty-four male handball players with hearing impairment from the city of Zagreb and Zagreb County. They were approximately twenty-eight years of age (± 6,3 years). Before starting the research, a joint meeting was conducted at which the handballers with the hearing impairment were briefed in detail of the research plan as well as the possible risks of their participation. The basic objective of the research was explained, and a detailed description of the experimental plan was given to them. The estimated measurement procedure, fatigue protocol and experimental training programme were also described. After the meeting, the respondents signed a declaration of voluntary consent to the participation in the research. The criteria for the inclusion of participants in the research consisted of: a diagnosed hearing impairment (at least 55 dB on an audiometry test in the better ear), less than 40 years of age and regular handball training (either only within the club system or within the club and through the preparation system for the national team). The exclusion criteria were: acute lower extremity injury within one year before the start of the study, having an overuse syndrome or lumbar pain and having a neuromuscular disorder. After the initial measurement was carried out, the participants were randomly assigned to one of the following groups: control group (K) - 12 participants and experimental group (E) - 12 participants. The conducted research belongs to the category of randomized controlled studies. As a part of the research, the effects of the training programme (sensorimotor training), which lasted for five weeks with a total of 20 training units, were studied. Participants in the experimental group were included in sensorimotor training. Each training unit consisted of an initial ten-minute warm-up (running with tasks and stretching exercises), the main unit that carried out exercises to develop strength, postural control, plyometrics and dynamic balance along with the units for the development of motor control under the specific conditions of handball game. The control group (K) participants did not have any specific sensorimotor training during the five-week training period, however, they continued with their usual activities. Dynamic balance was measured using the star excursion balance test. Dynamic balance measures were the average length on each of the eight directions measured in centimetres, and the calculated total covered area, as an overall measure of the dynamic balance of each leg. Motor control in the knee joint was assessed by the task of accurately reproducing the angle by flexion of the lower leg. The ability to accurately reproduce the angle in the knee joint was assessed through the average deviation produced from the reference angle (Ō), expressed in degrees. Another test for motor control assessment was the defender's movement in two triangles test. The test was carried out using two-stepping right-angled triangles of a 1,5 m long cathetus each. The time spent to cover the given surface forming two triangles (right and left) with slide steps, in milliseconds, was used as an indicator of motor control in a specific handball situation. The examiner described and demonstrated each task, and the participants had enough time to try them out before officially performing them. The fatigue protocol was based on the implementation of four sections of running with tasks of different lengths at maximum speed (2x10m, 2x20m, 2x30m and 2x40m). The tasks included lateral movement at maximum speed with imitation of blocking shots, running with changes in direction of movement and slalom run with the imitation of jump shots. The average duration of the protocol was 90 seconds, and it was repeated four times with two minutes rest in-between repetitions. The total duration of the fatigue protocol was 12 minutes in average. Such a protocol brings the organism to the conditions of maximum glycolysis, which ensures the onset of local fatigue. The state of fatigue of the respondents was checked through lactate measurements (two minutes after the implementation of the fatigue protocol) and through a modified Borg scale for subjective assessment of the state of fatigue (from 1 for slight fatigue to 10 for extreme fatigue). To measure the monitored abilities in rested and fatigued participants, the fatigue protocol was carried out at the initial and final measurement, and the intended tests were carried out before and after the fatigue protocol. The implementation of the fatigue protocol at the initial and final measurements made it possible to check the impact of the conducted sensorimotor training on dynamic balance and motor control in conditions of present or non-present fatigue. For all variables, the basic central and dispersive parameters in the initial and final measurements were calculated. Changes between the initial and final measurements for each group of subjects were checked separately by means of a t-test for dependent samples. The magnitude of the effect of training programmes was estimated by Cohen's effect size index. The difference in changes between groups after the training period, in each of the dependent variables, was determined using two-factor variance analysis (group x time) with repeated measurements on one factor (time). The level of statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Results: The body weight and consequently the body mass index of participants for both groups, in particular, did not change significantly during the implementation of the five-week experimental sensorimotor training programme. The values of the body weight and body mass index measured at the end of the five-week training period did not differ between groups either (bodyweight p = 0.89; body mass index p = 0.21). As part of the research, motor control in the knee joint was assessed through kinesthesia and agility tasks. The results indicate a certain effect of the conducted sensorimotor training on the motor control of hearing-impaired handball players, assessed through kinesthesia tasks (precise reproduction of the angle in the knee joint). The variables assessing the agility of the participants did not show a statistically significant effect of the performed sensorimotor training (from p = 0.18 to p = 0.14), although the insight into descriptive indicators showed a trend of improving performance in the final measurement. The comparison between the groups, in the results achieved in the initial and final measurements, in motor control indicators (kinesthesia and agility), indicated significant differences in the average deviation produced from the reference angle for the 60° knee joint angle for the preferred (p = 0.03) and unpreferred (p = 0.04) leg. The results also indicate a statistically significant effect of sensorimotor training in eight indicators of the dynamic balance of hearing-impaired handball players. The comparison between the groups, in the results achieved in the initial and final measurements, in dynamic balance pointed to significant intersecting differences in nine directions. The obtained results indicate a certain effect of fatigue on the motor control of hearing-impaired handball players, assessed through agility tasks (the time taken to perform the task of moving in sliding steps in two triangles) and kinesthesia (precise reproduction of the angle in the knee joint), measured on the initial test. The statistically significant effect of fatigue on the monitored variables was found in both experimental and control group participants. The obtained results indicate a certain effect of fatigue on the dynamic balance of handball players with hearing loss, assessed through the task of a star excursion balance test, measured at the initial measurement. The statistically significant effect of fatigue on the assessed variables was found both in the experimental and control group participants. The obtained results do not indicate a significant effect of fatigue on the motor control of handball players with hearing impairment of the experimental group, assessed through agility tasks (the time required to perform the task of moving in sliding steps in two triangles) and kinesthesia (precise reproduction of the angle in the knee joint), on the final measurement. On the other hand, a statistically significant fatigue effect was found in the control group participants in both agility and kinesthesia assessment variables. In the experimental group, there is a clear trend of deterioration of results in almost all the variables in conditions of fatigue, but these changes are not statistically significant. The obtained results do not indicate a significant effect of fatigue on the dynamic balance of handball players with hearing impairment of the experimental group, assessed through the task of a star excursion balance test on the final measurement. On the other hand, in the participants of the control group, a statistically significant effect of fatigue was found in most indicators of dynamic balance. Again, in condition of fatigue, participants of the experimental group tend to achieve worse results in almost all dynamic balance variables, however these changes are not statistically significant. Discussion and conclusions: In team sports, the deterioration of sensorimotor function including balance instability that could have been caused by previous injuries or muscle fatigue is considered a risk factor for injury in athletes. Fatigue can contribute to changing the motor control of the lower extremities subsequently impairing the ability to dynamically stabilize the knee. Nevertheless, the exact mechanism of action of fatigue on knee kinesthesia, dynamic balance and agility in specific sport situations is not fully understood, and the possibility of reducing the influence of fatigue by means of a sensorimotor training has not been explored to date. The results of the conducted study show for the first time a decrease in the acute impact of fatigue on kinesthesia in the knee joint as well as on agility and dynamic balance of trained athletes using sensorimotor training. The results of the impact of sensorimotor training on knee kinesthesia and dynamic balance of athletes convey current knowledge by testifying the targeted adaptation of muscle mechanoreceptors (muscle spindle and Golgi apparatus) to a combination of specific agility exercises, plyometrics, and balance. The fact that the study was conducted on handball players with hearing loss made it possible to test the local nervous adaptation on participants whose adaptation at the level of the auditory receptors was disrupted by the disease. The obtained results point to the fact that to reduce the impact of fatigue on knee joint motor control of trained handball players, the sensorimotor training must last at least five weeks, with a total of 20 training units, and consist of a combination of specific agility, balance and plyometric exercises. In conclusion, the research revealed local mechanisms for the influence of fatigue on the motor control of the knee and the possibility of delaying fatigue as well as a consequent deterioration of knee stability in hearing-impaired athletes representing thus a significant contribution to the scientific field that studies prevention strategies, as well as a practical contribution that improves the planning and programming of prevention strategies of handball players.

The main aim of this doctoral thesis is (i) to determine the changes in physical activity levels (PAL) because of the pandemic and measures of social distancing and (ii) to determine the factors that are associated with PAL and changes in PAL among adolescents due to social distancing measures. Precisely, Study 1 aimed to determine the associations between gender and fitness status; Study 2 aimed to determine the association of living environment; Study 3 aimed to determine the association of familial factors; and Study 4 aimed to determine the associations between substance use and misuse and sports participation with PAL and PAL changes among adolescents due to social distancing measures. Studies were carried out on adolescents from Croatia (Study 1 and Study 2) and Bosnia and Herzegovina (Study 3 and Study 4), all attending high school. All studies followed a similar testing procedure that consisted of two testing points: baseline, conducted before lockdown (during February and early March 2020), and follow-up, conducted during the COVID-19 lockdown (during April 2020). Study 1 included 388 adolescents aged 16.4±1.9 years from southern Croatia. During the baseline testing, participants were assessed on PAL (assessed with PAQ-A), gender (female/male), anthropometrics(body height, mass, body mass index), and physical fitness tests (long jump, bent-arm hold test, sit and reach test, 400 meters running, beep test, and the maximal number of abdominal sit-ups in 60 seconds). Follow-up testing included only PAL assessment. Results of Study 1 evidenced a significant PAL decline for the total sample (t-test = 3.46, p

Sprega sporta i politike je, pored drugih društvenih čimbenika, bila jedna od značajnih simboličkih obilježja raspada Jugoslavije. Nogomet je više od 30 godina služio za izgradnju, a onda u zadnjem desetljeću za razgradnju jugoslavenskoga socijalizma, pri čemu glavnu ulogu nisu imali sami sportaši već sportska publika. Stoga, glavni je cilj ove disertacije, promatrajući prilike u socijalističkoj Jugoslaviji, a prvenstveno u Hrvatskoj i Srbiji, od 1980., kada umire Josip Broz Tito te nastupaju ekonomska, društvena i politička kriza, do raspada federacije 1991. godine, rekonstrukcijom zbivanja tijekom pojedinih nogometnih utakmica te dekonstrukcijom medijskih narativa istražiti utjecaj dnevno-političkih i društvenih događaja na učestalost međunacionalnih i nasilničkih incidenata na nogometnim stadionima. S druge strane, pokazat će jesu li, u kojoj mjeri i na koji način navijački slogani i pjesme te nasilnički ispadi, zajedno s drugim društvenim čimbenicima, utjecali na stvaranje društvenih praksi usmjerenih na širenje popularnosti nacionalnih ideologija te različitih političkih stranaka i njihovih čelnika na prijelomu iz osamdesetih u devedesete godine 20. stoljeća. Drugim riječima, odgovorit će se na pitanje je li ponašanje nogometne publike u Jugoslaviji bilo samo refleksija aktualne politike i društvenih gibanja kao objekt jednosmjernoga utjecaja nametnutoga odozgo ili je publika bila i aktivnim (do)nositeljem nacionalizma kao subjekt turbulentnih društvenih i političkih gibanja koja u tom razdoblju zahvaćaju jugoslavensku federaciju. Iz ovoga se istraživanja može zaključiti da su rituali nogometnih navijača, prvenstveno kroz nasilničko ponašanje i verbalnu ekspresiju nacionalističkoga sadržaja, u prvoj polovici i sredinom osamdesetih godina bili odraz popuštanja ideološke “stege” te ekonomskih i društvenih tenzija u javnom životu. Kao objektima, njihovo je ponašanje bilo direktno posljedica dnevne politike i društvenih refleksija. No, krajem osamdesetih, uz sve to, oni postaju i aktivnim (su)kreatorima javnoga mnijenja, obraćajući se uživo te posredstvom radija i televizije višemilijunskom auditoriju najpopularnijega sporta u državi, što bi značilo da su se vremenom transformirali, pored drugih čimbenika, u subjekt širenja nacionalizma u Jugoslaviji. Along with other social aspects, the connection of sports and politics was one of the seminal features of the breakup of Yugoslavia. For more than 30 years, football served as a means for the development of Yugoslav socialism, whereas in the last decade of the country’s existence, it contributed to its dissolution. Socialism was primarily not broken down by sportsmen themselves, but the process of dissolution was carried out by the spectators, that is in the second half of the Eighties by groups of fans of determined football clubs. Partial chauvinist incidents on the tribunes had happened earlier as well. It had all begun with a “marginally” complicated political context when Torcida was born during the Hajduk vs. Crvena zvezda match in 1950, followed by minor chauvinist outbursts during the Sixties, happening at matches where Croatian clubs would play against Serbian clubs. A follow up of these incidents were the disturbing national slogans after the match Hajduk vs. OFK Beograd in 1970, which took place within the context of a tense political stage during the Croatian spring (Hrvatsko proljeće, MASPOK). During the Seventies of the XX century, when the first “louder” supporters’ choirs originated, socialist Yugoslavia did not register an increase of chauvinist manifestations on its stadiums, which can possibly be justified with the political purges of the leaders of the Croatian spring in Croatia and with that of the “liberals” in Serbia; moreover, the exceptionally stable economy of the country in those years accounts for the lack of discontent among people. The authorities of those times, under the strong control of Josip Broz Tito, tried to preserve the balance within the country; any potentially dangerous situation would be solved with repression measures (here we mean the crisis with Informbiro in 1948, the 1966 Ranković affair, the Croatian spring / MASPOK 1971): hence, disorders on the sport fields could not gain ground. The beginning of the Eighties means a major change for the above mentioned context: repression measures diminish and this paves the way to a series of changes both on the political scene as well as in sports and among sport supporters. Taking into consideration what has been said above and considering the conditions in socialist Yugoslavia, above all in Croatia and Serbia, in the period from 1980, that is after the death of Josip Broz Tito, which triggered an economic, social and political crisis, until the breakup of the federation in 1991, the main aim of this dissertation is to explore the influence of daily social and political events on the frequency of inter-national (inter-ethnic) and violent incidents on football stadiums. This will be done by a reconstruction of events during particular football matches and by a deconstruction of the media narrative of those times. On the other hand, the dissertation intends to show to what extent and how the supporters’ slogans and songs as well as their violent outbursts, along with other social factors, influenced the creation of social patterns aiming at spreading the popularity of national ideologies and of diverse political parties and their leaders at the turn of the decade from the Eighties into the Nineties. In other words, the following question will be answered: Was the behaviour of football spectators in Yugoslavia a mere reflection of the actual political and social context as the object of a oneway influence that was imposed from above, or were spectators rather an active carrier of nationalism as the subject of social and political turbulence that was affecting the Yugoslav federation in those years? In the Eighties, national tensions were felt within the field of economy, culture, literature as well as science and the arts, but it seems they were much more evident and massive on the tribunes of stadiums, where riots were started by football supporters, first and foremost by those coming from Croatia and Serbia. Back at the beginning of the Eighties, the national antagonism did not originate directly on the basis of ethnicity, but of religion (Isus, Marija, Hajdukova armija / Neka splitska riva čuje da je peder sv. Duje). This can be explained if we consider that religion and religious symbols were not very “popular” among communist structures: football fans had thus found an acceptable frame within which they could attack their opponents and express their own national opinion without major consequences. In the city of Vinkovci, which could be called the “Stalingrad” of Serbian football fans, both the supporters of Crvena zvezda and those of Partizan experienced many physical fights with locals, due to club and national reasons. Incidents would take place only when the local first league club was playing against a Serbian club, whereas no problems were noticed when the Vinkovci club was playing against another Croatian club. All these incidents prove that Yugoslav society was pervaded by national intolerance and in the Eighties they were mainly noticeable on a scene that was predominantly unpolitical: the world of sport. The year 1984 marked a widening of the “nationalistic” repertoire from religious vocabulary to patriotic songs (“Marjane, Marjane” / “Igrale se Delije na sred zemlje Srbije”), which one could hear only during matches between Serbian and Croatian clubs. This was also when the trend of bringing along republican flags started: in the football supporters’ hands, these flags represented a “threat” for the country, above all during matches between clubs from the two major Yugoslav republics. Political forums, security services and the wide public begin to worry about those facts. Official party meetings and the media address more and more often the topic of nationalism at sporting events. Except for sporadic moments of punishment of the riotous supporters (slapping, striking with nightsticks, insulting), a more thorough reaction of government and the police did not happen: this can be explained by the fact that after Tito’s death the party’s strictness was flagging and the young fans, as pioneers of big changes, recognised the dissolution of the country’s institutions and as an instinctive result they started using provoking slogans for which they would not be punished adequately. A small peak of nationalistic riots on Yugoslav stadiums, just before the beginning of a serious political crisis that would eventually break up the Yugoslav integrity, took place in 1985 and 1986. That was the period when, along with a pervasive economic and social crisis, Belgrade intellectuals discussed the “Serbian question” regarding Kosovo, which contaminated the discourse of idyllic national relations in the country. In such an atmosphere, military cadets of Serbian ethnicity were assaulted in Split after the match Hajduk vs. Crvena zvezda in October 1985; likewise, in August 1986 in Belgrade, Albanian sellers of corn and seeds were attacked by Crvena zvezda supporters after the match of an Albanian football club and OFK Beograd. The participants in both incidents were arrested due to national and religious intolerance and were sentenced to a couple of months’ imprisonment: this was the first and only time when the country decided to settle accounts with nationalism outbursts on sport fields. That action had a strong, but relatively short impact: as for stadium riots, the year 1987 can be called with reason a year of “calm before the storm”, when there was not a single incident due to nationalistic intolerance, but there was an increase in the number of violent riots in which supporters of opponent clubs were involved. To conclude, it can be said that in the period that goes from Tito’s death in 1980 until 1987, football fields and their surroundings started to host moderate national feelings that appeared combined with rare chauvinist outbursts. Even thou it can be claimed that national slogans and physical fights on the tribunes can be seen as a consequence of a several-decadelong repression of national feelings, but also as a counterpart of the political, social and economic situation in the country, they were not linked to particular events occurring in the everyday life of the socialist federation: they rather supported the general conscience of the people. This was the basis onto which football fans would shout slogans originating from the social background and back in those times this makes them objects of political moves: a process that fits into the penetration of nationalism into mainstream Yugoslav society. These facts prove that what could not be said on the official political scene and in everyday life, would be heard in the domain of sport. Information on problematic incidents happening on the tribunes in the first half of the Eighties would be mentioned implicitly in the public media. As catalysers of the social reality, in the years from 1980 to 1987, in the entire country the media were ideologically homogeneous when accusing the aggressive nationalistic riots of crowds of young supporters, but the media would also reduce the number of “problematic” cases and that of participants involved; moreover, newspapers avoided reporting the contents of verbal slogans, hiding thus such details from the public. In that period, most probably, many more slogans could be heard, but they were not recorded by the media reports and the official documents and thus remain unknown to us. This was the way the Yugoslav communist system survived for years: a combination of repression, operated by the police with the aim of eliminating national and religious intolerance, and censorship, so that only limited amounts of news regarding “undesirable” incidents would be shared with the public. By preventing explicit details from becoming public, authorities believed that they could hide their own weakness and thus avoid the spreading of unpleasant topics and ideas in other social spheres. Because of fear, incompetence, lack of firmness and political willingness, mainstream politics ended up in a kind of paralysis: it did not approve of repression, but was not willing to grant total freedom either. Already during the second half of the Eighties, such politics had lost any perspective and sense, and eventually turned out to be a complete failure. A process that ran parallel to the increase of nationalism on the tribunes of major Yugoslav stadiums was the birth of fan groups. At the beginning of the Eighties, the first groups of supporters gathered around Hajduk and Partizan; in the mid-Eighties, Crvena zvezda and Dinamo also had their own groups of fans, whereas in 1987/1988 almost every first league football club had its own group of organised supporters. As time went by, the nationalistic repertoire was becoming more and more frequent in the rooting of Serbian and Croatian supporters. Spectators of matches in the Sixties and Seventies would not come up with such provoking and nationalistic slogans as those that one could come across in the stadiums during the Eighties. Backed up by a firm hierarchy, they had all predispositions necessary for organised actions: own leaders, songs, banners and flags, scarves, and each group of supporters had its unique name. When their repertoire, beyond consisting of standard club songs, started featuring national slogans, insults towards members of other fan groups and republic flags, such social formations became a prime example of a small social resistance, due to the fact that similar mass organisations putting forward such explicit controversial contents did neither exist nor were they allowed. Thus, a platform was created and now it lacked its “contents”: the list of its contents started to fill up with the eruption of aggressive outbursts in 1988, which was merely the first step towards the escalation of furious verbal attacks due to ethnic reasons in the period that followed. As I have already mentioned, nationalism was most common among Croatian and Serbian football fans. While in 1986 Crvena zvezda fans did not only sing Serbian national songs, but even Chetnik songs, it was not a problem for them to carry the Yugoslav flag and to sing the Yugoslav national anthem at international matches of their club. These facts prove that to the Serbs, who undoubtedly had a strong national sense of belonging, the idea of Yugoslavia was not unacceptable. They had adopted the Yugoslav perspective also within the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, and then in socialist Yugoslavia too, and interpreted it as the frame that held together all the diverse nations it consisted of; from a symbolic point of view, it was a way to control them all too. On the other hand, the performed research did not come across similar Yugoslav feelings and symbols among Croatian football fan groups. As early as in spring 1987, besides club flags, the newly formed Bad Blue Boys had a few dozens of Croatian republican flags and it was common to hear them sing the national anthem of the Socialist Republic of Croatia, “Lijepa naša domovino”. A similar trend was recorded among Hajduk fans, who likewise used neither verbal nor visual symbols of Yugoslavia. Part of the answer is due to the fact that both in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia as well as in the socialist federation Croats had always been striving for a higher degree of independence or even dreaming of complete independence. This is how two opponent nationalistic ideas came into conflict on football tribunes: the (great) Serbian idea that wanted to impose itself on the other states of the federation, and the Croats longing for an own independent country, very precisely enacted within clear sport frames, which reflected the actual political trends at the end of the Eighties and the beginning of the Nineties. This was, roughly, the premise that led the fan groups into the final period of the dissolution of Yugoslavia. In 1988, Slobodan Milošević started a series of meetings to spread nationalism among the broad masses in Serbia. In the same year, despite the turbulent situation on the daily political scene, violence between fan groups became more and more frequent on the stadiums. Except for exposing republican flags, shouting the names of the republics and a few chauvinist slogans, politically coloured riots were still rather moderate in that year. Nationalism exploded at the beginning of the spring session of season 1988/89, that is in February 1989, after which no match of a Croatian club against a Serbian club was to be held without severe insults based on national and religious differences. Back in the first half of the Eighties, stadium events had taken place according to a proper rhythm as a reflection of the actual social situation; similar incidents were now to be understood as a direct consequence of happenings in politics. Here, we can primarily refer to the “antibureaucratic” revolution, that is the subjugation of Kosovo, Vojvodina and Montenegro under the direct control of Belgrade authorities, and other turbulent political situations, which soon escalated into a deep political crisis and lack of security. The rest of the country homogenised, and Slovenia took over the role of the main opponent of the Serbian leader; however, there were no brisk reactions in other parts of the country, which were to expect first and foremost in Croatia. Due to the lack of a firm answer by the Croatian republican leadership to the increasing Serbian nationalism, Croatian football fans slowly started taking over the role of opponents and thus became themselves the heralds of the galloping Croatian nationalism. In such a context, at the beginning of 1989, crowds on the tribunes started shouting slogans to communist politicians: in Serbia, Slobodan Milošević was seen as the “protector” of Serbian national interests, whereas Croatian fans worship Stipe Šuvar, who had been the only politician to oppose Milošević’s politics, which he did not do on a national basis, but on an ideological basis. Even though Šuvar was an orthodox communist, that move was sufficient for Croatian people to tag him as “their” representative. Apart from the support to politicians, the year 1989 also means some other extremes: new insulting songs full of national hatred were composed and ardently exchanged between Croatian and Serbian fans. Such songs became more and more frequent in the stadium repertoires. Politics had pervaded all pores of society, and tension had moved to the stadiums, making these venues become a mirror of social circumstances and a real indicator of changes going on in the relations and the way of thinking. Changes can also be noticed in the media and the news they reported. As of 1989, the media ended their overall and superficial reporting on violent and chauvinist outbursts of the fans and started bringing up accusations on account of the “other”: this marks the beginning of a “war” between Belgrade and Zagreb media companies, which persisted until the breakup of the country. The escalation of nationalism on Yugoslav stadiums can be tracked with the continuing support offered to politicians; the support, however, was now in favour of politicians outside the communist milieu. In the spring of 1990, the Serbian tribunes stopped cheering for Milošević and start supporting the leader of the opposition, Vuk Drašković, a declared nationalist; likewise, in Croatia, after the dawn of Šugar, the foreground is taken by Franjo Tuđman, the HDZ leader, with an explicit national programme. Later that same year, Serbian people started showing their support to the extremist Vojislav Šešelj, whereas in Croatia popularity is gained by Šime Đodan, a right-wing extremist within the HDZ party: this was a clear sign that football fans preferred radical supporters of their own national option. Similar aspects were not recorded in the other republics of the federation, with an exception for Bosnia and Herzegovina, where football fans did sporadically turn to national parties, but as late as in spring 1991; this trend, however, had no repercussions on the social circumstances and their intensity cannot be compared with the strength of nationalism in Croatia and Serbia. In 1989 and later, all matches between Croatian and Serbian clubs turned out to be loud outdoor demonstrations spreading controversial messages, with millions of viewers in front of their home screens. Similar slogans and a huge amount of people could only be seen during Milošević’s meetings from 1988 on and Tuđman’s election rallies in 1990. Political leaders of the Serbian opposition, Vuk Draškovićč and Vojislav Šešelj, would hire the most prominent fans for their personal bodyguards and they would coquet with them so as to get their sympathy and support and in order to reach a broad electorate at the upcoming first multi-party elections. In Croatia, politics pursued the same target when it motivated the members of fan groups to support the “most national” Croatian political party, by expressing their option on banners (BBB for HDZ, Torcida for HDZ). All things considered, at the end of the Eighties and at the beginning of the Nineties, football fans, besides being the objects, also became the subjects of the spread of nationalism in Yugoslavia. Starting in February 1989, during football matches, they endorsed their own right-wing politicians, called out the names of the republics, from spring 1990 also exposed the republican flags with national symbols, sang patriotic and chauvinist songs and shouted slogans in front of tens of thousands of spectators on the stadiums, which was then broadcast by TV channels and thus such messages reached millions of followers of the most popular sport. This confirms the supposition that football fans were active creators of the public opinion and an important factor in the creation of social patterns with the aim of spreading the popularity of national ideologies and of political parties as well as of their leaders in the transition period from the Eighties to the Nineties, and not merely an object of daily politics.

Cilj ovog rada bio je utvrditi razlike u učincima bilateralnog i unilateralnog vježbanja primjenom specifičnih vježbi skokova (SVS) na izvedbu skoka u vis prekoračnom tehnikom i utvrditi nastale promjene u živčano-mišićnoj funkciji djece i mladih sportaša odrazom s dominantne noge. Uzorak ispitanika činila su sedamdeset i četiri djeteta u dobi od sedam do dvanaest godina (AS ± SD, 9,24 ± 1,34). Ispitanici su bili raspoređeni u dvije eksperimentalne skupine. Eksperimentalni program trenažnih intervencija trajao je dvanaest tjedana tijekom kojih su ukupno realizirane dvadeset i četiri trenažne jedinice. Sudionici prve eksperimentalne skupine (ES1; n = 41) provodili su specifične vježbe skokova primjenom lijevog i desnog donjeg ekstremiteta (bilateralni trening), dok su sudionici druge eksperimentalne skupine (ES2; n = 33) provodili isti set vježbi isključivo sa svojom odraznom nogom (unilateralni trening). Kriterij isključenja ispitanika iz uzorka bio je sudjelovanje ispitanika na manje od 80 % treninga te bilo koji oblik sportske ozljede ili bolesti. Prije i nakon trenažne intervencije ispitanici su podvrgnuti testiranju skoka u vis prekoračnom tehnikom, unilateralnog dubinskodaljinskog skoka i unilateralne statičke ravnoteže, a svaki navedeni test izvodio se s unaprijed određenom odraznom nogom. Nakon završenih trenažnih intervencija obje eksperimentalne skupine ostvarile su statistički značajan napredak u rezultatu skoka u vis prekoračnom tehnikom (ES1 – završno mjerenje 1 6,70 %, retencija 5,37 %, ES2 – završno mjerenje 1 6,32 %, retencija 6,32 %), a bilateralna skupina ujedno je značajno smanjila translaciju mjernog uređaja u medio-lateralnom smjeru u završnom mjerenju (C = 72,10, Q3-1 = 47,01) uodnosu na početno mjerenje (C = 87,73, Q3-1 = 45,01). Provedbom testa unilateralnog dubinsko-daljinskog skoka koji daje uvid u promjene živčano-mišićnih funkcija (eksplozivna i maksimalna jakost) nisu se utvrdile statistički značajne promjene u niti jednoj promatranoj varijabli. Najznačajniji nalaz ovog istraživanja jest da se nisu utvrdili statistički značajni interakcijski učinci između faktora vremena mjerenja i trenažne intervencije u niti jednoj promatranoj varijabli koji bi ukazali na to je li jedna trenažna intervencija bolja ili lošija od druge. Raspodjela ukupnog volumena opterećenja primjenom specifičnih vježbi skokova na lijevi i desni donji ekstremitet djeluje jednako učinkovito kao i vježbanje isključivo dominantnom nogom kod djece. Dakle, oba načina vježbanja poboljšavaju promatrane parametre koje ukazuju na promjene u obrascu kretanja i sposobnosti, no nema razlika kad se promatra učinkovitost jednog naspram drugog načina vježbanja. Nakon dvanaest tjedana izvođenja specifičnih vježbi skokova primjenom dominantnog i nedominantnog donjeg ekstremiteta mogu se očekivati promjene u transferu motoričkih vještina, međumišićnoj koordinaciji i blagim prosječnim promjenama u kinematičkimparametrima. Stoga se može opservirati da utvrđeni rezultati imaju vrlo važan praktični doprinos, posebno u radu s djecom rane školske dobi, a prije svega zbog ravnomjernijeg mišićnog i lokomotornog razvoja. Nadalje, takav pristup omogućuje unapređenje sposobnosti koordinacije tijela u prostoru, simetričan razvoj jakosti, snage, statičke ravnoteže, a uporaba obiju strana tijela važna je i za učenje novih i složenijih motoričkih kretnji. Rezultati istraživanja mogu se primijeniti ne samo u treningu skoka u vis, već općenito u treningu skokova, odnosno odraza. The aim of this thesis is to determine differences in effects of bilateral and unilateral exercising by applying specific ways of high jump performing the high jump with the scissors technique, and to measure any changes created in neuromuscular function of children and young sportsman with a take-off from the dominant leg. The sample pool consisted of 74 children, ages 7 -12 (AS ± SD; 9.24 ± 1.34). These were divided in two experimental groups. The experimental program of training interventions lasted twelve weeks during which 24 training units were accomplished. The participants of the first experimental group (ES1; n=41) performed a specific practice of jumps, applying left and right lower extremities (bilateral training), while the participants of the second group (ES2; n=33) performed the same exercise explicitly with their take-off leg (unilateral training). The criteria to exclude a participant from the pool happened when a person participated in less than 80% of training, or due to any form of injury or illness. Before and after the training intervention examinees were tested for high jump with scissors technique, unilateral horizontal drop jump and unilateral static balance. Each of these mentioned tests was performed with a take-off leg designated in advance. After the training intervention, both experimental groups achieved statistically remarkable progress in results of high jump with scissors technique (ES1- final measuring 1; 6.70% retention; 5.37%; ES2- final measuring 1; 6.32%, retention; 6.32%), and the bilateral group decreased immensely with the oscillation of the measuring device in the mediolateral direction during final measuring (C=72.10, Q3-1=47.01) compared to the initial measuring (C=87.73, Q3-1=45.01). By testing the unilateral horizontal jump, which provides an insight into neuromuscular functions (explosive and maximal strength), there are no statistically significant changes in any of the observed variables.The most significant finding of this research is the fact that there are no determined statistically significant interactive effect between the factor of time measuring and training intervention in neither of the observed variables, that would point out one training intervention as better or worse than the other. The division of the total load volume by applying specific exercises of jumps to left and right lower extremities is as effective as exclusively exercising with dominant leg in children. After twelve weeks of applying specific exercise through jumps with dominant and non-dominant lower extremities, it is possible to expect changes in transfer of motoric skills, intramuscular coordination and slight average changes in kinematic parameters. Therefore, it is possible to observe that results found have a very significant practical use, especially in work with children of early school age, and, most of all, in symmetric muscular and locomotor development. Furthermore, this approach enables advances in coordinative body skills in space, symmetric development of strength, power, and static balance. The use of both sides of the body is important for apprehension of new and complicated motoric movements. It is possible to use these research results not in high jump training only, but also generally in regard to jumps and take offs.

Purpose: The main aim of this doctoral thesis was to determine the influence of fatigue on kinematic parameters in basketball fundamental skills. Within this doctoral thesis, five independent studies (Study 1-passing, Study 2, Study 3, and Study 4-shooting, Study 5-dribbling) were investigated. Study 1 set out to exam the influence of fatigue on kinematic parameters and accuracy in basketball passing. Study 2 aimed to assess the influence of fatigue on kinematic parameters and accuracy in female basketball shooting. Study 3 set out to determine the influence of progressive physiological load on kinematic parameters and accuracy in young male basketball shooting. Study 4 aimed to compare the kinematic parameters of 2-point and 3-point jump shots and ascertain the differences between elite male under 16 and 18 and female under 16 and 18 basketball players. Study 5 set out to investigate the influence of fatigue on kinematic parameters and the speed in basketball dribbling. Methods: In study 1, Eleven Croatian basketball players who are members of the youth national program (age: 18.36 ± 0.67 years; height: 192.32 ± 9.98 cm; weight: 83.35 ± 11.19 kg; body fat: 15.00 ± 4.40%, arm span: 194.34 ± 10.39 cm) participated in the study. 3D motion analysis using inertial sensor technology (Xsens suit) was used to analyze the kinematic parameters of push passing; a radar gun was used to determine ball speed; heart rate and blood lactate concentration were used to identify fatigue and non-fatigue condition. In study 2, thirty-two professional female basketball players volunteered to take part in the study (age: 22.11 ± 4.92 years; height: 173.99 ± 7.06 cm; weight: 67.89 ± 5.65 kg). The Xsens suit and smart ball were used for measuring the kinematic parameters. A shooting machine was used to standardize each pass, directly influencing the shooting efficiency, and to minimize the interference from external factors. To monitor the fatigue level, the blood lactate concentration and rating of perceived exertion were conducted during the testing. In study 3, one player (age: 17.36 years) who is a member of the Croatian U18 Men’s National Team was evaluated as a case study. To measure kinematic parameters during the jump shot, the SIMI Motion system with eight cameras and a smart ball were used. The progressive physiological loads were determined by blood lactate concentration. Forty-eight young male and female basketball players participated in study 4. To assess the kinematic parameters of 2-point and 3-point shooting, Xsens suit was used with the addition of a smart ball. In study 5, fourteen Croatian senior basketball players excluding power forwards and centers (age: 21.16 ± 3.43 years; height: 188.81 ± 6.88 cm; weight: 87.81 ± 6.06 kg; body fat: 13.34 ± 3.52 %) participated in the study. Each player performed two types of change of direction with dribbling: front change of direction and spin move. Xsens suit and Novel pressure insoles were used to measure the kinematic and kinetic parameters respectively. Heart rate and blood lactate concentration were employed to monitor players’ fatigue level. Results: In study 1, there was significant difference in angular velocities of shoulder (p = 0.01), elbow (p = 0.04), and wrist (p = 0.01), ball speed (p = 0.00), pelvis position (p = 0.00), and velocity of the pelvis in X-axis (p = 0.00) between fatigue and non-fatigue condition. Additionally, the passing accuracy significantly decreased when players were under the influence of fatigue (p = 0.01). In study 2, the results demonstrated that there were no significant differences in angular velocities of ankle, knee, and hip joints between fatigue and non-fatigue condition. Conversely, differences in angular velocities of elbow (p = 0.036) and wrist (p = 0.002) were detected. Furthermore, the results showed that the release height and entry angle of the ball significantly decreased under the influence of fatigue. Moreover, the shooting accuracy did not noticeably decrease when players were under the influence of fatigue. In study 3, the obtained results indicated certain differences in angular velocities of the upper and lower extremities regarding different fatigue levels, as well as in the height at the moment of releasing the ball under the influence of progressive fatigue. In study 4, players in male categories shot for 2-point with a higher center of mass difference in the vertical direction, with higher release shoulder angle, and with a higher entry angle of the ball when compared to female categories (p < 0.001). In the 3-point shooting, there were differences between male and female categories in the shoulder angle when releasing the ball (p < 0.001). In the players’ shooting speed, there were differences between U16 male vs U18 female and U16 female vs U18 female (p = 0.02) players. Male categories shot 3-point shots with a smaller center of mass difference in the horizontal direction when compared to 2-point shots (p < 0.001). The entry angle was higher in successful shooting attempts compared to unsuccessful shooting attempts when shooting for 3-point (p = 0.02). Player shooting speed was higher in all categories (except U18 female) when shooting for 3-point (p < 0.001). In study 5, in terms of the front change of direction, the results demonstrated that the maximum angular velocitiesin knee joint (p=0.028), wrist joint (p=0.007), and maximum force (p=0.004) significantly decreased under the influence of fatigue; the pelvis position and minimum angle in knee joint were higher under the influence of fatigue compared to the non-fatigue condition, but there was no significant difference. In terms of the spin move, the results showed that there were significant differences in pelvis velocity (p=0.000), maximum angular velocity in knee joint (p=0.020), and first step velocity (p=0.010); however, no significant difference was detected in the pelvis position, minimum angle in the knee joint and maximum force. Importantly, the dribbling speed significantly decreased in the fatigue condition (p=0.002).Conclusions: In general, fatigue has negative influence on kinematic parameters and players performance in basketball fundamental skills. To be specific, (1) The major conclusion drawn from study 1 showed that fatigue affects the kinematic parameters and accuracy in basketball passing. The findings of this study suggest that players need to adopt the correct motor structure of passing to create an automatism during the training process of learning. Additionally, coaches need to conduct as many drills as possible in situational conditions that are similar to the conditions during the basketball game. As a result, the players’ passing performance will ultimately not change even under the influence of fatigue. (2) The results of study 2 indicated that elite female basketball players can maintain the efficiency through readjusting the neuromuscular system to make a successful jump shot when they were under the influence of fatigue. Furthermore, the results of current study showed that the release height and entry angle of the ball significantly decreased under the influence of fatigue, suggesting that coaches need to include in the training process exercises that are similar in terms of fatigue and performance to the situational conditions during the game as these two variables play an important role in determination of the shooting accuracy. (3) The major conclusion drawn from study 3 was that fatigue impacts certain changes in the kinematic parameters of the jump shot in terms of young male players. The angular velocities of joints in the lower extremities noticeably increased, while the mentioned parameters in the upper extremities decreased when physiological load increased. Additionally, the height of releasing the ball decreased. Despite the changes in the above-mentioned parameters, the action performed on the ball remained unchanged, considering that the shooting speed, as well as the angle at which the ball entered the basket, demonstrated no changes. Even though the action performed on the ball did not alter from the biomechanical standpoint, the reduction of shooting accuracy under the influence of a higher level of fatigue still suggests that certain deviations occurred in the overall pattern of performing the examined motor skill. Therefore, coaches are required to design appropriate training sessions to resist the influence of fatigue on jump shot performance. (4) The results of study 4 showed that female and male basketball players used different shooting techniques. Additionally, players in male categories shot with a higher center of mass difference in the vertical direction, with a higher release shoulder angle, and with a higher entry angle of the ball.Moreover, the entry angle of the ball increases in all categories when shooting for 3-point, which means that players need more time for 3-point shots after receiving a pass when compared to 2-point shots. Therefore, the players are using excessive movements to optimize the shooting technique when shooting for 3-point. Basketball coaches and players should work to minimize the kinematic differences between 2-point and 3-point shots to increase the successfulness of shooting from longer distances. (5) The major conclusion drawn from study 5 is that fatigue affects the kinematics and kinetics of basketball dribbling. Additionally, the dribbling speed significantly decreased when the players were under the influence of fatigue. From the result point of view, the higher pelvis position, the lower angular velocity in knee and wrist joint, and the lower force when the players are under the influence of fatigue may induce that they are not able to take advantage of the defender successfully. Additionally, the decrease of the dribbling speed under the influence of fatigue will cause the players’ inability to pass by the defender quickly during the fast break and transition period, which consequently makes them lose the opportunity of scoring. Therefore, the findings of this study suggest that coaching staff is required to design appropriate training sessions to optimize players’ ability to resist fatigue when dribbling in real game speed conditions. Svrha: Glavni cilj ovog doktorskog rada bio je utvrditi utjecaj umora na kinematičke parametre u temeljnim košarkaškim vještinama. Unutar ovog doktorskog rada izvedeno je pet neovisnih istraživanja (Istraživanje 1 – dodavanje lopte, Istraživanje 2, Istraživanje 3 i Istraživanje 4 – šutiranje i Istraživanje 5 – vođenje lopte). Istraživanje 1 je imalo za cilj ispitati utjecaj umora na kinematičke parametre i točnost dodavanja u košarci. Istraživanje 2 imalo je za cilj procijeniti utjecaj umora na kinematičke parametre i točnost šutiranja u ženskoj košarci. Istraživanje 3 imalo je za cilj utvrditi utjecaj progresivnog fiziološkog opterećenja na kinematičke parametre mladih košarkaša i njihovu točnost u šutiranju. Istraživanje 4 imalo je za cilj usporediti kinematičke parametre skok šutova za 2 i 3 poena i utvrditi razlike između elitnih košarkaša do 16 i 18 godina i košarkašica do 16 i 18 godina. Istraživanje 5 je imalo za cilj istražiti utjecaj umora na kinematičke parametre i brzinu košarkaškog driblinga.Metode: U istraživanju 1, jedanaest hrvatskih košarkaša koji su članovi nacionalnog programa za mlade (dob: 18,36 ± 0,67 godina; visina: 192,32 ± 9,98 cm; težina: 83,35 ± 11,19 kg; postotak potkožnog masnog tkiva: 15,00 ± 4,40%, raspon ruku: 194,34 ± 10,39 cm) sudjelovali su u istraživanju. Za analizu kinematičkih parametara dodavanja lopte jednom rukom guranjem korištena je 3D analiza kretanja pomoću inercijske senzorske tehnologije (Xsens odijelo); za određivanje brzine lopte korišten je radarski pištolj; otkucaji srca i koncentracija laktata u krvi korišteni su za identifikaciju stanja nakon opterećenja (umor) i stanja prije opterećenja (bez umora). U istraživanju 2 su dobrovoljno sudjelovale trideset i dvije profesionalne košarkašice (dob: 22,11 ± 4,92 godina; visina: 173,99 ± 7,06 cm; težina: 67,89 ± 5,65 kg). Za mjerenje kinematičkih parametara korišteni su Xsens odijelo i pametna lopta. Košarkaški top korišten je za standardiziranje svakog dodavanja, kao izravan utjecaj na učinkovitost šutiranja, i za minimiziranje smetnji od strane vanjskih čimbenika. Kako bi se pratila razina umora, tijekom ispitivanja mjerena je koncentracija laktata u krvi i subjektivna procjena opterećenja. U istraživanju 3, jedan igrač (dob: 17,36 godina) koji je član hrvatske U18 muške reprezentacije promatran je kao studija slučaja. Za mjerenje kinematičkih parametara tijekom skok šuta korišten je SIMI Motion sustav s osam kamera i pametnom loptom. Progresivna fiziološka opterećenja određena su koncentracijom laktata u krvi. Četrdeset i osam mladih košarkaša i košarkašica sudjelovalo je u istraživanju 4. Za procjenu kinematičkih parametara šutiranja za 2 i 3 poena korišteno je Xsens odijelo s dodatkom korištenja pametne lopte. Četrnaest hrvatskih košarkaša seniora, isključujući krilne centre i centre (starost: 21,16 ± 3,43 godine; visina: 188,81 ± 6,88 cm; težina: 87,81 ± 6,06 kg; postotak potkožnog masnog tkiva: 13,34 ± 3,52 %) sudjelovalo je u istraživanju 5. Svaki je igrač izveo dvije vrste promjene smjera s vođenjem lopte: prednju promjenu smjera i promjena s okretom. Za mjerenje kinematičkih i kinetičkih parametara korišteni su odijelo Xsens i ulošci za mjerenje sile pritiska Novel. Otkucaji srca i koncentracija laktata u krvi korišteni su za praćenje razine umora igrača. Rezultati: U istraživanju 1 postojala je značajna razlika u kutnim brzinama ramena (p = 0,01), lakta (p = 0,04) i zgloba šake (p = 0,01), točnosti (p = 0,01), brzine lopte (p = 0,00 ), položaja zdjelice (p = 0,00) i brzine zdjelice na X-osi (p = 0,00) između stanja prije i nakon opterećenja. Osim toga, smanjila se točnost dodavanja kada su igrači bili pod utjecajem umora. U istraživanju 2, rezultati su pokazali da nema značajnih razlika u kutnim brzinama skočnog zgloba, koljena i kuka. Suprotno tome, otkrivene su razlike u kutnim brzinama lakta (p = 0,036) i zgloba šake (p = 0,002). Nadalje, rezultati su pokazali da se visina izbačaja i kut upada lopte značajno smanjuju pod utjecajem umora. Štoviše, preciznost šutiranja nije se naočigled smanjivala kada su igrači bili pod utjecajem umora. U istraživanju 3, dobiveni rezultati ukazuju na određene razlike u kutnim brzinama gornjih i donjih ekstremiteta s obzirom na različite razine umora, kao i u visini u trenutku puštanja lopte pod utjecajem progresivnog umora. U studiji 4, igrači u muškim kategorijama šutirali su za 2 poena s višom razlikom centra težišta tijela u okomitom smjeru, s većim kutom izbačaja u ramenu i s većim kutom ulaska lopte u usporedbi sa ženskim kategorijama (p < 0,001). U šutiranju za 3 poena uočene su razlike između muške i ženske kategorije u kutu ramena pri izbačaju lopte (p < 0,001). U brzini šutiranja postojale su razlike između košarkaša U16 i košarkašica U18 te između košarkašica U16 i U18 (p = 0,02). Muške kategorije šutirale su za 3 poena s manjom razlikom centra težišta tijela u horizontalnom smjeru u usporedbi s šutovima za 2 poena (p < 0,001). Ulazni kut bio je veći u uspješnim pokušajima šutiranja u usporedbi s neuspješnim pokušajima šutiranja za 3 poena (p = 0,02). Brzina šutiranja bila je veća u svim kategorijama (osim košarkašica U18) pri šutiranju za 3 poena (p < 0,001). U istraživanju 5, u kontekstu prednje promjene smjera, rezultati su pokazali da su se maksimalne kutne brzine u zglobu koljena (p=0,028), zglobu šake (p=0,007) i maksimalne sile (p=0,004) značajno smanjile pod utjecajem umora; položaj zdjelice i minimalni kut u zglobu koljena bili su veći nakon opterećenja (pod utjecajem umora) u odnosu na stanje prije opterećenja, ali nije bilo značajne razlike. Što se tiče promjene s okretom, rezultati su pokazali da postoje značajne razlike u brzini zdjelice (p=0,000), maksimalnoj kutnoj brzini u zglobu koljena (p=0,020) i brzini prvog koraka (p=0,010); međutim, nije otkrivena značajna razlika u položaju zdjelice, minimalnom kutu u zglobu koljena i maksimalnoj sili. Važno je da se brzina vođenja lopte značajno smanjila u stanju pod utjecajem umora (p=0,002). Zaključci: Općenito, umor negativno utječe na kinematičke parametre i performanse igrača u osnovnim košarkaškim vještinama. Konkretno, (1) Rezultat istraživanja 1 pokazao je da umor utječe na kinematičke parametre i točnost dodavanja lopte jednom rukom guranjem u košarci. Rezultati ovog istraživanja pokazuju da igrači trebaju usvojiti ispravnu motoričku strukturu dodavanja kako bi se tijekom trenažnog procesa učenja stvorio automatizam. Nadalje, treneri trebaju provesti što više vježbi u situacijskim uvjetima koji su slični uvjetima tijekom košarkaške utakmice. Kao rezultat toga, učinak dodavanja igrača u konačnici se neće promijeniti čak ni pod utjecajem umora. (2) Rezultati istraživanja 2 pokazali su da vrhunske košarkašice mogu održati učinkovitost kroz prilagodbu neuromišićnog sustava kako bi izvele uspješan skok kada su bile pod utjecajem umora. Nadalje, rezultati trenutne studije pokazali su da su se visina izbačaja i kut upada lopte značajno smanjili pod utjecajem umora. Navedeno sugerira da treneri u trenažni proces trebaju uključiti vježbe koje su prema razini umoru i izvedbi slične situacijskim uvjetima tijekom igre jer ove dvije varijable igraju važnu ulogu u određivanju točnosti šutiranja. (3) Glavni zaključak koji je izveden iz rezultata istraživanja 3 bio je da umor utječe na određene promjene kinematičkih parametara skok šuta kod mladih igrača. Kutne brzine zglobova u donjim ekstremitetima primjetno su se povećale, dok su se navedeni parametri u gornjim ekstremitetima smanjili s povećanjem fizioloških opterećenja. Dodatno se smanjila visina izbačaja lopte. Unatoč promjenama u gore navedenim parametrima, radnja izvedena na lopti ostala je nepromijenjena s obzirom na to da brzina šutiranja, kao i kut ulaska lopte u koš, nisu pokazivali promjene. Iako se djelovanje na loptu nije promijenilo s biomehaničkog stajališta, smanjenje točnosti šutiranja pod utjecajem više razine umora i dalje sugerira da je došlo do određenih odstupanja u ukupnom obrascu izvođenja ispitivane motoričke sposobnosti. Stoga je potrebno da treneri osmisle odgovarajuće treninge kako bi se igrači oduprli utjecaju umora na izvedbu skok šutova. (4) Rezultati istraživanja 4 pokazali su da su košarkašice i košarkaši koristili različite tehnike šutiranja. Dodatno, igrači su šutirali s većom razlikom središta mase u okomitom smjeru, s većim kutom izbačaja u ramenu i s većim kutom ulaska lopte. Štoviše, kut ulaska lopte povećava se u svim kategorijama kada se šutira za 3 poena, što znači da igračima treba više vremena za šutove za 3 poena nakon primljenog dodavanja u odnosu na šutove za 2 poena. Stoga igrači koriste pretjerane pokrete kako bi optimizirali tehniku šutiranja za 3 poena. Košarkaški treneri i igrači trebali bi raditi na smanjenju kinematičkih razlika između šutiranja za 2 i 3 poena kako bi se povećala uspješnost šutiranja s većih udaljenosti. (5) Glavni zaključak koji je izveden iz studije 5 bio je da umor utječe na kinematiku i kinetiku košarkaškog vođenja lopte. Dodatno, brzina vođenja lopte značajno se smanjila kada su igrači bili pod utjecajem umora. S točke gledišta rezultata, viši položaj zdjelice, niža kutna brzina u zglobu koljena i zglobu šake, te niža sila pod utjecajem umora mogu dovesti do toga da igrači ne mogu uspješno iskoristiti prednost nad obrambenim igračem. Dodatno, smanjenje brzine vođenja lopte pod utjecajem umora dovest će do toga da igrači tijekom faza protunapada i tranzicije neće moći brzo proći pored obrambenog igrača, što posljedično dovodi do toga da gube priliku za postizanje pogotka. Stoga, rezultati ovog istraživanja sugeriraju da treneri trebaju osmisliti odgovarajuće treninge kako bi optimizirali sposobnost igrača da izdrže utjecaj umora pri vođenju lopte u realnim uvjetima igre.

Sports experts and coaches have been continuously looking for new approaches and methods to improve athletic performance across different sports. Out of the methods proposed are the hypoxic and the hyperoxic training methods, which have recently gained popularity. Hyperoxia was previously used in special clinics; however, it has become easily accessible to athletes with the development of ‘on-the-spot’ equipment. The proposed study aims at determining the potential impact of added hyperoxic conditions during recovery and post-high-intensity interval training (HIIT) in hypoxic conditions. The study posed two hypotheses: a combination of intermittent high intensity hypoxic training and recovery in hyperoxia significantly improves the aerobic capacity than when recovering in normoxia and a combination of intermittent high intensity hypoxic training and recovery in hyperoxia significantly improves the oxygen transport parameters than when recovering in normoxia. The study’s sample included 49 athletes, aged 18 to 20. Athletes were divided into three groups adhering to the intervention protocol as follows: (1) Hypo+Hyper group (N=16) which performed HIIT in hypoxia with a recovery protocol 15 minutes at FiO2=0.40, (2) Hypo group (N=16) which performed HIIT in hypoxia followed by recovery in normoxia, and (3) a control group (N=17) which performed their everyday activities. Each of the four weeks, the intensity of the HIIT and continuous training is increased by 5%. HIIT hypoxia exercise protocol consists of six bouts of one minute at 80 to 95% of HRmax, each week at higher rate, respectively, followed by 2 minutes at 60% of HRmax. The study adopted a quantitative approach through recording athletes’ blood samples pre- and post- intervention to measure red blood cell parameters related to oxygen transport as well as the aerobic capacity measured by the all-out treadmill test. The intervention lasted for four weeks with three sessions of training per week. The most evident changes recoded among the groups within the aerobic endurance parameters pertain to the hyper-hypo group. At maximal exertion the significant changes were observed in maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and the maximal speed reached as Hypo-Hyper group had a larger increase as opposed to control group as expected (p < 0.05 and p

Osnovni cilj ovog istraživanja je utvrditi utjecaj programa dodatnog pliometrijskog treninga malog volumena i visoke učestalosti na kondicijsku pripremljenost te na subjektivni doživljaj trenažnog opterećenja. Istraživanje je provedeno na 33 nogometaša juniorskog uzrasta u dobi od 17,3 ± 0,9, članova nogometnog kluba Maksimir iz Zagreba. Ispitanici su bili randomizirano raspoređeni u kontrolnu (visine tijela: 180,40 ± 4,88, mase tijela: 71,0 ± 7,9) i eksperimentalnu grupu (visine tijela: 180,52 ± 6,86, mase tijela: 69,8,0 ± 7,2). Eksperimentalni program treninga trajao je šest tjedana u kojemu su ispitanici iz eksperimentalne skupine četiri puta tjedno izvodili dodatni pliometrijski trening, te je ukupno realizirano 24 trenažne jedinice. Prije i nakon trenažnih intervencija ispitanici su podvrgnuti testiranju morfoloških karakteristika (visina tijela, masa tijela i postotak potkožnog masnog tkiva), kondicijskih sposobnosti u kontekstu eksplozivne jakosti tipa skoka, eksplozivne jakosti tipa sprinta, sposobnosti ponavljanja sprintova i sposobnosti promjena smjera kretanja. Isto tako, mjerile su se i funkcionalne sposobnosti ispitanika. Osim navedenog, svakodnevno su se pratili subjektivni parametri doživljaja trenažnog opterećenja putem ocjena subjektivnog osjećaja opterećenja te wellness upitnika. Eksperimentalni program treninga rezultirao je promjenom i značajnim smanjenjem razine potkožnog masnog tkiva kontrolne skupine, dok su izostale promjene u ostalim testiranim varijablama morfoloških karakteristika. U testovima varijabli eksplozivne jakosti tipa sprinta (trčanje na 5 m, 10 m i 25 m) zabilježene su značajne razlike u grupama nakon provedenog eksperimentalnog programa. Rezultati sprinta na 5 metara poboljšali su se kod eksperimentalne skupine za 1,8 % (p

Uvod: Osnovni cilj ovog istraživanja je utvrditi interes srednjoškolskih učenika trećih i četvrtih razreda trogodišnjih i četverogodišnjih programa prema sportu s obzirom na njihovo iskustvo u bavljenju sportom. Sukladno cilju postavljene su četiri direktivne hipoteze koje pretpostavljaju da će postojati statistički značajna razlika na faktorima interesa učenika prema sportu s obzirom na sportsko iskustvo, srednjoškolski program, znanje o sportu i iskustvo roditelja u sportu. Metode: Glavnom istraživanju prethodilo je predistraživanje na uzorku 131 polaznika Kineziološkog fakulteta u Zagrebu kako bi se učinila provjera novokonstruiranog testa znanja o sportu. Istraživanjem je obuhvaćeno 1184 učenika (muških) trećih i četvrtih razreda te jednog petog razreda, polaznika trogodišnjih i četverogodišnjih programa, odnosno jednog petogodišnjeg srednjoškolskog programa, na području Istarske županije. Za odgovore na postavljene hipoteze korištene su varijable koje su ispitanicima bile predložene u obliku forme upitnika, točnije, upitnik općih podataka, upitnik znanja o sportu (Benassi i Bosnar, 2017), PS2 upitnik interesa prema sportovima (Prot i Bosnar, 1999) i skala postignuća roditelja/staratelja u sportu. Latentna struktura interesa prema sportu odredila se analizom glavnih komponenti s promax transformacijom glavnih osovina. Na grupama definiranim hipotezom korištena je kanonička diskriminativna analiza. Kako bi se objasnila kriterijska varijabla testa znanja o sportu, primijenjena je višestruka regresijska analiza. Rezultati: Provjera mjernih svojstava testa znanja o sportu pokazala je zadovoljavajuće karakteristike, posebno u verziji od 27 čestica (AS=16,4; SD=4,5; K-S test=0,06215, p˂0,01), što pokazuje da ovako formirana Skala uspješno identificira i diskriminira one koji imaju puno znanja i one koji malo znaju o sportu. Najviša prosječna ocjena u PS2 upitniku interesa prema sportovima zabilježena je za automobilizam i motociklizam (3,67), a najniža za ritmičku gimnastiku (1,54). Analiza glavnih komponenti (PCA) izlučila je 5 promax faktora koji zajedno objašnjavaju 47,92 % ukupne varijabilnosti. Na temelju izdvojenih sportova, promax faktori interpretiraju se kao sportovi na otvorenom, borilački sportovi i sportovi snage, „bazični“ sportovi i sportovi s izraženom estetskom komponentom, sportovi s loptom i reketom te sportovi preciznosti. Razlike na faktorima interesa grupa definiranih sportskim iskustvom, srednjoškolskim programom, znanjem o sportu i iskustvom roditelja u sportu utvrđene su kanoničkom diskriminativnom analizom. Višestruka regresijska analiza utvrdila je značajnu povezanost ukupnog rezultata znanja o sportu s četiri od pet promax faktora, pri čemu sportovi s loptom i reketom daju osnovni doprinos ovoj višestrukoj korelaciji. Na osnovi rezultata potonjih dviju analiza zaključujemo da su sve četiri postavljene hipoteze u potpunosti potvrđene. Zaključak: Dobiveni podatci otkrivaju široku lepezu sportova prema kojima ispitanici gaje svoje preferencije, preciznije sportovima kojima bi se htjeli baviti. Sportski interesi naših srednjoškolaca koji su ponajprije usmjereni na „muške“ i dijelom „neutralne“ sportove potvrđuju između ostalog i važan značaj rodnog stereotipiziranja u području sporta. Jasno definirani promax faktori pokazuju da srednjoškolci završnih razreda trogodišnjih i četverogodišnjih programa imaju prilično stabilnu strukturu sportskih interesa. Glavna prednost rada jest što su prikupljeni i analizirani rezultati interesa prema sportu na reprezentativnom uzorku, dobivenom na području čitave jedinice regionalne samouprave. Stoga se dobiveni rezultati ovog istraživanja mogu generalizirati i u odnosu na mladu populaciju u Hrvatskoj. U sljedećem koraku razvoja testa znanja o sportu trebalo bi formirati proširenu ljestvicu čime se osigurava i veća pouzdanost. Također, preporuča se nadopuniti Protovu PS2 skalu novim sportovima. Introduction: A number of studies investigating interests toward sport activities, especially among the youth, have reported that interests vary with regard to demographic characteristics (sex, age, residence), type and location of school, the local environment (community), lifestyle, season, parental support, socio-economic status, exposure to the media and numerous other factors. Research conducted among adolescents about their participation in sports and interest in sport in Croatia and on the global level have shown a strong significance of gender stereotyping. The advancement in gender equality in this area is hindered by the social constructs of femininity and masculinity according to which sport is often linked with “masculine” characteristics such as body strength, resistance and speed, as well as exceptional competitive spirit. The basic objective of this research is to determine the interest in sport expressed by third and fourth grade secondary school students attending three- and four-year programmes with regard to their experience in practicing sports. In line with this objective, four directive hypotheses have been set: Hypothesis 1. H1: There will be a statistically significant difference in the students’ factors of interest in sport regarding their sport experience. Hypothesis 2. H1: There will be a statistically significant difference in the students’ factors of interest in sport regarding the secondary school programme. Hypothesis 3. H1: There will be a statistically significant difference in the students’ factors of interest in sport regarding their knowledge of sports. Hypothesis 4. H1: There will be a statistically significant difference in the students’ factors of interest in sport regarding their parents’ sport experience. Methods: The main research was preceded by a pre-research done on a sample of 131 students (59.4% male and 40.6% female) attending the fourth year of the full-time study and the first year of the part-time specialist study at the Faculty of Kinesiology of the University of Zagreb in the academic year 2015/2016. Its aim was to assess the newly designed test on knowledge of sports. Considering the obtained assessment results, the original version of the questionnaire about knowledge of sports underwent four minor changes in questions number 1, 4, 7 and 30. The research included 1,184 students (male) attending third and fourth grades, as well as one fifth grade, of three- and four-year and one five-year secondary school programme in the Istria County. The answers to the set hypotheses were variables offered to examinees in the form of a questionnaire (paper – pencil), more precisely the general data questionnaire, the knowledge of sports questionnaire (Benassi and Bosnar, 2017), the PS2 questionnaire about interests in sports (Prot and Bosnar, 1999) and the scale of parents/guardians’ sport achievement. In the first step the arithmetic mean, standard deviation, minimal and maximal value of results and distribution of results were determined. The normality of distribution of the total results of the variable knowledge of sports was established by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (K-S test). The latent structure of interests in sport was determined by the principal components analysis (PCA) with the promax transformation of the principle axes. The canonical discriminant analysis was used for groups defined by the hypothesis. The multiple regression analysis was applied to explain the criterion variable of the knowledge of sports test. Results: The assessment of the measuring characteristics of the test on knowledge of sports showed satisfactory characteristics, especially in the version comprising 27 items (AS=16,4; SD=4,5; K-S test=0,06215, p˂0,01), which indicates that a scale so formed can successfully identify and discriminate those having vast knowledge of sports and those with poor knowledge of sports. The highest average grade in the PS2 questionnaire of interests in sports was noted for car racing and motorcycling (3.67), whereas the lowest was obtained for rhythmic gymnastics (1.54). The principal components analysis singled out five promax factors which jointly explain 47.92% of the total variability. Based on the sports which have been singled out, the promax factors are interpreted as outdoor sports, martial arts and strength sports, “basic” sports and sports with a distinguished aesthetic component, ball and racket sports and precision sports. To narrow down the variables to five significant factors resembles former studies’ results and represents a good base for further research. Differences in the factors of interests for groups which are defined by sports experience, secondary school programme, knowledge of sports and parents’ experience of sports have been determined by the canonical discriminant analysis. In groups defined by sports experience, the analysis found two statistically significant discriminant functions. The structure of the first discriminant function is mostly contributed by ball and racket sports and precision sports, but the athletes’ interests are more directed toward ball and racket sports, whereas non-athletes are more inclined toward precision sports. The structure of the second discriminant function is mostly contributed by martial arts, strength sports, basic sports and sports with a distinguished aesthetic component which athletes practising other sports show more interest in. Non-athletes and football players show the least interest in these sports. Group centroids have shown that the first discriminant function differentiates the non-athletes’ group and the group of athletes practicing other sports, especially football players, while the other discriminant function differentiates the group of athletes practising other sports and the group of non-athletes and football players. Considering the secondary school programme, the canonical discriminant analysis established one statistically significant discriminant function. The structure of the discriminant function is mostly contributed by ball and racket sports, and precision sports with a positive sign, as well as martial arts, strength sports and outdoor sports with a negative sign. The position of group centroids reveals that the discriminant function makes a significant differentiation of the group of students attending the three-year secondary school programme and students attending the four-year (and five-year) secondary school programme. The main difference in the differentiation of groups is made by martial arts, strength sports, and ball and racket sports. To answer the third hypothesis, the canonical discriminant analysis found a statistically significant discriminant function whose structure is mostly contributed by ball and racket sports, the only ones with a positive sign. The locations of group centroids on the discriminant function show a clear distinction among groups, especially among pupils with good or poor knowledge of sports. According to the values of group centroids it can be concluded that the group of students having good knowledge of sports assessed ball and racket sports higher, whereas those students having poorer knowledge of sports made a completely different assessment. The canonical discriminant analysis found one statistically significant discriminant analysis for the last, fourth hypothesis, and for both experiences (mother’s and father’s). The structure of the first discriminant function for the mother’s experience is mostly contributed by students with the highest interest in ball and racket sports and students with the highest interest in basic sports and sports with a distinguished aesthetic component, both with a positive sign. The structure of the first discriminant function for the father’s experience is mostly contributed by students with the highest interest in ball and racket sports with a negative sign. Group centroids show that the first discriminant function (mother’s experience) differentiates the group of students whose mothers did not practice any sport and the group of students whose mothers were members of a national team. The position of group centroids for the group of recreational players, school and club athletes, and competitors on the state or interstate level is close to the null value. Regarding the fathers’ experience, group centroids show that the first discriminant function differentiates the group of students whose fathers also did not practice any sport on any level and the group of students whose fathers competed on the state and interstate level. The position of centroids for recreational, school and club athletes, competitors on the regional level and national representatives is close to the centre, both on the positive and negative side of the discriminant function. The group of students whose mothers were national representatives is mostly discriminated from the group of students whose mothers did not do any sports by ball and racket sports, basic sports and sports with a distinguished aesthetic component. The group of students whose fathers were non-athletes is mostly discriminated from the group of students whose fathers competed on the state and interstate level by ball and racket sports. The multiple regression analysis established a significant correlation between the total result of the knowledge of sports and four out of five promax factors, ball and racket sports making the basic contribution to this multiple correlation, while outdoor sports do not have a significant value. Based on the results obtained by the last two analysis it can be concluded that all the four set hypotheses are completely confirmed. Conclusion: The obtained results reveal a wide range of sports for which examinees indicate their preference, i.e. they indicate the sports they would like to practice. Our secondary school students’ sports interests are primarily directed toward “male” and partially “neutral” sports confirming, among other things, the high significance of gender stereotyping in the field of sports. The clearly defined promax factors show that secondary school leavers in both three- and four-year programmes have a pretty stable structure of sports interests. The main advantage of this research is that the results of interests in sports have been collected and analysed on a representative sample obtained in the area of a whole local government unit. Therefore, the results obtained in this research can be generalised to the whole youth population in Croatia. The next step in the construction of a test on knowledge of sports should include the formation of an extended scale. Indeed, it is difficult to construe any general knowledge test with a small number of questions, which has also been confirmed by other research whose tests consisted of a hundred or more items. The higher the number of items, the higher the reliability. More precisely, to obtain a coefficient of 0.80, the scale should be expanded to 35 questions, whereas for alpha coefficient values of 0.85, the scale should consist of 49 items. Moreover, it is recommended to expand the Prot’s PS2 interest in sports scale to new sports which have primarily appeared in the last 20 years.

Uvod: Istraživanja pokazuju da mnoge vlade i nacionalne sportske organizacije u potrazi za međunarodnim (olimpijskim) uspjehom svoje zemlje troše sve više novca, ali se istovremeno raspodjeli proračunskih sredstava za sport koji je u nadležnosti upravljačkih struktura u sportu pridaje malo pozornosti. Posljedično, nema garancije da više uloženog novca rezultira i s više ostvarenih sportskih uspjeha. Učinkovita politika upravljanja u sportu može rezultirati s više olimpijskih medalja, odnosno s većim brojem uspješnih sportaša i kod ekonomski slabije razvijenih zemalja, odnosno kod zemalja s manjim brojem stanovnika. Sva dosadašnja istraživanja bavila su se izdvajanjima sredstava iz državnog proračuna, no izdvajanjima sredstava za sport na lokalnim razinama pridavalo se malo pažnje, u najvećoj mjeri stoga što je teško doći do podataka potrebnih za provedbu istraživanja. Stoga se u kontekstu financiranja vrhunskog sporta želi ukazati na mjesto i važnost financiranja lokalnog sporta u stvaranju uspjeha sportaša u vrhunskom sportu. To je promatrano na primjeru Republike Hrvatske i četiri najveća hrvatska grada, koji primjenjuju isti postojeći zakonodavni okvir koji se odnosi na lokalni sport, ali i različite, autonomne načine upravljanja raspoloživim financijskim resursima u provođenju sportskih programa. Cilj: Cilj ovog istraživanja je utvrditi povezanost između ulaganja javnih sredstava u četiri najveća hrvatska grada te broja ukupno aktivnih i vrhunskih sportaša u 15 olimpijskih sportova (pet ekipnih, četiri borilačka i šest individualnih) od 2016. do 2019. godine. Promatrano je kako su uložena sredstva i njihova struktura (troškovi korištenja sportskih objekata, stručni rad trenera, troškovi natjecanja, razvojni programi za mlade sportaše), utjecala na ostvarene rezultate u službenim natjecanjima mjerene brojem vrhunskih sportaša I., II. i III. kategorije, te brojem aktivnih sportaša i broja financiranih klubova. S namjerom utvrđivanja ostvarenja ovog cilja postavljene su četiri hipoteze, koje su tijekom istraživanja proširene podhipotezama. H1: Postoji značajna razlika u financijskim ulaganjima u sport prema broju financiranih klubova i aktivnih sportaša između promatranih gradova. Hipoteza H1 je proširena s testiranjem za svaku grupu sportova (H1-1 ekipni sportovi; H1-2 borilački i H1-3 individualni sportovi). H2: Postoji značajna povezanost između izdvajanja financijskih sredstava iz proračuna za programsko korištenje sportskih objekata, stručnog rada, natjecanja te razvojnih programa mladih i pokazatelja sportske kvalitete mjerene brojem vrhunskih sportaša posebno I., II. i III. kategorije te masovnosti sporta mjerene brojem aktivnih sportaša u pet olimpijskih ekipnih sportova u sva četiri hrvatska grada zajedno. Hipoteza je proširena testiranjem povezanosti za svaki grad posebno za ekipne sportove (H2-1 za Zagreb, H2-2 za Split, H2-3 za Rijeku i H2-4 za Osijek). H3: Postoji značajna povezanost između izdvajanja financijskih sredstava iz proračuna za programsko korištenje sportskih objekata, stručnog rada, natjecanja te razvojnih programa mladih i pokazatelja sportske kvalitete mjerene brojem vrhunskih sportaša posebno I., II. i III. kategorije te masovnosti sporta mjerene brojem aktivnih sportaša u četiri olimpijska borilačka sporta u četiri hrvatska grada. Hipoteza je proširena testiranjem povezanosti za svaki grad posebno za borilačke sportove (H3- 1 za Zagreb, H3-2 za Split, H3-3 za Rijeku i H3-4 za Osijek). H4: Postoji značajna povezanost između izdvajanja financijskih sredstava iz proračuna za programsko korištenje sportskih objekata, stručnog rada, natjecanja te razvojnih programa mladih i pokazatelja sportske kvalitete mjerene brojem vrhunskih sportaša posebno I., II. i III. kategorije te masovnosti sporta mjerene brojem aktivnih sportaša u šest olimpijskih individualnih sportova u četiri hrvatska grada. Hipoteza je proširena testiranjem povezanosti za svaki grad posebno za individualne sportove (H4-1 za Zagreb, H4-2za Split, H4-3 za Rijeku i H4-4 za Osijek). Metode: Istraživanjem su obuhvaćena izdvajanja financijskih sredstva od 2016. do 2019. godine koja su dodijeljena klubovima i gradskim savezima iz ljetnih olimpijskih sportova i to iz pet ekipnih (košarka, nogomet, odbojka, rukomet i vaterpolo), četiri borilačka (boks, judo, karate i taekwondo), te šest individualnih sportova (atletika, gimnastika, plivanje, streljaštvo, tenis i veslanje) čiji su sportaši financirani iz sredstava gradskih proračuna, uz uvjet da su klubovi i savezi iz odabranih sportova sufinancirani u svakom od gradova: Zagreb, Split, Rijeka i Osijek. U istraživanju su korištene univarijantne i multivarijantne analize, kvazikanoničke analize za povezanosti ulaganja javnih sredstava u sportske programe i postignuća sportaša u četiri hrvatska grada zajedno mjerena brojem kategoriziranih vrhunskih sportaša, te metoda glavnih komponenti kod utvrđivanja povezanosti kod svakog grada posebno. Za testiranje razlika u financiranju između gradova i grupa sportova korištena je diskriminacijska analiza. Rezultati: Rezultati ovog istraživanja pokazuju da postoje statistički značajne razlike u ulaganjima financijskih sredstava promatranih gradova, gdje Zagreb u svim promatranim vrstama financijskih ulaganja u sport ulaže znatno više od ostalih gradova kod zadanih ili manifestnih podataka u svim grupama sportova. No, standardizacijom vrijednosti podataka, isključivanjem utjecaja broja klubova i broja aktivnih sportaša, promijenio se odnos. Stvarna financijska ulaganja u sport pokazuju da najviše ulaže Grad Zagreb, osim u sportske objekte u koje Rijeka ulaže najviše financijskih sredstava kod ekipnih sportova. Međutim, Rijeka je grad koji najmanje od svih gradova ulaže u međunarodna i domaća natjecanja kao i u razvojne programe za mlade. Osijek od svih gradova najmanje financijskih sredstava ulaže u sportske objekte i trenere. Grad Split manje ulaže u sportske objekte, ali po stvarnim ulaganjima u rad trenera, međunarodna i domaća natjecanja te u razvojne programe za mlade odmah je iza Zagreba. Razlike prema grupama sportova nisu identične, ali generalno uzevši vrijedi prethodna konstatacija. Prema I. diskriminacijskoj funkciji statistički se značajno razlikuju promatrani gradovi s obzirom na financiranje ekipnog sporta na cjelokupnom skupu promatranih varijabli s diskriminacijskom vrijednosti 1,737 a razlike su sa 2,826 standardnih devijacija. Kod borilačkih sportova diskriminacijska vrijednost je 1,694 sa razlikom 2,136 standardnih devijacija, dok je kod individualnih sportova diskriminacijska vrijednost 2,813 sa razlikom 2,348 standardnih devijacija. Stoga je moguće prihvatiti H1 hipotezu i to kod standardiziranih podataka. Kod manifestnih vrijednosti razlike su znatno veće, te su vidljive u poglavlju 4. Rezultati pod točkom 4.1. Povezanost ulaganja financijskih sredstava i broja aktivnih sportaša kod svih grupa sportova za sva četiri grada zajedno je statistički značajna, kao i povezanost izdvajanja financijskih sredstava i broja vrhunskih sportaša I., II. i III. kategorije u svim grupama sportova (ekipni, borilački i individualni). Stoga se hipoteze H2, H3 i H4 mogu prihvatiti. Izuzetak je kod ekipnih sportova gdje ne postoji povezanost financijskih ulaganja i broja vrhunskih sportaša II. kategorije. Ne postoji povezanost kod financiranja sportskih objekata i svih kategorija vrhunskih sportaša u individualnim sportovima. Sve navedeno odnosi se na podatke za sva četiri grada zajedno za svaku grupu sportova. Povezanost između financiranja ekipnih sportova i broja aktivnih sportaša i vrhunskih sportaša I., II. i III. kategorije je statistički značajna što proizlazi iz kvazikanoničke korelacije 0,847, s kvazikanoničkom determinacijom 0,717. Kod borilačkih sportova kvazikanonička korelacija iznosi 0,863, s kvazikanoničkom determinacijom 0,745, dok kod individualnih sportova kvazikanonička korelacija iznosi 0,939, s kvazikanoničkom determinacijom 0,882. Postojeće financiranje razlikuje se od stvarnog, koje je dobiveno standardizacijom vrijednosti podataka. Kod standardiziranih vrijednosti povezanosti financiranja i sportske kvalitete pojedinačno za svaki grad i grupu sportova su različite. U ekipnim sportovima prisutna je statistički značajna korelacija (Spearmanov koeficijent korelacije) oba skupa podataka, komponente financiranja i komponente kvalitete kroz kategorizaciju sportaša svih kategorija. Kod Zagreba je rs 0,719. Kod Splita su također prisutne statistički značajne korelacije rs je 0,515, kod Rijeke nema korelacije rs je 0,417, te nije statistički značajna, a u Osijeku postoji statistički značajna korelacija samo sa III. kategorijom vrhunskih sportaša rs je -0,857 i ona je negativna. Kod borilačkih sportova statistički značajne korelacije su različite od grada do grada, s time da najbolju povezanost ima grad Rijeka rs je 0,903, a kod Splita je rs -0,717, Zagreba je rs -0,659 i Osijeka je rs -0,638 te postoji povezanost ali je negativna. Kod individualnih sportova najjaču povezanost financijskih ulaganja i sportske kvalitete ima Rijeka rs je 0,800, slijede ga Split rs je 0,678 i Zagreb rs je 0,572, te Osijek rs je 0,509. Povezanosti po pojedinim varijablama su različite. Zaključak i rasprava: Promatrani gradovi u relativnom iznosu ulažu u sustav sporta s različitim postotkom svojih proračunskih sredstava, pri čemu najveći postotak izdvajanja ima Rijeka, zatim Split, Osijek, te na kraju najmanji postotak izdvajanja ima Grad Zagreb, koji ima najveći proračun, najveći broj stanovnika, najveći broj financiranih klubova, aktivnih sportaša i broja kategoriziranih sportaša. U apsolutnom iznosu, odnosi su drugačiji. Najviše sredstava za sport izdvaja Zagreb, zatim Split, pa Rijeka te Osijek. Provedenim istraživanjem na izabranih 15 olimpijskih sportova (tri grupe sportova) pokazalo se da zapravo Zagreb ulaže najviše, s velikim razlikama u odnosu na ostale gradove, ali na postojećem modelu financiranja. Isključenjem utjecaja broja klubova i aktivnih sportaša iz ulaganja u sportske programe, razlike su se nešto smanjile, no Zagreb je i dalje prvi na svim varijablama financijskih ulaganja izuzev kod sportskih objekata za ekipne sportove, gdje Zagreb ulaže nešto manje u odnosu na Rijeku. No, tu treba obratiti pažnju na činjenicu da se kod sportskih objekata radi o procjenama troškova (za objekte pod upravljanjem ustanova ili trgovačkih društava), dok su kod svih ostalih varijabli troškovi točno iskazani. Najkvalitetnijim sportskim objektima upravljaju trgovačka društva ili ustanove koje su osnovali gradovi. Ne postoje jasno izrađeni cjenici pojedinih sportskih objekata koji bi olakšali precizno iskazivanje troškova njihovog korištenja, usporedivih između gradova. Sredstva se izdvajaju za ukupno funkcioniranje pravnih subjekata koji upravljaju sportskim objektima, a ne samo za troškove sportskog korištenja objekata. U strukturi razlika među gradovima kod ekipnih sportova prema prvoj diskriminacijskoj funkciji najviše sudjeluju troškovi razvojnih programa i međunarodnih i domaćih natjecanja. Kod borilačkih sportova to su ulaganja u trenere i objekte, dok je kod individualnih sportova to ulaganje u trenere i natjecanja i to za standardizirane vrijednosti ili stvarna ulaganja. Postoje statistički značajne povezanosti broja aktivnih sportaša i financijskih ulaganja za ekipne, borilačke i individualne sportove, promatrano u četiri grada zajedno na standardiziranim vrijednostima. Povezanost financijskih ulaganja s brojem vrhunskih sportaša je prisutna u svim grupama sportova, gdje je uvijek najjača povezanost s brojem sportaša III. kategorije koja prvenstveno predstavlja nacionalne finaliste ili nekoliko prvih plasmana u nacionalnim ligama. Tu su također i sportaši s nižim plasmanima sa međunarodnih natjecanja. Ovi rezultati su očekivani jer se radi o financiranju lokalne razine, gdje u natjecanjima sudjeluje veliki broj vrhunskih sportaša nacionalne razine. Prisutna je i povezanost financijskih ulaganja sa sportašima I. kategorije koji su uglavnom sportaši sa medaljama sa OI, SP i EP ili plasmanom do 8. mjesta na takvim velikim međunarodnim natjecanjima, različito od sporta do sporta. Zanimljivo je da je prisutna značajna povezanost financijskih ulaganja s brojem vrhunskih sportaša I. kategorije, dok je povezanost sa II. kategorijom najmanja, ili kao kod ekipnih sportova, uopće ne postoji. Kod borilačkih i individualnih sportova odnos financiranja i broja sportaša I. i II. kategorije je sličan. Više ulaganja u financiranje navedenih troškova, rezultirat će većim brojem vrhunskih sportaša I. i II. kategorije. Kod individualnih sportova ne postoji povezanost niti jedne kvalitetne kategorije sportaša i sportskih objekata. Postojeće financiranje (zadane ili manifestne vrijednosti) pokazuje povezanost kod pojedinih varijabli za sve grupe sportova i svaki od gradova. No kod povezanosti komponenti financijskih ulaganja i komponenti razine sportske kvalitete za svaki grad posebno, za standardizirane vrijednosti ili stvarna ulaganja, najjača povezanost je kod ekipnih sportova u Gradu Zagrebu, kod borilačkih sportova u gradu Rijeci, a kod individualnih sportova u gradu Rijeci i Splitu. Rezultati povezanosti financijskih ulaganja i razine sportske kvalitete trebali bi biti poznati donositeljima odluka u RH na nacionalnoj razini, jer često ne postoji poveznica financiranja lokalnog i nacionalnog sporta. Ona je uglavnom simbolična, osim u posljednjim godinama kada se izdvajanje za lokalni sport pojačava od strane Ministarstva turizma i sporta - uprave za sport, dok HOO izdvaja manja sredstva za lokalni sport. Temelj svakog sporta počiva na financiranju lokalnog sporta. Ova razina financiranja mogla bi činiti onu razliku koja čini uspješnijom jednu zemlju u odnosu na ostale konkurentne zemlje, s obzirom da sve zemlje prate što se događa oko njih, te preuzimaju modele i znanja stečena kod drugih. Donositelji odluka (sportska i gradska upravna) trebali bi analizirati rezultate svojih ulaganja, radi provjere rezultata ulaganja javnih sredstava. Ovo istraživanje može predstavljati mali doprinos tom cilju. Introduction: Research shows that many governments and national sport organizations are increasingly spending money in pursuit of their country's international (Olympic) success, but at the same time, the allocation of sport budgets under the responsibility of governing sport structures receives little attention. Consequently, there is no guarantee that allocating more money results in achieving more sport success. An effective sport management policy can result in more Olympic medals, that is, a greater number of successful athletes, also in economically less developed countries or in countries with a smaller population. All the research conducted so far has dealt with the allocation of funds from the state budget, but the allocation of funds for sports at local levels has received little attention, mostly because it is difficult to obtain the data needed to conduct the research. Therefore, in the context of funding elite sport, we would like to point out the place and importance of funding local sport in creating the success of athletes in elite sport. It observed on the example of the Republic of Croatia and its four largest cities, which operate under the same existing legislative framework related to local sport, but have different, autonomous ways of managing the available financial resources in implementing sport programmes. Aim: The aim of this research is to determine the correlation between public funding in four largest Croatian cities and the total number of active and elite athletes in 15 Olympic sports (five team and six individual sports and four martial arts) from 2016 to 2019. I will observe how the allocated funds and their structure (the costs of using sport facilities, coaches’ salaries, competitions, youth development programs) affect the results achieved in official competitions. The results will be measured by the number of elite category 1, 2 and 3 athletes, the number of active athletes in the competition system and the number of clubs funded. To determine the achievement of this goal, I put forward four hypotheses, which were expanded with sub hypothesis during research. H1: There is a significant difference in funding sport by the number of funded clubs and active athletes among the cities observed. Hypothesis H1 was expanded with testing for each group of sports (H1-1 team sports, H1-2 martial arts and H1-3 individual sports). H2: There is a significant correlation between the allocation of funds from the budget for the programmatic use of sport facilities, coaches’ salaries, competitions and youth development programs and indicators of sport quality, measured by the number of elite athletes, especially category 1, 2 and 3 elite athletes, and mass participation in sport, measured by the number of active athletes in five Olympic team sports in all four Croatian cities together. The hypothesis was expanded by testing the correlations in team sports for each city separately (H2-1 for Zagreb, H2-2 for Split, H2-3 for Rijeka and H2-4 for Osijek). H3: There is a significant correlation between the allocation of funds from the budget for the programmatic use of sport facilities, coaches’ salaries, competitions and youth development programs and indicators of sport quality, measured by the number of elite athletes, especially category 1, 2 and 3 elite athletes, and mass participation in sport, measured by the number of active athletes in four Olympic martial arts in four Croatian cities. The hypothesis was expanded by testing the correlations in martial arts for each city separately (H3-1 for Zagreb, H3-2 for Split, H3-3 for Rijeka and H3-4 for Osijek). H4: There is a significant correlation between the allocation of funds from the budget for the programmatic use of sport facilities, coaches’ salaries, competitions and youth development programs and indicators of sport quality, measured by the number of elite athletes, especially category 1, 2 and 3 elite athletes, and mass participation in sport, measured by the number of active athletes in six Olympic individual sports in four Croatian cities. The hypothesis was expanded by testing the correlations in individual sports for each city separately (H4-1 for Zagreb, H4-2 for Split, H4-3 for Rijeka and H4-4 for Osijek). Methods: The research covered funding from 2016 to 2019, allocated to the clubs and city associations that govern summer Olympic sports, that is, five team sports (basketball, football, handball, volleyball and water polo), four martial arts (boxing, judo, karate and taekwondo) and six individual sports (athletics, gymnastics, rowing, shooting sports, swimming and tennis) whose athletes are funded from city budgets, provided that the clubs and associations governing the selected sports are co-funded in each of the cities: Zagreb, Split, Rijeka and Osijek. The methods used in the research were the univariate and multivariate analyses, the quasi-canonical analyses used to determine the correlation between public funding of sport programs and athlete achievements in the four Croatian cities together, measured by the number of registered elite athletes, and the main components analysis used to determine the correlations in each of the cities. Results: The results of this research have shown that there are statistically significant differences in funding among the observed cities. Zagreb allocates significantly more funds than the other cities according to the given or manifest data in all groups of sports and all observed types of sport funding. But, the correlations changed after standardizing the data values, excluding the influence of the number of clubs and active athletes. The actual allocation of funds to sport shows that the City of Zagreb allocates the most funds, except for sport facilities. Rijeka allocates the most funds for team sports facilities. However, Rijeka is the city that allocates the least funds of all the cities for international and domestic competitions, as well as for youth development programs. Osijek allocates the least funds of all the cities for sport facilities and coaches. The city of Split allocates less funds for sport facilities, but it is right behind Zagreb by actual allocation of funds for coaches’ salaries, international and domestic competitions and youth development programs. The differences by groups of sports are not identical, but the above observation stands in general. According to the first discriminant function, the observed cities differ statistically significantly in the entire set of observed variables; in team sports funding, the discriminant value is 1.737 and the standard deviation of differences is 2.826. In the martial arts, the discriminant value is 1.694 and the standard deviation of differences is 2.136, while the discriminant value in the individual sports is 2.813 and the standard deviation of differences is 2.348. It is therefore possible to accept the H1 hypothesis for standardized data. The differences are significantly larger in manifest values and they can be seen in Chapter 4 Results under item 4.1. The correlation between funding and the number of active athletes in all groups of sports in all four cities together is statistically significant, as is the correlation between funding and the number of category 1,2 and 3 elite athletes in all groups of sports (team sports, martial arts and individual sports). Therefore hypotheses H2, H3 and H4 can be accepted. There is an exception in the team sports, where there is no correlation between funding and the number of category 2 elite athletes. There is no correlation between funding of sport facilities and all categories of elite athletes in individual sports. All above observations apply to the data from all four cities together and all groups of sports. The correlation between funding the team sports and the number of active athletes and category 1, 2 and 3 elite athletes is statistically significant, which results from the quasi-canonical correlation of 0.847, with the quasi-canonical determination of 0.717. In the martial arts, the quasi-canonical correlation is 0.863, with the quasi-canonical determination of 0.745, while the quasi-canonical correlation in the individual sports is 0.939, with the quasi-canonical determination of 0.882 for all cities together. The existing funding differs from the actual funding, which is obtained by standardizing data values. With standardized values, the correlation between funding and sport quality is different for each city and group of sports. In the team sports, there is a statistically significant correlation (Spearman's correlation coefficient) between the data sets – the funding components and quality components through the categorization of athletes of all categories. In Zagreb, rs is 0.719. In Split, there are also statistically significant correlations – rs is 0.515, while in Rijeka, there are no statistically significant correlations at all – rs is 0.468, and in Osijek, there is a statistically significant correlation only in category 3 elite athletes – rs is -0.857 and it is negative. In the martial arts, statistically significant correlations differ from city to city. The city of Rijeka has the best correlation – rs is 0.903. In Split, rs is -0.717, in Zagreb, rs is -0.659 and in Osijek, rs is -0.638 – there is a correlation, but it is negative. In the individual sports, Rijeka has the best correlation between funding and sport quality – rs is 0.800. It is followed by Split – rs is 0.678, Zagreb – rs is 0.572 and Osijek – rs is 0.509. The correlations differ by individual variables. Conclusion and discussion: In terms of relative amounts, the observed cities allocate different percentages of their budgets to the sport system: Rijeka allocates the largest percentage, followed by Split and Osijek. The City of Zagreb allocates the smallest percentage of its budget and it has the largest budget, the largest population, the largest number of funded clubs, active athletes and elite athletes. The relations are different when it comes to the absolute amounts. Zagreb allocates the most money, followed by Split, Rijeka and Osijek. The research conducted on the selected 15 Olympic sports (three groups of sports) has shown that Zagreb actually provides the most funding, with large differences when compared with other cities, but under the current funding model. After excluding the impact of the number of clubs and active athletes from funding sport programs, the differences have narrowed somewhat, but Zagreb is still leading in all variables of funding, except in team sport facilities, where Zagreb allocates slightly less funding than Rijeka. However, attention should be paid to the fact that figures for sport facilities are only cost estimates (for facilities managed by institutions or companies), while the costs are accurately stated in all other variables. The highest quality sport facilities are managed by companies or institutions founded by the cities, and these data have been evaluated. There are no clear price lists for individual sport facilities, which would enable making precise cost statements for their use, comparable among the cities. Funds are allocated for the overall functioning of the legal entities that manage the sport facilities and not only for the costs of the sporting use of the facilities. In the team sports, the costs of youth development programs and international and domestic team sport competitions make up the largest share in the structure of differences among the cities according to the first discriminant function. In the martial arts, it is the cost of coaches’ salaries and facilities, while in the individual sports, it is the cost of coaches’ salaries and competitions, for standardized values or actual funding. There are statistically significant correlations between the number of active athletes and funding of the team and individual sports and martial arts, which was observed on standardized data in four cities collectively. The correlation between funding and the number of elite athletes is present in all groups of sports, but the strongest correlation is always found with the number of category 3 elite athletes. That category primarily comprises national finalists or athletes with several top placements in national leagues, as well as athletes in lower placements at international competitions. These results are expected, because they concern funding at the local level, where a large number of national level elite athletes participate in competitions. There is also a correlation between funding and category 1 elite athletes, who are mostly Olympic, world and European championships medallists or athletes who place 8th or higher in such major international events, which differs from sport to sport. It is interesting that there is a significant correlation between funding and the number of category 1 elite athletes, while the correlation in category 2 elite athletes is the smallest or it does not exist at all, as is the case in the team sports. In the martial arts and individual sports, the correlations between funding and category 1 and 2 elite athletes are similar. Allocating more funding to the mentioned costs will result in a larger number of category 1 and 2 elite athletes. In the individual sports, there is no correlation between any category of elite athletes and sport facilities. The existing funding models (given or manifest values) show correlations in some variables for all groups of sports and each of the cities. However, when we look at the correlation between the components of funding and the level of sport quality with standardized values or actual funding in each city separately, the strongest correlations are found in the team sports in the City of Zagreb, in the martial arts in Rijeka, and in the individual sports in Rijeka and Split. The results of the correlation between funding and the level of sport quality should be known to decision-makers in the Republic of Croatia at the national level, because there is often no link between the funding of local and national sports. It is mostly symbolic, except in recent years, when the Ministry of Tourism and Sport - Sport Directorate has increased funding for local sports, while the Croatian Olympic Committee allocates small funds for local sports. Funding local sport is the basis of every sport. This funding level could make the difference in what makes a country more successful than its competitors, because all countries follow what is happening around them, and take over the models and knowledge that others have gained. Decision-makers (sport and city administrations) should analyse the results of their funding, in order to verify the results of public funding. This research could make a small contribution to that end.

Cilj istraživanja je utvrditi razinu povezanosti socijalne okoline (roditelji, treneri, vršnjaci) mladih hrvača u odnosu na njihovu razinu zadovoljstva, intrinzičnu motivaciju i posvećenost hrvanju. Uzorak je činilo 172 mladih hrvača od 11 do 17 godina iz većine hrvačkih klubova u Hrvatskoj, koji su podijeljeni u tri dobne skupine, mlađi dječaci hrvači od 11 do 13 (N = 79) stariji dječaci hrvači od 14 i 15 (N=50) i kadeti od 16 i 17 godina (N=43). Korišteni su upitnici koji mjere posvećenost sportu, ukupnu razinu zadovoljstva u sportu, socijalnu orijentaciju i utjecaj roditelja, trenera i vršnjaka, intrinzičnu motivaciju te roditeljsku potporu djeci u sportu. Rezultati su obrađeni diskriminacijskom analizom te kanoničkom korelacijskom analizom. Postavljene su dvije hipoteze: H1: Postoji značajna razlika u socijalnoj motivaciji između različitih dobnih skupina mladih u hrvanju. Diskriminacijska analiza izdvojila je prvu diskriminacijsku funkciju koja je bila statistički značajna na nivou 0,01 (p < 0,01) te je ova hipoteza potvrđena. Najveći doprinos definiranju diskriminacijske funkcije dale su poddimenzije roditeljske potpore, intrinzične motivacije i socijalne orijentacije. Dječaci hrvači se najviše razlikuju u varijablama „percipirana kompetentnost“, „pozitivna potkrepljenja“ i „roditeljska vjerovanja u dobrobit bavljenja sportom“, a najviše se razlikuju mlađi i stariji dječaci hrvači, dok se najstariji hrvači kadeti umjereno razlikuju i od mlađih i od starijih dječaka hrvača. Na pozitivnom polu diskriminacijske funkcije nalazi se mlađa dobna skupina, blizu nule su kadeti, a na negativnom starija dobna skupina. Drugim riječima, mlađim hrvačima važna su roditeljska vjerovanja u dobrobit bavljenja sportom, a karakterizira ih više napora/važnosti i više zadovoljstva u sportu. Starije dječake hrvače karakterizira manje percipirane kompetentnosti, više pritiska/tenzije i manje zadovoljstva u sportu, dok su kadeti umjereni u svemu. H2: Postoji značajna povezanost između posvećenosti hrvanju, razine zadovoljstva, intrinzične motivacije i socijalne orijentacije. Kanoničkom korelacijskom analizom utvrđeno je kako postoji jedan statistički značajan kanonički par na nivou 0,01 te je ova hipoteza potvrđena. Kanonički koeficijent korelacije za kanonički par iznosi, F1 = 0,65, čime se objašnjava 42 % ukupne varijance na nivou značajnosti p < 0,01. Kanoničke faktore prvog i drugog seta varijabli u kanonički par povezuje socijalna orijentacija u obliku prihvaćanja grupe, roditeljska potpora u obliku roditeljskog vjerovanja u dobrobit bavljenja sportom i pozitivnih potkrepljenja te varijable intrinzične motivacije „interes/uživanje“ i „percipirana kompetentnost“. Dobiveni rezultati pokazuju kako postoji statistički značajna razlika u socijalnoj motivaciji različitih dobnih skupina mladih hrvača i ističu važnost motivacije za postizanje pozitivnih afektivnih ishoda koje mladi mogu postići u sportu. Ovo istraživanje predstavlja još jedan značajan doprinos razumijevanju odustajanja mladih od hrvanja, što još uvijek nije dovoljno istraženo niti je dobro znanstveno objašnjeno i riješeno te ima širi društveni značaj i izlazi iz okvira akademske zajednice. In order for young people to pursue wrestling as their chosen sport, it is essential for their social environment, namely, their parents, their coach and peers to motivate them. According to numerous previous studies, social orientation is important because it has been proven to be directly associated to satisfaction and intrinsic motivation. In order to remain in wrestling, youth need to feel satisfaction and to positively self – evaluate their own abilities and achievements. Through the positive influence of social environment, youth will perceive wrestling as a source of satisfaction and continue pursuing it. The purpose of this research is to determine the level of connection of the social environment (parents, coaches, peers) of young wrestlers in relation to their level of satisfaction, intrinsic motivation and commitment to wrestling. The survey was conducted among 172 young wrestlers, ages between 11 and 17, who train in different clubs in Croatia. They have been divided in three different age groups, younger wrestlers, boys age 11 to 13 (N = 79) older wrestlers, boys age 14 and 15 (N = 50) and cadets, boys age 16 and 17 (N = 43). For the purpose of this survey the following editions of Croatian questionnaires were used: “Sport Commitment Questionnaire” (Scanlan et al., 1993), modified and translated into Croatian (Crnjac, 2017); “Questionnaire on scale of total satisfaction in sport”, (Scanlan et al., 1993), translated into Croatian and modified (Crnjac, 2017); “Questionnaire on social orientation and influence of parents, coaches and peers” (Stuntz and Weiss, 2003), modified Croatian version (Crnjac, 2017); “Intrinzic Motivation Inventory – IMI” (Štimac, 2000) and “Questionnaire on parental support for children in sport” (Bosnar, 2003). Data was processed using the discriminate analysis and the canonical correlation analysis. According to appointed purpose of the research, two hypotheses were set. The first set hypothesis H1 was: There is a significant difference in social motivation between different age groups of youth in wrestling. The discriminant analysis singled out the first discriminant function (eigen–value = 0,42; canonical R = 0,54; Wilks' Lambda = 0,67; Chi–sqr. = 65,47; df = 26,00; p < 0,01), which was statistically significant at the level of 0,01, and that has confirmed our hypothesis. The discriminatory function of social motivation between different age groups of young wrestlers have defined by sub-dimensions of parental support, intrinsic motivation and social orientation. Coaching praise and peer acceptance are also very important to young wrestlers. The biggest contribution to defining the discriminatory function was given by the subdimensions of parental support, intrinsic motivation and social orientation. Boys wrestlers differ the most in the variables "perceived competence", "positive corroboration" and "parental beliefs in the benefits of sports". The younger and older boys wrestlers differ the most, while the oldest cadet wrestlers differ moderately from both the younger and older boys wrestlers. On the positive side of the discriminatory function is the younger age group. On the opposite negative side, there is a older age group, and in the middle of the discriminatory function very close to zero, there is the oldest age group, the cadets. In other words, for younger wrestlers, parental beliefs in the benefits of playing sports are important, and they are characterized by more effort / importance and more satisfaction in sports. Older boys wrestlers are characterized contrary of younger boys wrestlers, regarding less perceived competence, more pressure / tension, less pleasure in sports and less parental belief in the benefits of playing sports. The oldest age group, the cadets are moderate in everything. In accordance with the aim of the research another hypothesis H2 that has been set up, was: There is a significant correlation between wrestling commitment, satisfaction level, intrinsic motivation, and social orientation. Canonical correlation analysis determined that there is a statistically significant correlation between one canonical pairs at the level of 0,01, and that has confirmed our hypothesis. A relatively high statistical value of the canonical correlation coefficients for the canonical pair was achieved, which is, F1 = 0,65, which explains 42 % of the total variance at the significance level p < 0,01. The canonical factors of the first and second sets of variables in the canonical pair are connected by social orientation in the form of group acceptance, parental support in the form of parental belief in the benefits of sports and positive reinforcements, and olso variables of intrinsic motivation "interest / enjoyment" and "perceived competence". The obtained results show that there is a statistically significant difference in social motivation between different age groups of young wrestlers and they point out the importance of motivation for achieving positive affective outcomes that young people can achieve in sports. Satisfaction in sport strongly correlates with commitment to sports (0,78). Most respondents think that peers’ wrestlers want to be friends with them and that they like to spend time with them. They feel that their parents are extremely proud of them being in wrestling, that their parents are supportive, that their parents think that other athletes are good company for them, and they know that their parents think that wrestling is good for their health. For coaches, most respondents say that they are very satisfied when they are doing well in wrestling, that they are positive and it is important for them to be encouraged and praised by their coaches. Intrinsic motivation as perceived competence and effort/importance, as well as parents' beliefs in the benefits of playing sports, proved to be the dominant factor, with joint activities outside of training and praise from their coaches. It is also clear that there is a very strong correlation between commitment to sport and satisfaction in sport. Moderate positive correlation connects the variable of the subdimension of intrinsic motivation, "interest/enjoyment" and the variable of the subdimension of social orientation "group acceptance". In addition, a negative correlation was found between the subdimension of intrinsic motivation "interest / enjoyment" and the dimension of satisfaction in sports and commitment to sports, which could mean that boys wrestlers feel less satisfaction when they feel effort in training and competitions. The obtained results show that there is a statistically significant difference in social motivation between different age groups of young wrestlers and emphasize the importance of motivation for achieving positive affective outcomes that young people can achieve in sports. This research represents another significant contribution to the understanding the reasons for giving–up wrestling among young athletes, which is still not sufficiently researched or well scientifically explained and resolved, and has a wider social significance and exits beyond the academic community. Considering that the reasons for giving–up sports among young athletes is a socially important problem that is recognized in the world, and manifests itself in the most developed sports countries, any research of this type and in this area is a significant path in its development. This research is another step towards defining the level of connection of the social environment of young wrestlers and their level of satisfaction, intrinsic motivation and commitment to wrestling sport.

Uvod: Tjelesno samopoimanje, kao značajnu komponentu općeg pojma o sebi, većina autora definira kao subjektivnu prezentaciju tjelesnog izgleda popraćenu tjelesnim iskustvima uz utjecaj sociokulturnog okruženja, poglavito u adolescenciji (Majdak & Kamenov, 2011; Pokrajac-Bulian i ostali, 2004). Istraživanja su pokazala da je tjelesno samopoimanje važan moderator tjelesne aktivnosti i vježbanja (H. W. Marsh & Perry, 2005; Peart i ostali, 2005) te da ima značajan utjecaj na razvoj aktivnog i zdravog načina života (H. W. Marsh i ostali, 2006). Osim pozitivnog utjecaja na tjelesno samopoimanje, tjelesno vježbanje i sport predstavljaju bitne faktore u postizanju optimalnog stanja psihofizičkog zdravlja, što potvrđuju istraživanja širom svijeta (Jurakić & Andrijašević, 2007). Cilj: Glavni cilj ovog istraživanja je bio utvrditi generalne razlike u tjelesnom samopoimanju adolescenata istog spola u glavnim gradovima triju država: Hrvatske, Srbije i Bosne i Hercegovine. Pod-ciljevi rada bili su: ispitati da li postoje spolne razlike u tjelesnom samopoimanju adolescenata u različitim državama; utvrditi razlike u tjelesnom samopoimanju ispitanika s obzirom na sportski staž, odnosno da li se ispitanici bave sportom ili ne; ispitati da li postoje razlike u tjelesnom samopoimanju ispitanika ovisno o tome da li se bave individualnim ili timskim sportom. Metode: U svrhu prikupljanja podataka primijenjen je „Upitnik tjelesnog samopoimanja“ PSDQ (Marsh i ostali, 1994, prema Radisavljević-Janić, 1996) od 78 čestica. Anketiranje sudionika provedeno je na prigodnom uzorku od ukupno 1012 učenika osmih razreda u šest osnovnih škola, u Republici Hrvatskoj (n=298), Bosni i Hercegovini (n=321) i Srbiji (n=393). Rezultati su pokazali da između adolescenata s područja RH, BiH i Srbije postoje dosljedne i očekivane razlike u tjelesnom samopoimanju s obzirom na spol i s obzirom na (ne)bavljenje sportom. Tjelesno samopoimanje adolescenata je bolje od tjelesnog samopoimanja adolescentica. Tjelesno samopoimanje sportaša je bolje od tjelesnog samopoimanja nesportaša. Naposljetku, pokazalo se da se tjelesno samopoimanje sportaša koji se bave individualnim sportovima i sportaša koji se bave timskim sportovima ne razlikuje. Zaključak: Usporedba tjelesnog samopoimanja adolescenata s obzirom na državu u kojoj žive (RH, Srbija i BiH) pokazala je da u tjelesnom samopoimanju adolescenata iz pojedinih država postoje određene specifičnosti, ali i da ne postoje jasni trendovi na način da bi adolescenti iz neke od navedenih država svoje tijelo sustavno doživljavali lošije ili bolje od adolescenata iz preostalih država. Introduction: Physical self-concept, as a significant component of the general self-concept, is defined by most authors as a subjective presentation of physical appearance accompanied by physical experiences influenced by sociocultural environment, especially in adolescence (Majdak & Kamenov, 2011; Pokrajac-Bulian et.al., 2004). Research has shown that physical self-perception is an important moderatorof physical activity and exercise (H. W. Marsh & Perry, 2005) and that it has a significant impact on developing an active and healthy lifestyle (H. W. Marsh et.al., 2006). In addition to the positive impact on physical self-perception, physical exercise and sports are important factors in achieving optimal mental and physical health, which is confirmed by research around the world (Jurakić & Andrijašević, 2007). Goal: The main goal of this study was to determine the general differences in the physical self-concept of adolescents of the same gender in the capitals of three countries: Croatia, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Sub-goals of the study were to examine are there gender differences in the physical self-concept of adolescents in different countries; to determine the differences in the physical self-concept of the respondents with regard to sports experience, ie whether the respondents engage in sports or not; and examine whether there are differences in respondents physical self-concept depending on whether they engage in individual or team sports. Methods: For the purpose of data collection, the „Physical Self-Concept Questionnaire” PSDQ (Marsh et.al., 1994, according to Radisavljević-Janić, 1996) of 78 particles was used. The survey of participants was proven on a suitable sample of a total of 1012 eighth grade students in six primary schools, in the Republic of Croatia (n = 298), Bosnia and Herzegovina (n = 321) and Serbia (n = 393). The results: The results showed that between adolescents from the territory of the Republic of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia there are consistent and expected differences in physical self-concept with regard to gender and with regard to (not) playing sports. The male adolescent's physical self-concept is better than the female adolescent's physical self-concept. The physical self-concept of an athlete is better than the physical self-concept of a non-athlete. Finally, it has been shown that the physical self-concepts of athletes engagedin individual sports and sports engaged in team sports do not differ. Conclusion: The comparison of adolescents' physical self-concept with regard to the country in which they live (Croatia, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina) showed that there are certain specifics in the physical self-concept of adolescents from certain countries, but also that there are no clear trends their body is systematically perceived worse or better than adolescents from the remaining countries.

Međumišićna koordinacija predstavlja mehanizam određen redoslijedom aktivacije mišića agonista i sinergista koji proizlazi iz njihovih vremena aktivacije. Cilj istraživanja bio je ispitati akutne i prolongirane učinke primjene tri različite tehnike Kinesio Taping metode, uz usporedbu sa kontrolnim procedurama te pronaći koja tehnika je najučinkovitija u optimizaciji međumišićne koordinacije kompleksa lumbalne kralježnice, zdjelice i kuka, za primarnu prevenciju patoloških promjena toga područja. U istraživanju je sudjelovalo 70 zdravih sudionika oba spola, nasumično podijeljenih u 5 jednakih skupina. Provedena su elektromiografska i goniometrijska mjerenja primjenom 4 testa za 6 zavisnih varijabli. Za određivanje vremena aktivacije ipsilateralnog/kontralateralnog m. erector spinae u odnosu na m. semitendinosus testirane noge, kao prve varijable te za određivanje vremenskog raspona aktivacije tih mišića kao druge, korišten je Prone Hip Extension test. Vrijednosti opsega pokreta ekstenzije/fleksije natkoljenice u kuku dobivene su primjenom Modificiranog Thomasovog/Active Straight Leg Raise testa. Izmjeren je i kut nagiba zdjelice. Sva mjerenja su provedena u tri vremenske točke: predintervencijski, 60 min nakon intervencije i 48 h postintervencijski. Miješanim modelom analize varijance za varijablu vrijeme aktivacije m. erector spinae te za varijable opsega pokreta pronađena je statistički značajna interakcija između skupine i točke mjerenja. Za kontrolne skupine nije pronađena statistički značajna razlika između točaka mjerenja, dok su za eksperimentalne utvrđeni značajni akutni učinci. Zabilježeni su i prolongirani učinci, međutim nisu se pokazali značajno različitima od akutnih. Dvije mišićne Kinesio Taping tehnike iskazale su različitu tendenciju promjene mišićne aktivnosti, pri čemu se tehnika facilitacije pokazala učinkovitijom. Kinesio Taping tehnika funkcionalne korekcije iskazala je najveće akutno poboljšanje međumišićne koordinacije, koje se zadržalo i prolongirano. Kinesio Taping metoda može optimizirati međumišićnu koordinaciju, u čemu je najučinkovitija Kinesio Taping tehnika funkcionalne korekcije. S obzirom na neznačajnost grupnih razlika učinaka, za postizanje korekcije posture u funkciji optimizacije međumišićne koordinacije odmah po intervenciji sugeriramo tehniku funkcionalne korekcije, dok za ostvarenje istog cilja prolongirano svrsishodna može biti i tehnika facilitacije mišićne funkcije, koja je svojim djelovanjem na miofasciju suptilnija, a ujedno je i jednostavnija za primjenu. Introduction. Muscle interplay is a mechanism determined by the recruitment order of agonists and synergists that results from their onset times. The aim of this study was to examine the acute and prolonged effects of three different techniques of Kinesio Taping method, compared to the control procedures, and furthermore to find which technique is most effective in optimizing the muscle interplay within the lumbo-pelvic-hip complex, with the potential for primary prevention of pathological manifestations in the mentioned area. Methods. The sample consisted of 70 healthy subjects of both genders, randomly divided into 5 equal groups. The study included 6 dependent variables assessed through electromyographic, goniometric and trigonometric evaluation based on 4 different tests. These variables were: onsets of the ipsilateral/contralateral erector spinae muscles in relation to semitendinosus muscle of the tested leg, recruitment order of these muscles (Prone Hip Extension test), hip extension/flexion range of motion (Modified Thomas/Active Straight Leg Raise test) and the pelvic tilt angle. All measurements were performed at three timepoints: pre-intervention, 60 min after the intervention, and 48 h post-intervention. Results. A statistically significant interaction between the group and the timepoint was found by a mixed ANOVA for the variable onset of the contralateral erector spinae and for the range of motion variables. No statistically significant difference was found between the timepoints for the control groups, while significant acute effects were found for the experimental ones. Prolonged effects have also been found but have not been shown to be significantly different than acute effects. Two Kinesio Taping muscle techniques showed a different tendency towards the change of muscle activity, with the facilitation technique being more effective. The Kinesio Taping functional correction technique showed the greatest acute muscle interplay improvement, which was maintained at an approximately equal level for a prolonged time. Conclusion. The Kinesio Taping method could optimize muscle interplay, in which the most effective Kinesio Taping technique is the functional correction. Given the insignificance of the differences in the effects of Kinesio Taping techniques, we suggest the functional correction technique to achieve postural correction, which could optimize the muscle interplay immediately after the intervention. The muscle facilitation technique can also be useful to achieve the same goal in a prolonged time, while being, by its myofascial repercussions, more subtle and easier to apply.

Cilj je bio identificirati i objasniti razlike između pobjednika i poraženih elitnih kickboksača te analizirati razlike u pojavnostima primjenjivanih TE-TA struktura u natjecateljskim sezonama u razdoblju od 1995. do 2012. Uzorak se sastojao od mečeva sa završnih eliminacijskih turnira u discipline K-1 za najboljih šesnaest boraca. Prethodno definirani uzorak borbi u disciplini K-1 bio je promatran putem videozapisa te su se po strogo definiranom protokolu evidentirala pojavljivanja definiranih varijabli. Po završetku navedenog postupka frekvencije su bile zapisane u formi prikladnoj za daljnju multivarijatnu analizu. U skladu s ciljem, bile su definirane nestandardne situacijske varijable u kickboxingu te je određena i interpretirana njihova latentna struktura. Nadalje, provedena je strukturalna analiza u elitnom kickboxingu, kao i analiza utjecaja primjenjivanih tehnika i taktika na ishod borbe. Također, pokušalo se definirati model strukturalne efikasnosti vrhunskog natjecatelja kroz godine. Između pobjednika i poraženih boraca detektirane su statistički značajne razlike u korištenju tehnika direkta u glavu stražnjom rukom iz kretanja prema naprijed i stava u mjestu s ponderom 2 (pun pogodak). Negativna korelacija pronađena je u korištenju obrambenih tehnika od udarca nogom u stavu u mjestu i kretanja unatrag te od udarca koljenom iz stava u mjestu. Između pobjednika i poraženih također je utvrđena i statistički značajna razlika u nizovima frekvencija, tzv. serijama, na razini od dvije spojene tehnike u smislu ručne blokade udarca rukom iz stava u mjestu i ručne blokade udarca nogom. Nije pronađen logičan trend promjena korištenja tehnika prema godinama natjecanja kod pobjednika, iako su se povremeno javljale statistički značajne promjene. Sustav tehničko-taktičke strukture moguće je reducirati na manji broj latentnih dimenzija. Iz kretanja prema naprijed plasirano je više udaraca nego iz svih drugih kretanja zajedno, dok je uzajaman postotak uspješnosti pogađanja bio najmanji. The goal was to identify and explain the differences between winners and losers of elite kickboxers and to analyse the differences in the manifestations of applied TE-TA structure during the competitive season 1995 - 2012. The sample consisted of matches held at the K1 final elimination tournament for the top sixteen fighters. Predefined samples of K-1 fights had been examined through the video and appearance of defined variables had been recorded under strictly defined protocol. Subsequently, the frequency was written down in a form suitable for further multivariate analysis. In accordance with the purpose, nonstandard situational variables were defined in kickboxing and their latent structure was determined and interpreted. Furthermore, elite kickboxing structural analysis was conducted and the impact of applied techniques and tactics on the final outcome of the fight was defined. An attempt to define the model of superior competitors’ structural efficiency through the years has also been made. Statistically significant differences were detected when comparing winners and the defeated fighters and their application of straight punch, cross moving forward and cross from stance, with assigned weight in the amount of 2 (full hit). A negative correlation was found comparing the application of defensive techniques when faced with kick from stance and moving backwards and the knee kick from stance. Statistically significant differences when comparing winners and the defeated fighters at the level of two combined techniques, namely hand block from punch in stance and hand block from kick, were also found in terms of array of frequencies, so called series. No logical trend was found in terms of potentially changed patterns in application of techniques for each year the competition was held from the aspect of winners. However, statistically significant changes have occasionally been detected. The overall structure of technical—tactical elements can be reduced to a smaller number of latent variables. Number of punches applied when moving forward exceeds the total number of punches applied from all the other moving directions.

Osnovni ciljevi ovoga istraživanja bili su utvrđivanje razlika i povezanosti tjelesne aktivnosti i motoričkih znanja djevojčica i dječaka predškolske dobi u različitim naseljima u Republici Hrvatskoj. U istraživanju je sudjelovalo 1654 dječaka i djevojčica u dobi od 3 do 7 godina i njihovi roditelji iz različitih dijelova Republike Hrvatske. Mjerenje se provodilo u dva dijela. U prvom dijelu roditelji su ispunili “Netherlands Physical Activity Questionnaire” (NPAQ), upitnik o tjelesnoj aktivnosti i sedentarnim aktivnostima njihova djeteta, te “Single item physical activity” (SIPA) vezan za razinu njihove tjelesne aktivnosti. U drugom dijelu su se testirala motorička znanja djece predškolske dobi putem baterija “Test of Gross Motor Development – Second Edition” (TGMD-2) i “Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency – Second Edition” (BOT-2). Rezultati su pokazali da djeca predškolske dobi u Republici Hrvatskoj postižu prosječne rezultate u motoričkim znanjima u odnosu na normativne vrijednosti korištenih testova. Nadalje, istraživanje je pokazalo da se djeca predškolske dobi u Republici Hrvatskoj značajno razlikuju u tjelesnoj aktivnosti, sedentarnim aktivnostima i motoričkim znanjima s obzirom na mjesto stanovanja. Predškolska djeca iz ostalih naselja splitske makroregije pokazala su se najaktivnijima. Djeca iz ostalih naselja zagrebačke makroregije provode najviše vremena u sedentarnim aktivnostima, za razliku od djece iz gradskih naselja riječke makroregije koja provode najmanje vremena u sedentarnim aktivnostima. U TGMD-2 testovima najbolje rezultate su postizala djeca predškolske dobi iz gradskih naselja splitske makroregije dok su najslabija bila djeca iz gradskih naselja riječke makroregije. U BOT-2 testovima su najbolje rezultate postizala djeca predškolske dobi iz gradskih naselja zagrebačke makroregije, a najslabije djeca iz gradskih naselja osječke makroregije. Analizom razlika utvrđeno je da dječaci ostvaruju više vrijednosti u tjelesnoj aktivnosti i sedentarnim aktivnostima u usporedbi s djevojčicama. Istraživanjem nije pronađena značajna razlika u povezanosti između tjelesne aktivnosti roditelja i njihove djece predškolske dobi u Republici Hrvatskoj. Ovo istraživanje je omogućilo po prvi puta vrednovanje motoričkog razvoja djece predškolske dobi u Republici Hrvatskoj i okolinske čimbenike koji na njega utječu, te je stvorilo preduvjete za daljnja istraživanja učinaka različitih programa vježbanja na motorička znanja djece. The main aim of this study was to evaluate the physical activity and the motor skills of pre-school children in the Republic of Croatia. The partial goals were as follows: a) determine the differences in the physical activity, sedentary activity and motor skills of pre-school children in the Republic of Croatia with regard to the place of residence (urban and other settlements); b) determine the differences in the physical activity, sedentary activity and motor skills of pre-school children in the Republic of Croatia with regard to age and sex; c) determine the differences in the motor skills of pre-school children in the Republic of Croatia with regard to the degree of their physical activity; d) determine the differences in the parents physical activity with regard to the place of residence and sex; e) to establish the correlation of the physical activity of parents with the motor skills of their pre-school children in the Republic of Croatia. The study involved 1654 boys and girls aged 3 to 7 and their parents from different parts of the Republic of Croatia. The measurement was carried out in two parts. In the first part, parents completed the “Netherlands Physical Activity Questionnaire” (NPAQ) (Božanić, 2011) which is based on their child's physical activity and sedentary activity, and the “Single Item Physical Activity” (SIPA) questionnaire (Milton et al., 2015) which determines the level of their own physical activity. In the second part, the motor skills of pre-school children were tested by two sets of tests for the assessment of motor status: "Test of Gross Motor Development - Second Edition" (Ulrich, 2000) and "Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency - Second Edition "(BOT-2) (Bruininks and Bruininks, 2005). The results showed that preschool children obtained average scores in motor skills in the Republic of Croatia relative to the normal values of the tests used. The study further showed that preschool children in the Republic of Croatia differ in physical activity, sedentary activity and motor skills in terms of place of residence. Preschool children from small settlements in the Split macro-region proved to be the most active. Preschool children from rural settlements in the Zagreb macro-region spend the most time in sedentary activities like watching TV or playing computer games, while preschool children from the urban settlements in Rijeka macro-region spend the least time in sedentary activities during the day. In the TGMD-2 set of tests, the best results were achieved by preschool children from urban settlements in the Split macro-region, while the weakest results were achieved by preschool children from urban settlements in the Rijeka macro-region. In the BOT-2 set of tests, the best results were achieved by preschool children from urban settlements of the Zagreb macro-region, while the weakest results were achieved by preschool children from urban settlements in the Osijek macro-region. The analysis of the whole sample of preschool children shows that boys generally take the lead in physical activity and sedentary activity compared to girls. There is a significant difference in sedentary activity by age. As children grow older, time spent in sedentary activities increases. The study found no significant differences in the physical activity of parents in terms of place of residence and gender, as well as no significant correlation between other physical activities of parents and their preschool children in the Republic of Croatia. This research enabled the evaluation of the motor development of preschool children in the Republic of Croatia for the first time and the surrounding factors influencing it. This study has also created the preconditions for further research into the effects of various exercise programs on the motor skills of the children.

CILJ: Tijekom posljednjeg desetljeća dogodile su se znatne promjene u pristupu treningu sportaša, u smislu isticanja treninga jakosti i mišićne izdržljivosti trupa. Međutim, rezultati dosadašnjih istraživanja upućuju na slabu povezanost jakosti trupa s motoričkom izvedbom sportaša te na slab utjecaj treninga jakosti i izdržljivosti mišića trupa na izvedbu sportaša. Stoga su temeljni ciljevi ovog istraživanja bili (1) odrediti latentnu strukturu i faktorsku valjanost testova jakosti, snage i mišićne izdržljivosti trupa te (2) utvrditi povezanost jakosti i snage mišića trupa i kukova s testovima motoričke izvedbe kod nogometaša. Na tragu metodoloških ograničenja uočenih u dosadašnjim istraživanjima, namjera ovog istraživanja bila je evaluirati dimenzije jakosti i snage mišića trupa u svim ravninama (sagitalnoj, frontalnoj i transverzalnoj), u različitim položajima (stojeći i sjedeći), te u evaluaciju uključiti i mišiće kuka. METODE: Uzorak ispitanika činio je 91 nogometaš u dobi od 17,3 ± 1,7 godina, s najmanje 7 godina iskustva u natjecateljskom nogometu. Nogomet je izabran kao sport koji uključuje motoričku izvedbu skokova, sprintova, brze promjene smjera kretanja te bacanja, što je zajedničko većini ekipnih sportova. Svi su ispitanici izmjereni skupom testova koji je uključivao: (1) testove za procjenu jakosti i snage mišića trupa: izometrijska dinamometrija mišića trupa (8 testova), dinamički testovi snage trupa (9 testova) i statična mišićna izdržljivost trupa (4 testa), (2) testove izometrijske jakosti ekstenzora (opružača) i fleksora (pregibača) kukova te (3) testove motoričke izvedbe: skok u dalj, sprint na 20 m, Zig-zag test, vertikalni skok s pripremom i bacanje medicinke stojeći. REZULTATI: Rezultati su potvrdili istraživačku hipotezu da su latentne dimenzije jakosti i snage trupa jasno definirane režimom rada mišića i njihovom funkcionalnom ulogom. Faktorskom analizom ekstrahirane su 4 glavne komponente koje objašnjavaju 70% ukupnog varijabiliteta mjera jakosti i snage trupa. Dobiveni faktori jasno su diferencirali tri komponente mišićnih funkcija trupa: snagu, jakost i mišićnu izdržljivost, pri čemu se diferencirao faktor jakosti trupa u stajanju od onoga u sjedećem položaju. Taj nalaz upućuje na važnost uključenosti mišića nogu u manifestaciji jakosti trupa. U kontekstu uloge mišićne funkcije trupa u motoričkoj izvedbi, rezultati ovog istraživanja pokazali su kako manifestne varijable i latentna dimenzija snage trupa imaju najviši stupanj povezanosti te najviše prediktivnih veza s testovima motoričke izvedbe . Snaga trupa objasnila je 20% do 79% varijance testova motoričke izvedbe. ZAKLJUČAK: Dobiveni rezultati sugeriraju kako je snaga trupa važan čimbenik uspješne izvedbe sprintova, skokova i bacanja kod visokoutreniranih mladih nogometaša muškog spola. Ovo je istraživanje pokazalo kako jakost fleksora i ekstenzora kuka ima relativno nisku povezanost i slabe prediktivne veze s motoričkom izvedbom nogometaša. Sveukupno gledajući, dobiveni rezultati imaju važne praktične implikacije: (1) testiranje jakosti i snage trupa kod sportaša potrebno je provoditi sa stopalima na tlu, u specifično-sportskim uvjetima te (2) u trening nogometaša, u svrhu poboljšanja njihove motoričke izvedbe, potrebno je uključiti eksplozivna bacanja medicinki. Uobičajeni način razvijanja i mjerenja mišićnih funkcija trupa u položajima upora na rukama i nogama čini se nedovoljno specifičan za poboljšanja motoričke izvedbe sportaša. AIM: Over the previous decade, there have been significant changes in the approach to training athletes in terms of emphasizing training for core strength and muscle endurance. However, the results of previous research indicate a weak correlation between core strength and sport performance and a weak impact of core muscles strength and endurance training on the sport performance. Therefore, the main objectives of this study were (1) to determine the latent structure and factor validity of core strength, power and muscle endurance tests and (2) to determine the relationship between core and hip muscle strength and power with sport performance tests in football players. Following the methodological limitations observed in previous studies, the intent of this study was to evaluate the dimensions of core muscle strength and power in all planes (sagittal, frontal and transverse), in different postural positions (standing and sitting), and to include hip muscles in the evaluation. METHODS: The sample consisted of 91 football players age 17.3 ± 1.7 years, with a minimum experience of 7 years in competitive football. Football was chosen as a sport that includes the performance of jumps, sprints, rapid changes in direction and throws, which is common to most team sports. All subjects were measured with a battery of tests that included (1) core muscle strength and power tests: isometric core muscle dynamometry (8 tests), dynamic core power tests (9 tests), and static core muscle endurance (4 tests), (2) tests of isometric strength of hip extensors and flexors and (3) tests of sport performance: long jump, 20m sprint, Zig-Zag test, counter movement jump and standing medicine ball throw. RESULTS: The results confirmed the research hypothesis that the latent dimensions of core strength and power are clearly defined by the muscles work regime and their functional role. Factor analysis extracted 4 main components that explain 70% of the total variability of core strength and power measures. The obtained factors clearly differentiated the three components of the core muscles function: strength, power and muscle endurance, whereby the factor of core strength in the standing position was differentiated from that in the sitting position. This finding indicates the importance of the leg muscles involvement in the manifestation of core strength. In the context of core muscle function role in sport performance, the results of this study showed that manifest variables and the latent dimension of core power have the highest degree of correlation and predictive relations with sport performance tests. Core power explained 20-79% of the variance in sport performance tests. CONCLUSION: The obtained results suggest that core power is an important factor in the successful performance of sprints, jumps and throws in highly trained young male football players. This research showed that the hip flexors and extensors strength has a relatively low correlation with, and impact on, the performance of football players. Overall, the results obtained have significant practical implications: (1) testing of core strength and power in athletes should be performed with the feet on the ground, in sport-specific conditions and (2) in order to improve their sport performance, it is necessary to include explosive throws of medicine ball in the football players training. The usual way of developing and measuring core muscle function in plank position seems insufficiently specific to improve the performance of athletes.

Prekomjerna tjelesna masa i pretilost epidemije su s kojom se svijet bori već desetljećima, a značajno su povezane i s rizikom za razvoj kroničnih nezaraznih bolesti čija prevalencija i dalje raste. Dva od četiri najistaknutija rizična čimbenika u pojavi prekomjerne tjelesne mase i pretilosti, pa tako i pojavi kroničnih nezaraznih bolesti su neprimjerena prehrana i nedovoljna razina tjelesne aktivnosti. To su ujedno i dva čimbenika na koja možemo najviše utjecati. Prehrambene navike kompleksno su i još uvijek nedovoljno istraženo područje na koje utječe čitav niz čimbenika od kojih je znanje jedan od najspominjanijih. Adolescencija je razdoblje u životu kojeg karakteriziraju velike promjene, a iznimno je važno jer se upravo u tom životnom razdoblju oblikuju, razvijaju i dodatno učvršćuju navike koje se protežu kroz cijeli život. Ispitivanje prehrambenih navika i tjelesne aktivnosti prvi je korak u poduzimanju učinkovitih mjera stoga je cilj ovog istraživanja bio ispitati stupanj uhranjenosti adolescenata, njihove prehrambene navike, znanje o prehrani, razinu tjelesne aktivnosti i stil života, razinu samoefikasnosti i postojanje prepreka u eventualnom poboljšanju prehrambenih navika, znanje o sigurnosti hrane i higijenu prehrane te ispitati postoje li razlike prema spolu i uhranjenosti. Cilj je bio i ispitati povezanost znanja o prehrani s prehrambenim navikama, ali i s uhranjenosti i tjelesnom aktivnosti. Istraživanje je provedeno na 1520 učenika (od čega 646 djevojaka i 874 mladića) drugih razreda sedamnaest srednjih škola na području Grada Zagreba prosječne dobi 16,75 (0,47). Primijenjen je upitnik koji je korišten i validiran na adolescentima slične starosti u Italiji (Turconi i sur., 2003 i 2008). Upitnik se sastoji od devet segmenata. Prikupljeni podaci su obrađeni statističkim programskim paketom Statistica – verzija 13.3 i Microsoft Excel 2016. Nakon osnovne deskriptivne statistike upotrijebljen je Studentov t-test za utvrđivanje razlika između spola i univarijatna analiza (ANOVA) za utvrđivanje razlika između ispitanika različitih kategorija uhranjenosti, Pearsonov koeficijent korelacije za utvrđivanje povezanosti varijabli te regresijska analiza za utvrđivanje doprinosa pojedinih varijabli prehrambenim navikama. Razina statističke značajnosti postavljena je na p0,05. Mladići imaju veći indeks tjelesne mase od djevojaka, a u prosjeku je 7% pothranjenih, 76% normalno uhranjenih, 14% prekomjerne tjelesne mase i 3% pretilih sa većom pojavnošću pothranjenosti kod djevojaka, a prekomjerne tjelesne mase i pretilosti kod mladića. Zadovoljavajuće prehrambene navike pokazalo je manje od polovice ispitanih s nepostojanjem razlika po spolu i kategoriji uhranjenosti. Unutar segmenta navika razlike su utvrđene u određenim česticama upitnika. Djevojke statistički značajno rjeđe doručkuju i konzumiraju sva tri obroka u danu, dok im je istovremeno doručak koji konzumiraju zdraviji. Također konzumiraju manje alkoholnih pića i zaslađenih sokova, prehrana im sadrži manje masti, ali unose i značajno manje mliječnih proizvoda. Razlike unutar segmenta prehrane prema kategoriji uhranjenosti pronađene su kod konzumacije deserata nakon obroka, alkoholnih pića, sadržaja međuobroka, pića između obroka, mliječnih proizvoda i vode. Unos voća i povrća kod svih skupina je iznimno malen. Što se tiče tjelesne aktivnosti, manje od polovice živi zadovoljavajuće aktivno. Više od 43% ih provodi više od 3 sata dnevno ispred ekrana; mladići i normalno uhranjeni su statistički ipak značajno aktivniji. Većina je pokazala odlično i zadovoljavajuće poznavanje tj. razumijevanje osnovnih pojmova vezanih uz hranu i prehranu dok je razina detaljnijeg poznavanja hrane nezadovoljavajuća kod čak 42% ispitanih. Usprkos nižim razinama znanja o sigurnosti hrane higijenska praksa vezana uz sigurnost hrane je kod većine zadovoljavajuća. Statistički značajno višu razinu pokazale su djevojke u svim segmentima znanja, a razlike prema kategoriji uhranjenosti nisu pronađene. Visoku razinu samoefikasnosti pokazalo je više od osamdeset posto adolescenata. Djevojke statistički značajno višu. Kod gotovo sedamdeset posto ispitanih utvrđeno je postojanje vrlo malog broja prepreka vezanih uz ponašanja uz prehranu dok razlike po spolu i kategorijama uhranjenosti nisu utvrđene. Statistički mala, ali značajna povezanost znanja o prehrani i prehrambenih navika je utvrđena, a povezanost znanja i tjelesne aktivnosti i uhranjenosti nije. Znanje o prehrani, samoefikasnost, prepreke promjenama i higijena hrane pokazali su se značajnim prediktorom prehrambenih navika. Zaključak je da postoji potreba povećanja razina tjelesne aktivnosti, ali i znanja s obzirom da visoka razina znanja prevenira nezdrave navike. Zaključak je i da ispitani segmenti mogu značajno doprinijeti poboljšanju navika, no s obzirom da objašnjavaju tek mali dio tog kompleksnog ponašanja dodatna istraživanja su potrebna radi otkrivanja preostalih čimbenika i količine njihovog utjecaja na prehrambene navike. Overweight and obesity is an epidemic that the world has been battling for decades. They are also significantly associated with the risk of chronic non-communicable diseases whose incidence and prevalence in the world is still growing. Two of the four most prominent risk factors in the occurrence of overweight and obesity and in the occurrence of chronic non-communicable diseases are inadequate diet and insufficient level of physical activity. These two factors are also the two factors we can influence the most. Eating habits are a complex and still insufficiently researched area that is influenced by a number of factors, of which knowledge stands out as one of the most significant. Adolescence is a period in life characterized by great changes. It is extremely important because in this period of life different habits that last a lifetime are formed, developed and further strengthened. Examination of eating habits and physical activity is the first step in taking effective measures so the aim of this study was to examine the level of nutrition of adolescents, their eating habits, dietary knowledge, level of physical activity and lifestyle, level of self-efficacy and barriers to change in possible improvement of eating habits. The aim was also to examine food safety knowledge and hygiene practices and to examine whether there are differences according to gender and nutritional status. The aim was also to examine the connection between nutrition knowledge and eating habits, but also the connection between knowledge and nutrition and physical activity. The research was conducted on 1520 students (of which 646 female and 874 male students) of the second grade of seventeen high schools in the City of Zagreb an average age of 16.75 (0,47). A questionnaire was used and validated on adolescents of similar age in Italy (Turconi et al., 2003 and 2008). The questionnaire consists of nine segments. The collected data was processed by the statistical software package Statistica - version 13.3 and Microsoft Excel 2016. After the basic descriptive statistics, the Student's t-test for gender differences and univariate analysis (ANOVA) were used to determine differences between subjects of different nutrition categories, Pearson's correlation coefficient for determining the correlation of variables and regression analysis to determine the contribution of individual variables to eating habits. The level of statistical significance was set at p0,05. Male students have a significantly higher body mass index than female students. On average there is 7% thin, 76% normal weight, 14% overweight and 3% obese students in total. There is a higher incidence of thinness in girls, and overweight and obesity in boys. Satisfactory eating habits were shown by less than half of the respondents with no differences by gender or nutrition category. Within the segment, differences were found in certain questionnaire items. Girls are statistically significantly less likely to eat breakfast and consume all three meals a day, while at the same time the breakfast they consume is healthier. They also consume less alcoholic beverages and sweetened juices, their diet contains less fat, but they also consume significantly less dairy products. Differences within this segment by nutritional status were found in the consumption of desserts after meals, alcoholic beverages, snack content, beverages between meals, dairy products and intake of water. The intake of fruits and vegetables in all groups is extremely small. In terms of physical activity less than half of adolescents live a satisfactorily active life. More than 43% of them spend more than 3 hours a day in front of a screen; young men and normal weight are significantly more active. Excellent and satisfactory knowledge i.e. understanding of basic terms related to food and nutrition was shown by the largest number of adolescents, while the level of more detailed knowledge of food is unsatisfactory in 42% of students. Despite lower levels of knowledge on food safety, the hygienic practices of a large number of adolescents related to food safety are satisfactory. Significantly higher level of knowledge was shown by girls in all knowledge segments. No differences according to the nutrition status were found. A high level of self-efficacy was shown by more than 80% of adolescents. Nearly 70% of adolescents were found to have a very small number of barriers to change related to eating behaviors. Differences by gender and nutrition status were not found. A statistically small but significant association of dietary knowledge and eating habits was found. The association between knowledge and physical activity and knowledge and nutrition were not found. Dietary knowledge, self-efficacy, barriers to change, and food hygiene have been shown to be significant predictors of eating habits. The general conclusion is that there is a need to increase levels of physical activity and knowledge given that a high level of knowledge prevents unhealthy eating habits. The conclusion is also that the examined segments can significantly contribute to the improvement of habits, but since they explain only a small part of this complex behavior (10% variance), additional research is needed to identify the remaining factors and their impact on eating habits.

Manjak tjelesne aktivnosti, neprimjerena prehrana, sjedilački način ţivota i stres čimbenici su koji uzrokuju brojne zdravstvene probleme i vodeći su uzrok prerane smrtnosti. Oruţane snage poseban su dio populacije od koje se zahtijeva odrţavanje optimalnoga zdravstvenog stanja, visoke razine motoričkih i funkcionalnih sposobnosti te tehničke i taktičke pripremljenosti. MeĎutim, prethodno navedene pojave jasno su vidljive i u toj populaciji. Cilj je ovoga istraţivanja prikazati trend promjena statusa uhranjenosti i mišićne i kardiorespiratorne izdrţljivosti u periodu od 2012. – 2017. godine te ispitati moguću povezanost izmeĎu pokazatelja stanja uhranjenosti, varijabli za procjenu mišićne i kardiorespiratorne izdrţljivosti te varijable pušenja kod djelatnih vojnih osoba. U istraţivanju je sudjelovalo 9510 djelatnih vojnih osoba u longitudinalnom šestogodišnjem istraţivanju i 8265 djelatnih vojnih osoba u istraţivanju koje je provedeno 2017. godine. Istraţivanje je obuhvatilo pet varijabli za procjenu stanja uhranjenosti (tjelesna visina, tjelesna masa, opseg vrata, opseg trbuha, opseg kukova), pet testova za procjenu mišićne i kardiorespiratorne izdrţljivosti (sklekovi, pregibi, zgibovi, trčanje 3200 m i trčanje 2400 m) i jedan test za procjenu anaerobne izdrţljivosti (trčanje 270 m). Dobiveni rezultati obraĎeni su metodama deskriptivne statistike, korelacijskom, regresijskom i analizom (ko)varijance te t-testom za nezavisne uzorke. Rezultati ukazuju na to da postoji mala, ali statistički značajna promijena u indeksu tjelesne mase i rezultatima većine motoričkih testova u šestogodišnjem razdoblju. Nadalje, dobivena je statistički značajna, ali niska povezanost većine antropometrijskih i pušačkih varijabli te varijabli za procjenu izdrţljivosti. Rezultati ukazuju i na nisku, ali statistički značajnu multiplu korelaciju izmeĎu izvedenih indeksa (Indeks tjelesna mase i Indeks rizičnosti tipa pretilosti) te opsega trbuha u većini provedenih testova. Dobivene su statistički značajne razlike izmeĎu pušača i nepušača u izdrţljivosti kod muškaraca, dok je kod ţena dobivena statistički značajna razlika u testovima: sklek, pregib i trčanje 2400 m. ProvoĎenje istraţivanja doprinijelo je novim spoznajama o prevalenciji pretilosti i pušenja, mišićnoj i kardiorespiratornoj izdrţljivosti te je ukazalo na njihove relacije, čime su se stvorile pretpostavke za uvoĎenje korektivnih mjera u kineziološke planove i programe namijenjene djelatnim vojnim osobama. Lack of physical activity, inadequate nutrition, sedentary lifestyle and stress are the factors that cause numerous health problems and the leading cause of premature mortality in people. The Armed Forces are a special part of the population that is required to maintain optimal health status, high levels of motor skills and functional ability, and technical and tactical preparedness. However, despite the above-mentioned, the specified occurrences are clearly visible. The aim of this study is to present a trend of changes in nutritional status and muscular and cardiorespiratory endurance over a six-year period and to examine the possible correlation between nutritional status indicators, variables for muscular and cardiorespiratory endurance assessment, and smoking variables in active duty military personnel. The research involved 9510 active duty military personnel in a six-year longitudinal study together with 8265 active military personnel in the 2017 study. The study included five variables in order to assess nutritional status (body height, body mass, neck circumference, waist circumference, hip circumference) and six tests to assess muscular and cardiorespiratory endurance, depending on the military personnel categories (push-ups, sit-ups, pull-ups, 3200 m run, 2400 m run and 270 m run). The obtained results were processed by methods of descriptive statistics, correlation and regression analysis, (co) variance analysis and t-test for independent samples. The results indicate that there is a small, statistically significant change of the body mass index and the results obtained in most motor tests over a six-year period. Furthermore, the correlation between most anthropometric variables and variables for the assessment of muscular and cardiorespiratory endurance and smoking variables was obtained. It is statistically significant, but small. The results also show a moderately high and statistically significant multiple correlation between derived indices (BMI and WHR (waist-hip ratio) and abdominal circumference and neck circumference in all tests performed. Statistically significant differences were obtained between smokers and non-smokers in muscular and cardiorespiratory endurance in men, while in women, a statistically significant difference was obtained in push-ups, sit-ups, and the 2400m run tests. The results also indicate gender differences between smokers and non-smokers in the tests performed. The research contributed to new findings on the prevalence of obesity and smoking, muscular and cardiorespiratory endurance, and indicated their correlation, thus creating the preconditions for the introduction of corrective measures and their possible implementation in kinesiological plans and programs intended for active service members. Considering the results obtained and the problems identified, it is essential that muscular and cardiorespiratory endurance and nutritional status indicators be systematically monitored, with the aim of preventing and educating members about the negative impact of overweight and smoking on the health of individuals and fitness of the military system.

Cilj ovoga istraživanja bio je utvrditi razlike u funkcionalnom oporavku i kvaliteti života osam godina nakon ugradnje umjetnog zgloba kuka između skupine bolesnika operiranih klasičnim pristupom i skupine operirane minimalno invazivnim pristupom na zglob kuka te ulogu tjelesne aktivnosti, kao i indeksa tjelesne mase kao medijatora tog procesa. Klasični, lateralni pristup na zglob kuka je tehnika koju čine longitudinalna incizija te djelomično dezinseriranje m. gluteus mediusa i m. gluteus minimusa (Bauer-Hardinge tehnika). Od klasičnog anterolateralnog pristupa (Watson-Jones) razvio se anterolateralni minimalno invazivni operacijski pristup na zglob kuka. Ključna karakteristika je da se na zglob kuka pristupa između m. gluteus mediusa i m. tensor fasciae latae bez odvajanja mišićnog hvatišta. Istraživanje je provedeno u Klinici za ortopediju Lovran 2019. godine. Ovaj dio istraživanja je bio transverzalni, ali je ujedno i treći, završni dio prospektivne longitudinalne studije čiji je inicijalni uzorak bio 130 ispitanika podijeljenih u dvije skupine. U konačnu obradu osam godina nakon operacije u istraživanje je uključeno 68 ispitanika, tj. 32 u klasično operiranoj skupini i 36 u minimalno invazivnoj skupini, uz podjednaki postotak odaziva u obje skupine. Uzorak varijabli se sastojao od morfološke varijable (indeks tjelesne mase), podataka o tjelesnoj aktivnosti IPAQ (engl. International Physical Activity Questionnaire), podataka o kvaliteti života SF-36 (engl. Short Form 36), HHS indeksa (engl. Harris hip score), podataka iz specifičnog upitnika o tjelesnoj aktivnosti i provedenoj rehabilitaciji (upitnik sastavljen isključivo za ovo istraživanje), opsega pokreta fleksije i abdukcije zgloba kuka, jakosti abduktorne muskulature mjerene dinamometrom, brzine hodanja na hodnoj pruzi na 50 metara, stručne procjene stupnja šepanja i vizualne skale boli (VAS). Uzimali su se podaci o komorbiditetima i bilježila ugradnja novih endoproteza ne samo na isti ili suprotni zglob kuka, već i na druge zglobove. Podaci su obrađeni pomoću programa za statističku obradu podataka STATISTICA verzija 13.5.0.17, 1984–2018 TIBCO Software Inc. Pri obradi podataka bile su korištene deskriptivne i odgovarajuće analitičke metode. Bolesnici operirani minimalno invazivnim pristupom imali su nešto bolji funkcionalni oporavak čak i osam godina nakon operacijskog zahvata. To se očitovalo u manjoj prisutnosti šepanja u odnosu na bolesnike operirane klasičnim pristupom (p = 0,032) te također u određenim aspektima kvalitete života: ograničenje zbog tjelesnih poteškoća (p = 0,01), razina energije (p = 0,02), socijalno funkcioniranje (p = 0,02), bol (p = 0,02) i percepcija općeg zdravlja (p = 0,00). Harris hip score bio je bolji u bolesnika operiranih minimalno invazivnim pristupom u odnosu na klasični pristup (p = 0,03). Veća razina tjelesne aktivnosti u obje skupine statistički je značajno bila povezana s boljim funkcionalnim oporavkom dok indeks tjelesne mase u obje skupine nije statistički značajno utjecao na ishod operacije. U dodatnoj analizi rezultata gdje su promatrane varijable opseg pokreta fleksije i abdukcije zgloba kuka, jakost abduktorne muskulature, bol i hodna pruga na 50 m, rezultati pokazuju da nema statistički značajne razlike između skupina u promatranim varijablama osim za varijablu opsega pokreta abdukcije (p < 0,001). Temeljem dobivenih rezultata zaključuje se da postoje određene prednosti za bolesnike operirane MIS pristupom. U slučaju da su operirani tim pristupom, stariji će bolesnici očekivano imati veću jakost muskulature i bolju posturalnu kontrolu te posljedično manji rizik od pada i potencijalnog ozljeđivanja. Veliki broj bolesnika, i starijih i mlađih, vrlo će se vjerojatno moći vratiti svim aktivnostima kojima su se bavili i prije; čak i sportovima uz preduvjet odgovarajućih motoričkih i funkcionalnih sposobnosti za navedenu aktivnost. Stoga se ovakav pristup liječenju može preporučiti i široj populaciji, a ne samo radno aktivnoj, zbog poboljšanja kvalitete života. Minimalno invazivni pristup je u nekim zdravstvenim sustavima često rezerviran za mlađu životnu dob iako je ovim istraživanjem utvrđeno da, neovisno o dobi, on ima pozitivan utjecaj čak i nakon osam godina, ne samo tijekom rane rehabilitacije, što je dokazano ranije. Dugoročno gledano, na ovaj način bi se umanjilo izdvajanje sredstava za zdravstveno i socijalno zbrinjavanje starijih osoba te trajanje bolovanja mlađih osoba koje je vrlo skupo. The aim of this study was to determine differences in functional recovery and in quality of life eight years after total hip arthroplasty between a group of patients operated using classical approach and minimally invasive approach to the hip joint, as well as the role of physical activity, and body mass index as a mediator of this process. The classic, lateral approach to the hip joint is performed by a longitudinal incision followed by partial desinsertion of the gluteus medius and gluteus minimus (Bauer-Hardinge technique). Anterolateral minimally invasive operative approach to the hip is developed from a classic anterolateral approach (Watson-Jones). The key feature of the anterolateral operative approach is the technique using a muscular interval between m. gluteus medius, m. gluteus minimus and m. tensor fasciae latae. The research was conducted at the University of Orthopaedic Clinic Lovran in 2019. This part of research was transversal, but at the same time and third final part of the prospective longitudinal study whose initial sample was 130 subjects divided into two groups. In the final process, eight years after surgery 68 subjects were included in the study, i.e. 32 subjects in the classical approach and 36 in minimally invasive approach, with an equal response rate in both groups. The sample variables were consisted of: morphological variables (body mass index), physical activity data, IPAQ (International Physical Activity Questionnaire), quality of life data, SF-36 (Short Form 36), HHS (Harris hip score), a specific questionnaire about physical activity and conducted rehabilitation (questionnaire designed exclusively for this research), active range of motion in terms of flexion and abduction of the hip joint, strength of the abductor muscles measured with a dynamometer, 50 m distance walking ability, expert assessment of the degree of limping and visual pain scale (VAS). Comorbidity data were taken and the implantation of new endoprostheses was recorded not only on the same or opposite hip joint but also on other joints. The data were analyzed by the software package STATISTICA, version 13.5.0.17, 1984-2018 TIBCO Software Inc. Descriptive and appropriate analytical methods were used in data analyzing. Patients operated with a minimally invasive approach have slightly better functional recovery even 8 years after surgery. This is manifested by the lower presence of limping compared to patients operated with a classical approach (p = 0.032) and also in certain domains of quality of life (limitation due to physical problems (p = 0.01), energy level (p = 0.02), social functioning (p = 0.02), pain (p = 0.02) and general health perception (p = 0.00). The Harris hip score was better in patients operated with a minimally invasive approach compared to the classical approach (p = 0.03). The higher level of physical activity in both groups was statistically significantly associated with better functional recovery while body mass index in both groups did not statistically significantly affect the outcome of the surgery. In an additional analysis of the results where the other variables (range of motion of flexion and abduction of the hip joint, strength of abductor's muscle, pain and 50 m distance walking ability) were observed, the results show no statistically significant difference between groups in the most of the variables, except for the range of motion of abduction (p = 0.001). Based on the obtained results, it is concluded that there are certain advantages for patients operated by the MIS approach. In the case of older patients who underwent MIS approach, they will have as expected greater muscle strength and better postural control, and consequently less chance of falling and potential injury. In the case of both older and younger patients, a large number will very likely be able to return to all activities they have been involved in before, even in sports, with a precondition they have appropriate motor and functional abilities for that specific activity. Therefore, it can be recommended that this approach for the treatment of total hip replacement is recommended for the general population, not just for the working population to improve quality of life. In some health systems a minimally invasive approach is often reserved for younger age patients, although this study found that regardless of age, it has a positive impact even after 8 years, not just during early rehabilitation as previously proven. In the long follow-up, this would reduce the allocation of public funds for health and social care of the elderly and the duration of sick leave for young people, which is very expensive.

The focus on the development of technical and tactical skills and on the enjoyment and involvement of students has grown in the recent years. It has been shown how schools fail to provide adequate support to the development of such abilities during the teaching-learning processes. The principal aim of this study was to estimate the effects of a Tactical Game Model (TGM) on tactical skills (in relation to an invasion game: football and a net game: volleyball) and on the affective domain of learning in primary-school children. The sample of participants included 70 primary-school pupils attending the fourth grade (mean age: 8,9 years). The duration of the protocol was 22 weeks (2 lessons per week). In order to analyse the impact on tactical skills and affective domain of learning, the Team Sport Assessment Procedure (TSAP) and the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES-IT) were used. Repeated Measure ANOVA (RM-ANOVA) on TSAP variables revealed a significant model regarding the effect of the TGM on the development of tactical skills [football: F=12,2 (p

Uvod: U kontekstu ovog istraživanja, koncept kvalitete života je krovni pojam koji supsumira kineziološku aktivnost, prehrambene navike, samoprocjenu zdravlja i zadovoljstva životom. Studenti su informirani o pozitivnim utjecajima tjelesne aktivnosti na zdravlje i kvalitetu života, no prema rezultatima istraživanja, veći postotak studenata osim obvezne nastave tjelesne i zdravstvene kulture prve dvije godine studija ne sudjeluje redovito u programima tjelesnog vježbanja izvan nastave, te je utvrđen trend pada razine tjelesne aktivnosti na višim godina studija. Cilj istraživanja bio je utvrditi povezanost kinezioloških aktivnosti i kvalitete života studenata prema znanstvenim i umjetničkim područjima znanosti. Metoda: U istraživanju je sudjelovalo 1170 studenata preddiplomskih i diplomskih studija Sveučilišta u Rijeci upisanih u akademskoj godini 2017./2018. Angažman u kineziološkim aktivnostima i samoprocjena pojedinih domena kvalitete života utvrđena je putem anonimnog upitnika dizajniranog od kompilacije mjernih instrumenata - upitnika koji se primjenjuju u empirijskim istraživanjima za populaciju studenata. Rezultati: Rezultati ovog istraživanja potvrdili su dosadašnje znanstvene spoznaje o studentskoj populaciji; nezadovoljavajuća razina angažmana u kineziološkim aktivnostima te značajna razlika u angažmanu kineziološkim aktivnostima prema spolu i prema području znanosti. Utvrđeno je da su studenti u kineziološkim aktivnostima prosječno angažirani 4 sata, a studentice 2 sata tjedno. Utvrđene su statistički značajne razlike u angažmanu u kineziološkim aktivnostima prema području znanosti za studente tehničkog i biotehničkog područja znanosti. U uzorku studenata najvažniji faktor pri odabiru hrane bila je njezina senzorna privlačnost vezana uz izgled, cijenu i dostupnost hrane. Studenti koji su više angažirani u kineziološkim aktivnostima pokazuju višu razinu pozitivnih emocionalnih stanja, ne percipiraju opće zadovoljstvo životom i vlastitim postignućem više od drugih. Diskusija: Prva hipoteza istraživanja je potvrđena te je utvrđeno kako su studenti tehničkog i biotehničkog područja više angažirani u kineziološkim aktivnostima od studenata ostalih područja znanosti. Druga hipoteza nije potvrđena jer nije utvrđena razlika u angažmanu u kineziološkim aktivnostima između studenata preddiplomskih i diplomskih studija. Treća hipoteza prema kojoj studenti biomedicinskog područja znanosti imaju višu razinu motivacije za izbor zdrave hrane od studenata ostalih područja znanosti nije potvrđena. Četvrta hipoteza o povezanosti angažmana u kineziološkim aktivnostima i kvaliteti života studenata djelomično je potvrđena budući da studenti angažirani u kineziološkim aktivnostima doživljavaju više pozitivnih raspoloženja i emocija, no to nema značajan utjecaj na njihovu percepciju općeg zadovoljstva životom i vlastitim postignućima. Zaključak: U istraživanju je utvrđena statistički značajna povezanost između područja znanosti i broja sati koje studenti provedu u kineziološkim aktivnostima tijekom tjedna. Ovim istraživanjem potvrđeni su rezultati prethodnih istraživanja u kojima su studenti tehničkih, a u ovom istraživanju i studenti biotehničkih područja znanosti, prosječno više angažirani u kineziološkim aktivnostima nego studenti iz drugih područja znanosti. Analizirajući ukupni interes studenata za pojedine kineziološke aktivnosti prema području znanosti utvrđujemo najveći interes studenata za sportove s loptom, atletiku i sportove u prirodi, te se ovi rezultati mogu koristiti u kreiranju nastavnog plana i programa tjelesne i zdravstvene kulture na Sveučilištu u Rijeci. Analizom rezultata povezanosti zadovoljstva životom s područjem znanosti, studenti tehničkog područja znanosti izrazili su veću razinu pozitivnih afektivnih stanja i nižu razinu negativnih stanja od studenata iz drugih znanstvenih područja. Uzevši u obzir da su studenti tehničkog područja znanosti najviše angažirani u kineziološkim aktivnostima, možemo utvrditi kako se radi o konzistentnom rezultatu koji ide u prilog dosadašnjima rezultatima prema kojima studenti više angažirani u kineziološkim aktivnostima pokazuju veće svakodnevno zadovoljstvo životom. Introduction: In the context of this research, the concept “Quality of life” is a key term that subsumes kinesiological activity, eating habits, self-assessment of health and life satisfaction. Students were informed about the positive effects of physical activity on health and quality of life, but according to the results of the research, a higher percentage of students do not regularly participate in physical exercise programs above compulsory physical education in the first two years of study. Also, there is trend of dropping physical activity in senior years of study. The aim of the research is to determine the connection between kinesiological activities and the quality of life of students according to scientific and artistic fields of science. Method: 1170 undergraduate and graduate students of the University of Rijeka enrolled in the academic year 2017/18 participated in the research. Engagement in kinesiological activities and self-assessment of individual domains of quality of life was determined through an anonymous questionnaire designed from a compilation of measuring instruments - questionnaires used in empirical research for the student population. Results: The results of this research confirm the current scientific knowledge about the student population: unsatisfactory level of engagement in kinesiological activity and a significant difference in kinesiological activity engagement is found by gender and by field of science. It was determined that male students are engaged in kinesiological activity on average 4 hours, and female students 2 hours per week. Statistically significant differences were found in the engagement in kinesiological activity according to the field of science for students of technical and biotechnical fields of science. In the sample of students, the most important factor in choosing food was its sensory appeal related to the appearance, price, and availability of food. Students who are more engaged in kinesiological activity show a higher level of positive emotional states, but do not perceive general satisfaction with life and their own achievement more than others. Discussion: The first hypothesis of the research was confirmed: students of technical and biotechnical fields are more engaged in kinesiological activity than students involved in other sciences. Second hypothesis was not confirmed because there was no significant difference in engagement in kinesiological activity between undergraduate and graduate students. Third hypothesis claimed biomedical students have higher levels of motivation while choosing healthy foods, when compared to the rest of the student body. This hypothesis was not confirmed. Fourth hypothesis mentioned the correlation between engagement in kinesiological activity and the quality of life. It was partially confirmed due to students engaged in kinesiological activity experiencing more positive moods and emotions, but this did not have a significant influence on their perception of their general life satisfaction and own accomplishments. Conclusion: During the research there was a statistically significant correlation between the fields of science and the number of hours students spent perfoming kinesiological activity during the week. Moreover, the results of previous studies were confirmed during this research. In the mentioned studies the students studied technical sciences, unlike this research which included students of biotechnical sciences. In both cases, students of technical and biotechnical sciences were on average more engaged in kinesiological activity when compared to students in other fields of study. General student interest in specific kinesiological activities was analyzed and most students were interested in sports including a ball, athletics and nature sports. These results may be used when creating a curriculum and a program for physical education at the University of Rijeka. The Analysis of correlation between life satisfaction and the field of study, led to a conclusion that students of technical sciences have experienced a more positive and a low negative state of emotions when compared to students of other scientific fields of study. In conclusion, we can assume that the results of this study are consistent since students of technical fields of study were most engaged in kinesiological activities. This conclusion correlates to current results in which students highly engaged in kinesiological activities show a higher general life satisfaction.

Osnovni cilj istraživanja bio je utvrditi i objasniti razlike u situacijskoj efikasnosti i pojedinim psihološkim značajkama futsal igrača različite natjecateljske uspješnosti. Uzorak ispitanika predstavljao je ukupno 127 igrača i vratara svih 10 klubova 1. Hrvatske malonogometne lige u prvom dijelu sezone 2020./2021., promatranih u svih 45 utakmica, 9 kola polusezone. Uzorak varijabli u ovom istraživanju podijeljen je u 3 skupine: natjecateljska uspješnost, situacijska efikasnost i psihološke značajke. Natjecateljska uspješnost određena je s obzirom na kvalitetu igrača unutar ekipe i klupski rang. Situacijska efikasnost je opisana omjerom zbroja odabranih pokazatelja izvedbe i vremenskog trajanja igre od 600 sekundi svakog promatranog igrača. Određena je varijablama koje su notirane tijekom utakmica kao pokazatelji izvedbe futsal igrača i vratara. Futsal igrači su procijenjeni varijablama u fazi obrane (ukupno/uspješno/neuspješno: izbijanje lopte, oduzimanje lopte i presijecanje lopte) i fazi napada (ukupno/uspješno/neuspješno: driblinzi i fintiranja, primanje lopte, aktivno i pasivno dodavanje lopte i udarci prema vratima). Futsal vratari su procijenjeni varijablama obrane vratara (ukupno/uspješna/neuspješna obrana: udaraca unutar kaznenog prostora, udaraca izvan kaznenog prostora i individualne akcije) i varijablama dodavanja (ukupno/uspješno/neuspješno: aktivno i pasivno dodavanje lopte (rukom); ukupno/uspješno/neuspješno: aktivno i pasivno dodavanje lopte (nogom)). Psihološke značajke procijenjene su upitnikom stanja natjecateljske anksioznosti CSAI-2 i upitnikom vještina suočavanja za sport ACSI-28. Metode obrade podataka uključivale su izračunavanje parametara pouzdanosti i osjetljivosti. S ciljem identifikacije statistički značajnih razlika među grupama, korištena je jednosmjerna ANOVA. Za identifikaciju statističke značajnosti glavnog efekta korištena je Bonferroni post hoc korekcija. S ciljem utvrđivanja statistički značajne povezanosti, korištena je višestruka regresijska analiza uz korištenje unakrsne validacije generiranog regresijskog modela. Primijenjenim analizama utvrđene su metrijske značajke svih korištenih varijabli za procjenu situacijske efikasnosti i psiholoških značajki. Vrijednosti koeficijenta korelacije (r) između test-retest metode za utvrđivanje pouzdanosti na primijenjenim varijablama kreću se od 0,94 – 1,00 i sve su statistički značajne. Vrijednosti KS testa ne prelaze graničnu vrijednost, mjere asimetričnosti i zaobljenosti distribucije nemaju velika odstupanja od normalne distribucije. Korišteni testovi zadovoljavaju kriterije pouzdanosti, homogenosti i osjetljivosti za procjenu situacijske efikasnosti. Kod upitnika za procjenu stila suočavanja za sport i stanja natjecateljske anksioznosti pouzdanost ljestvica tipa internalne konzistencije (Cronbach alpha) su rangirane između 0,61 – 0,88. Budući je ovo istraživanje u ranoj fazi utvrđivanja psiholoških obilježja futsal igrača i ljestvice s internalnom pouzdanošću 0,60 – 0,69 mogu se smatrati niskom, ali uvjetno zadovoljavajućom pouzdanošću. U prostoru situacijske efikasnosti analizirane su razlike između skupina futsal igrača i futsal vratara različite natjecateljske uspješnosti. Najuspješniji futsal igrači u većini varijabli imaju veće prosječne vrijednosti. Analizom varijance situacijske efikasnosti futsal igrača dobivene su značajne razlike u 13 od 18 promatranih varijabli u fazi napada i značajna razlika u 1 od 9 promatranih varijabli u fazi obrane. Najveće razlike između skupina natjecateljske uspješnosti su utvrđene u fazi napada kod uspješnosti primanja lopte i dodavanja lopte, naročito s ciljem nastavka posjeda i/ili pripremanja momčadi za napad s ciljem aktivizacije igre i/ili ostvarenja pozitivne tranzicije i/ili stvaranja povoljne prilike za postizanje pogotka (asistencija, pred asistencija). Natjecateljski uspješniji futsal igrači značajno su bolji od natjecateljski manje uspješnih futsal igrača u situacijskoj efikasnosti u fazi napada, dok u fazi obrane značajna razlika ne postoji osim u neuspješnim oduzimanjima lopte. U prostoru situacijske efikasnosti futsal vratara dobivene su značajne razlike u 3 od 24 promatrane varijable. Analizom varijance u prostoru stila suočavanja za sport dobivene su značajne razlike u 1 od 7 promatranih varijabli, dok je u prostoru stanja natjecateljske anksioznosti dobivena značajna razlika u 1 od 3 promatrane varijable. Kod psiholoških vještina suočavanja to je vrhunska izvedba pod pritiskom i kod psiholoških vještina stanja natjecateljske anksioznosti kognitivna anksioznost. Kod navedenih razlika značajno se razlikuju najuspješniji futsal natjecatelji od najmanje uspješnih futsal natjecatelja. Diskriminacijskom analizom u prostoru psiholoških značajki stila suočavanja za sport utvrđeno je da uspješniji futsal natjecatelji značajno razlikuju od manje uspješnih, dok u prostoru psiholoških značajki stanja natjecateljske anksioznosti nisu dobivene značajne razlike. Kod psiholoških značajki stila suočavanja za sport ljestvice vrhunska izvedba pod pritiskom i stanje anksioznosti najviše pridonose razlikovanju 4 skupine futsal natjecatelja različitih indeksa individualne natjecateljske uspješnosti. Višestrukom regresijskom analizom utvrđena je povezanost situacijske efikasnosti futsal igrača i konačnog ishoda utakmica. U prognozi rezultata kriterijske varijable gol razlika uspješnost klubova u varijablama dodavanje lopte – aktivno, uspješno i izbijanje lopte – uspješno značajno doprinosi prognozi uspjeha. Kod futsal vratara nije utvrđena povezanost skupa prediktorskih varijabli, u kojima se promatrala uspješnost, s konačnim ishodom utakmica, gol razlikom. U prostoru psiholoških značajki značajna povezanost futsal natjecatelja i konačnog ishoda utakmica postoji samo kod ljestvice stila suočavanja za sport vrhunska izvedba pod pritiskom. The main scope of the research was to identify and explain the differences in situational efficiency and individual psychological characteristics of futsal players with different competitive performance. The respondent sample represented a total of 127 players and goalkeepers from all 10 clubs of the First Minifootball Division in Croatia in the first part of the 2020/2021 season, observed in all 45 matches, 9 rounds of the mid-season. Sample for variable in this research is divided in 3 groups: competitive performance, situational efficiency and psychological characteristics. Competitive performance is defined with reference to the quality of the player within the team and the club rank. Situational efficiency is described by the ratio of the sum of the selected indicators and in the period of 600 seconds of every observed player. It is defined by the variables that were written down during the matches as the performance indicators of the futsal players and goalkeepers. Futsal players are evaluated by variables in the phase of defense (overall/successful/unsuccessful: knocking the ball away, fumble recovery and intercepting) and in the phase of offense (overall/successful/unsuccessful: dribbling and feinting, ball receiving, active and passive ball passing and shots on target). Futsal goalkeepers are evaluated by the defense variables (overall/successful/unsuccessful saves: kicks within penalty area, kicks outside the penalty area and individual actions) and pass variables (overall/successful/unsuccessful: active and passive ball passing (by hand); overall/successful/unsuccessful: active and passive ball passing (by foot)). Psychological characteristics were assessed by means of questionnaires Competitive State Anxiety Inventory – 2, CSAI-2 and Athletic Coping Skills Inventory – 28, ACSI-28. Data processing methods include the calculation of parameters of reliability and sensibility. One-way ANOVA was used in order to identify statistically significant differences between the groups. Bonferroni post hoc was used for identification of statistical significance of the main effect. Multiple regression analysis with the use of cross-validation of generated regression model was used in order to determine a statistically significant correlation. Metric characteristics of all used variables were determined by applied analysis to evaluate situational efficiency and psychological characteristics. The correlation coefficient values (r) between test-retest method in establishing the reliability on the applied variables vary from 0,94 – 1,00 and they are all statistically significant. KS test values do not exceed the limit values, asymmetry measures, and the roundness of distribution does not deviate from the normal distribution. Used tests meet the reliability, homogeneity and sensibility criteria in assessing situational efficiency. In Athletic Coping Skills Inventory questionnaire and Competitive State Anxiety Inventory the reliability of scales of internal consistency (Cronbach alpha) are ranked between 0,61 – 0,88. Because this research is at an early stage of determining psychological characteristics of futsal players, scales with internal consistency 0,60 – 0,69 can be considered as low but conditionally satisfactory reliability. Differences between the groups of futsal players and futsal goalkeepers were analyzed in the space of the situational efficiency. The most successful futsal players in the most variables have higher average values. By analyzing the situational efficiency of futsal players significant differences were obtained in 13 out of 18 observed variables in the phase of offense and a significant difference in 1 out of 9 observed variables in the phase of defense. The biggest differences between the groups of competitive performance were determined in the phase of offense in the ball receiving and passing, especially with the purpose of continued ball possession and/or preparing the team for the offense in order to activate the game and/or achieving positive transition and/or creating a favorable opportunity to score (assistance, pre-assistance). Competitively more successful futsal players are significantly better than competitively less successful futsal players in the situational efficiency in the phase of offense, while in the phase of offense there is no significant difference, besides in unsuccessful fumbles. Significant differences in the space of the situational efficiency futsal goalkeepers were obtained in 3 out of 24 observed variables. Significant differences in 1 out of 7 observed variables were obtained by analyzing variance in the space of coping style for sport, while in the space of competitive anxiety there were in 1 out of 3 observed variables. In psychological coping skills that is Peaking under Pressure and in psychological skills of a state of competitive anxiety Cognitive Anxiety. The most successful futsal contestants significantly differ from the least successful futsal contestants in those differences. By means of discriminant analysis in the space of coping style for sport it was determined that more successful futsal contestants significantly differ from those that are less successful, while in the space of psychological characteristics there were no significant differences. In psychological characteristics of coping style for sport the scales Peaking under Pressure and the State of Anxiety contribute the most to differentiation of 4 groups of futsal contestants with different indices of individual competitive performance. The correlation of situational efficiency of futsal players and the final outcome of the matches was determined by means of multiple regression analysis. In the results of the criterion variable prediction of the goal difference the club’s performance in the variables ball pass – active, successful and ball fumble – successful significantly contributes to the prognosis of success. No correlation of a set of predictor variables has been determined with the futsal goalkeepers, in which the performance was observed with the final outcome of the matches, goal difference. In the space of the psychological characteristics the significant correlation of futsal contestants and the final outcome of the matches can be seen only in the scale Athletic Coping Skills Inventory, Peaking under Pressure.

Kronična nespecifična križobolja jedna je od najzahtjevnijih javnozdravstvenih tegoba današnjice u pogledu liječenja. Osnovu liječenja bolesnika s kroničnom nespecifičnom križoboljom čini kineziterapija. Uočeno je da se promjene u tih bolesnika ne nalaze samo u lokalnim mišićnokoštanim strukturama slabinske kralježnice, nego i u određenim centrima središnjeg živčanog sustava. Stoga, vježbe koje bi imale izraženiji utjecaj na središnji živčani sustav, kao što su senzomotoričke vježbe, vježbe propriocepcije i posturalne kontrole, mogu imati bolji učinak nego konvencionalne vježbe u bolesnika kroničnom nespecifičnom križoboljom. Cilj ovog istraživanja je usporediti učinke na bol i funkcionalnu onesposobljenost posebno osmišljenoga specifičnog terapijskog programa vježbanja, koji uključuje senzomotoričke vježbe, vježbe propriocepcije i posturalne kontrole s konvencionalnim terapijskim programom vježbanja u bolesnika s kroničnom nespecifičnom križoboljom. U istraživanje je bilo uključeno 88 bolesnika oba spola u dobi od 25 do 70 godina od kojih je tijekom provođenja ispitivanja njih 8 odustalo. Bolesnici su bili randomizirano podijeljeni u 2 grupe. U jednoj grupi 40 je ispitanika provodilo konvencionalne fleksijsko ekstenzijske vježbe snaženja mišića u području slabinske kralježnice, a u drugoj je 40 ispitanika provodilo specifičan terapijski program vježbanja u trajanju od jedan mjesec. Varijable primarnog ishoda bile su bol u mirovanju i pri pokretu, mjerene na vizualnoj analognoj skali, te stupanj onesposobljenosti mjeren Oswestry Disability Indeks-om. U grupi ispitanika koja je provodila specifičan program terapijskog vježbanja nađeno je statistički značajno poboljšanje u varijablama primarnog ishoda u odnosu na one u ispitanika koji su provodili konvencionalne terapijske vježbe. U bolesnika s kroničnom nespecifičnom križoboljom specifičan terapijski program vježbanja superiorniji je od konvencionalnog terapijskog programa vježbanja odmah nakon tretmana, uz prolongirani pozitivan učinak na bol u mirovanju i kretanju te funkcionalnu onesposobljenost. Purpose: Chronic nonspecific low back pain is one of the most demanding public health problems regarding treatment and rehabilitation now days. Low back pain is usually defined as pain, muscles’ tension, discomfort and/or stiffness caudally from the rib arch and cranially from the lower gluteal fold with pain irradiation to the leg (ischialgia) or without it. In majority of patients, there is no any clear cause of a low back pain, so even 85% of patients do not receive a specific causal diagnosis. The low back pain could be significantly incapacitating and considerably reduce the quality of life of the individual. It affects various domains of life – physical, psychical, even social relationships and therefore it is a typical biopsychosomatic disease. Even 65-85% of adults experience at least one episode of low back pain during his/her lifetime. There are numerous heterogeneous risk factors for low back pain. They include demographic, physical, social-economic, psychologic and work related risk factors. According to a simple, practical and generally accepted classification the low back pain may be classified as nonspecific and specific low back pain and low back pain where nerve roots are affected, i.e radiculopathy. In nonspecific low back pain we cannot find a specific cause and it is assumed that is mechanical low back pain. The term specific low back pain is used for any localized source of pain because of change of spine structure which could result in pain and/or disablement, whether it is a matter of destructive disease (tumor, infection) or large neurologic deficit (spinal stenosis, discus hernia). There are many generally accepted methods for measuring pain intensity, but in practice is mostly used visual analog scale (VAS). For estimation of function and quality of life there are used specific disease questionnaires and for chronic low back pain mostly used are Oswestry Low Back Pain Disability Index (ODI) and Rolland-Morris Low Back Pain Measure (RM). Because of heterogeneity of risk factors and complex pathophysiological source of pain, treatment of patients with low back pain is complex. It includes various pharmacological, non-pharmacological measures, psychological and social intervention that demands interdisciplinary approach. As pharmacotherapy is concerned, most frequently prescribed drugs are nonsteroid anti-inflammatory drugs, then paracetamol and weak opioids. Antidepressants, anticonvulsants, muscles relaxants and topic analgesics are less frequently prescribed. Drugs of choice in patients with nonspecific chronic low back pain are nonsteroid anti-inflammatory drugs – diclofenac, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, piroxicam, celecoxib etc. No one of them is preferred, but when prescribed, one should be aware of its side effects, above all those gastrointestinal and cardiovascular. The basis of non-pharmacologic treatment of patients with nonspecific low back pain is kinesitherapy. There is a wide range of evidence that therapeutic exercises have positive preventive and curative impact on pain decrease and/or improvement of function. According to European guidelines for treatment of patients with chronic low back pain, there is moderate evidence that therapeutic exercises are more effective than other passive procedures, not preferring any type of exercises. Through numerous original researches, meta analyses and systematic reviews the effect of various types of exercises regarding pain reduction and improvement of function in patients with chronic nonspecific low back pain had been analyzed. It was concluded that neither one of the exercises is superior to the other, also there is sufficient information on intensity, frequency and load of exercises, so it wasn’t possible to define the optimum dose of exercising. Also, the effect of therapeutic exercises in patients with low back pain is mostly small to moderate which could be explained by non-conformity between heterogeneousness of problems and uniform approach to therapeutic exercises. Available literature does not support convincing connection between changes in clinical outcome and changes in body function after exercise therapy. It is assumed that positive effects of exercising by patients with chronic low back pain is more “central” than local, which perhaps includes psychologic, cognitive and/or neurophysiologic (cortical) adaptation. Throughout last few decades, it has been emphasized that changes observed in patients with chronic nonspecific low back pain are not found only in local musculoskeletal structures of a lumbar spine, while these patients also have morphologic and biochemical changes in certain centers of the central nervous system. Specific exercise program that includes motor learning (combination of contralateral movements, stimulation of memory and attention), uses mechanic, electric stimuli, stimuli of spatial orientation and balance (proprioception) stimulates a part of central nervous system, that participates in creating and experiencing the sense of pain, however also locally strengthens musculoskeletal structures in the area of pain. The aim of this research was to prove that specific therapeutic program of exercises, including sensorimotor exercise, exercises of proprioception and postural control, in combination with usage of external stimulus (sensory, mechanical, electric) to the area of lumbosacral spine during exercising, is more effective than conventional therapeutic program of exercises used in rehabilitation in patients with chronic nonspecific low back pain. Methods: This research included 88 patients of both gender, aged 25 to 70, who consecutively visited physiatrists practice of the Clinic for Rheumatology, Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation at Clinical Hospital Center Sestre Milosrdnice in Zagreb. During the time of research, 8 patients withdrew (10%). Criteria for enrolment were as follows: patients with localized low back pain with or without irradiation of pain to a leg to the knee, in duration of at least 3 months with pain intensity exceeding 30 mm measured on 100 mm visual analogous scale (VAS), without “red flags” that indicates serious pathology. Exclusion criteria were: malignant tumors diagnosed in last 5 years (except non-melanoma skin cancer), non-infectious, and infectious inflammation (acute or chronic), including inflammatory rheumatic diseases, increased body temperature of any etiology, serious form of metabolic diseases (diabetes, thyroid gland disease etc.), more difficult diseases of cardiovascular system, difficult neurologic diseases and states (e.g. sclerosis multiple, cerebrovascular insult), serious psychical diseases and states, fresh trauma of lumbar spine (3 months past from interrogation), heart rate electrostimulation device, pregnancy and patients in whom in the last 3 months physical therapy was applied in the area of lumbar region. Patients were divided into two groups with the same number of individuals, without formal randomization. However, equal distribution of patients by age, gender and intensity of pain in each of two groups was taken into consideration. First group of 40 patients performed conventional therapeutic program of strength exercises (flexion extension) and stretching exercises for lumbosacral spine. The other group of 40 patients performed specific therapeutic program of sensorimotor exercises, exercises of proprioception and postural balance. Conventional therapeutic program consisted of 7 static and 11 dynamic strengthening exercises and 1 stretching exercise. Each static strengthening exercise was performed for 5 seconds, upon which the minimum of 5 seconds relax in introduction set of 5 repetitions. One repetition was added every day, reaching the maximum of 10 repetitions. Each dynamic strengthening exercise was performed initially 5 times, increasing every day for one repetition, up to 10 repetitions in one set. The following principle was implemented: patient had to perform the movement while breathing in through the nose, and relax the muscle while breathing out through the mouth. The set of exercises ended with maximum stretching of the whole spine. Stretching lasted for 5 to 10 seconds relax also 5 to 10 seconds and exercise was repeated 5 to 10 times. Specific therapeutic program of exercises (sensorimotor exercises) included exercises of motor control (spinal segmental stabilization exercises or stabilization exercises), exercises of postural control (balance and coordination exercises) and exercises of proprioception to which different type of stimulus in the area of lumbosacral spine were added during the exercises. Stimulus being used was in form of warmth stimulus – warm paraphine pack applied during 3 exercises in supine position and cold pack applied during 2 exercises in supine position with additional load of ½ kg and use of easily compressive, medium large ball. After that, mechanic nonnociceptive stimulus in form of spikey wooden roller was used in 2 exercises, with additional thera band load (extra strong) and medicine ball. During 3 exercises stimulus was induced by electric current, i.e. transcutaneous neuromuscular electric stimulation in pronated position of the examinee. In one exercise kinesiology ball was used and in other one Swedish ladder, while two exercises balance board. Specific therapeutic program of exercises was designed in a way that forced candidates to master demanding tasks, i.e. exercises of coordinating laterolateral distal segments of body with stabilization of a torso, regular breathing and awareness of movements. During the performance of sensorimotor exercises, different types of before described exercises were also introduced and combined, whose basis was postural and motor control, resulting from complex interactions of sensoric and musculoskeletal system, integrated and modified within the central nervous system in response to a change of state of the environment. Evaluation was made by a questionnaire, in which we registered variables directly before the beginning of intervention: age (years), sex (male/female), body height (centimeters), body mass (kg), body mass index (height in meters2/kilograms), profession, years of employment (years), physical work (light, moderate, heavy, very heavy), duration of a pain in lumbar spine (months), analgesics (type, daily dose, duration). Co-primary outcomes were: pain in lumbar spine in rest (laying) (measured on 100 mm of horizontal visual analogous scale (VAS) within the last 24 hours), pain in lumbar spine in movement (VAS) and degree of disablement measured by the Oswestry Disability Index (Chapman et al., 2011). Other observed outcomes were: global patient’s and doctor’s evaluation (on 100 mm VAS), range of spine movement (inclination, reclination, lateroflexion –measured in cm) and tension of paravertebral lumbar muscles (0, 1, 2, 3). These variables were measured directly before and after the treatment and one month after the treatment. For the purpose of objective evaluation of results, the type and dose of drugs should not be changed during the research. In case of increase pain, the patients were allowed taking paracetamol, with registering a daily dose. In accordance with the aim of research, the applied data processing referred to establishment of central and dispersive indicators of all measured variables, establishment of significance of differences in measured variables among groups of examinees of sensorimotor and conventional group at initial testing, after 20 treatments and 30 days after the treatment and establishment of significance of treatment effects in measured variable in examinees of sensorimotor and conventional group. With non-parametric Mann-Whitney there was verified significance of differences in measured variables among groups of examinees of sensorimotor and conventional group at initial testing, after 20 treatments and 30 days after performed treatments. With Friedman’s test with Wilcoxon match-paired Signed-Rang post hoc test there was verified significance of treatment effects in measured variables in examinees of sensorimotor group and conventional group. Data were processed by the computer program SPSS for operative system Windows, version 23.0. P- value 0.5). It was also strong effect of exercises on improvement of range of movement (Schober measure, reclination and lateral flexion) and at evaluation of performing everyday life functions by Oswestry disability questionnaire. In evaluating single variables of Oswestry questionnaire we concluded that exercises performed by patients of sensorimotor group had medium to strong positive influence on all variables, including the easiest activity (walking) and the heaviest activity (standing up), contrary to positive effect of conventional exercises on 7 to 10 variables of the Oswestry disability questionnaire which was medium (if we exclude the effect on pain intensity (IB) which was medium strong to strong). As far as single variables referring to pain, global patient’s and examiner’s health assessment and spine functions are concerned, the effect of conventional exercises was positive in all variables, but smaller in relation to sensorimotor exercises, i.e. it was medium to strong. Long-term reduction of pain and statistically more significant reduction of pain in variables pain in rest and movement recorded in sensorimotor group could be attributed to the effect of specific training to central nervous system. With reduction of pain intensity it was also observed the improvement of general health status, because pain is, although subjective, important factor of quality of life that could be observed through global health assessment as well. By regression of pain, tension of paravertebral muscles was also reduced, which is objective indication of pain intensity and dysfunction of the low back part. By regression of pain and positive effect of exercising on local musculoskeletal structures, there has been an improvement in variables that evaluate function of a spine (inclination, reclination and lateral flexion) and consequently the improvement of functional ability. Discussion and conclusion: In this research, it was confirmed that conventional therapeutic program of flexion extension exercises of strengthening lumbosacral muscles as well as specific therapeutic program of sensorimotor exercises reduce pain and improve functional ability of patients with chronic nonspecific low back pain. Nowadays, it is widely adopted that patients with chronic nonspecific low back pain face cortical reorganization and central nervous system changes. Brain changes, visible in primary and secondary somatosensory cortex, but also in primary motor cortex result in sensory (tactile precision), perceptive (changed pictures of body) and motor difficulties (motor control). These neurophysiological changes (particularly in primary somatosensory cortex) correlate with intensity and duration of pain. Patients with chronic nonspecific low back pain have proven morphologic changes of the central nervous system in the gray matter area (insula, temporal lobe, primary somatosensory lobe – S1, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex), increased brain activity in medial prefrontal cortex, cingulate cortex, amygdala, insula, integrational sensorimotor regions and also disorder of neural network of a central nervous system. These conclusions were evidenced through functional magnetic resonance (MR). Furthermore; there is an increased activity in areas responsible for pain (S1, secondary somatosensory lobe (S2), rear cingular cortex and insula) and reduced activity in patients in periaqueductal gray matter upon mechanic stimulus in comparison to healthy individuals. Visible morphologic changes are also present in white matter (corpus callosum, above corpus callosum and in internal capsule). Different responses to thermal stimulation in areas of medial prefrontal cortex and insula, as well as different responses to electrical stimulation in the rear cingular lobus are observed between patients with chronic nonspecific low back pain and healthy individuals. Above mentioned areas of the brain, in which changes are observed in patients with chronic nonspecific low back pain refer to areas responsible for pain (insula participates in processing information for pain and temperature), integration of visual, auditive, sensory speech information and emotions (temporal lobe), spatial orientation, proprioception, processing somatic sensory stimulus (primary somatosensory cortex (S1), retention and real time processing information – “working memory” (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex). White matter damage may disturb connection of brain hemispheres and cause difficulties in performing actions that require mutual coordination of two or more brain regions. These particular neurophysiologic alterations connected to changes in structure, function or organization of neurologic system occur during whole lifetime. They are being affected by internal stimulus as e.g. cognitive processes, internal biochemical and morphologic changes, reaction of the central nervous system to sensory stimulus and external stimulus like motor learning and peripheral sensory stimulation. Before mentioned damages of nervous system could be the cause of chronic pain and relapsing pain in patients with chronic nonspecific low back pain. Neuroplasticity of a brain provides possibility of discovering and creating new experiences, developing new behavioral patterns and creating therapeutic processes that could affect the neurologic structure changes. Such a therapy includes e.g. training of sensory discrimination, peripheral electric stimulation or motor learning. Motor learning requires focused attention, increase of complexity of a task and excellent interaction with the therapist, what can result in pain modulating. During the training, it is advised to use also the principle of laterality and introduction of mirrors. Motor learning exercises may stimulate cortical reorganization in primary motor cortex, regulate excessive corticospinal stimulation connected with tension of surface-paravertebral muscles and regulate the lack of intracortical inhibition necessary for motor planning. Patients with chronic, nonspecific low back pain have deranged scheme of body and extremities, reduced lumbosacral sensitivity and proprioceptive sharpness, difficulties in performing sensorimotor task and deficiency of postural control. Moreover, patients with chronic nonspecific low back pain show increased activations of brain during the non-nociceptive external stimulus (e.g. pressure), as well as body induced stimulus (e.g. performing motor task) in areas responsible for pain. Taking into consideration above mentioned observations it is necessary to conduct global therapeutic approach which is focused to influence central nervous factors on regression of pain and improvement of disablement in patients with chronic nonspecific low back pain. Patients with chronic pain under the influence of a long nociceptive stimulation experience changes in morphology and biochemistry of brain and relation of neural networks. These changes mostly take place in brain centers responsible for sensory, affective and cognitive dimension of pain. Superior effect of specific therapeutic exercise program in comparison with conventional therapeutic exercise program may be attributed to practical application of recent knowledges based on scientific evidences, using mechanisms of treatment on changes in local muscles and surrounding musculoskeletal structures in the area of lumbosacral spine, as well to effects of specific exercises, above all motor control exercises with various kinds of stimuli on brain centers, primarily on primary motor and somatosensory brain cortex.

Uvod: Kronična križobolja je vrlo prevalentno stanje koje je povezano s brojnim psihosociološkim promjenama i primjer je bolesti koja zahtjeva biopsihosocijalni pristup. Stoga, da bi se ostvario optimalan rezultat liječenja potrebno je identificirati koji su to čimbenici i u kojoj mjeri važni za nastanak, razvoj i tijek bolesti. Psihološko-psihijatrijski čimbenici kao što su depresija i katastrofiziranje boli, te intenzitet boli mogu značajno utjecati na onesposobljenost bolesnika s kroničnom križoboljom. Poznato je da terapijske vježbe koje su temelj liječenja, odnosno prevencije pogoršanja stanja u bolesnika s kroničnom križoboljom imaju somatske, ali i psihološke učinke. Međutim, nije poznata veličina tog učinka, odnosno koliko mogu utjecati na taj međuodnos. Stoga je cilj ovoga rada evaluirati odnos depresije, katastrofiziranja boli i intenziteta boli prema onesposobljenosti i ukupnoj kvaliteti života povezanoj sa zdravljem (engl. skr. HR-QoL), te koliki je u tome učinak terapijskih vježbi u bolesnika s kroničnom križoboljom. Prva hipoteza istraživanja je da razina depresije, katastrofiziranje boli i bol prije i nakon provedenih terapijskih vježbi imaju značajan utjecaj na funkcionalnu onesposobljenost u bolesnika s kroničnom nespecifičnom križoboljom. Druga hipoteza istraživanja je da razina depresije, katastrofiziranje boli i bol prije i nakon provedenih terapijskih vježbi značajno utječu na kvalitetu života povezanu sa zdravljem (HR-QoL) u bolesnika s kroničnom nespecifičnom križoboljom. Metode: U istraživanju je sudjelovalo 129 konsekutivnih bolesnika s kroničnom križoboljom, koji su se dobrovoljno odazvali na interni oglas za sudjelovanje u istraživanju u Domu zdravlja Zagrebačke županije – Ispostava Samobor. Od toga je bilo 96 (74,42%) žena i 33 (25,58%) muškarca prosječne životne dobi 49,30±5,47 god. (raspon od 40 do 60 godina). Uvjet za uključenje u istraživanje bila je samoprocijenjena bol minimalno 4 prema vizualnoj analognoj skali 0 - 10, te minimalno 5 bodova u onesposobljenosti mjereno Roland - Morrisovim upitnikom. Svi bolesnici su provodili iste terapijske vježbe 2 do 3 puta tjedno kroz razdoblje od četiri tjedna. Parametri istraživanja su uključivali: samoprocjenu intenziteta boli u pokretu i mirovanju (mjereno na VAS), katastrofiziranja boli (mjereno PCS), depresiju (mjereno BDI-II), funkcionalnu onesposobljenost (mjereno RMDQ) i opću kvalitetu života povezanu sa zdravljem (HR-QoL) (mjereno SF-36). Evaluacija je je provedena inicijalno (prije početka vježbanja), nakon provedenih terapijskih vježbi te dva mjeseca od završetka intervencije. Rezultati: Statistički značajna povezanost nađena je inicijalno između depresije, stupnja katastrofiziranja boli i intenziteta boli u odnosu na fizičko onesposobljenje i kvalitetu života povezanu sa zdravljem (p < 0,05). Potvrđena je prva hipoteza da razina depresije, katastrofiziranja boli i intenzitet boli prije i nakon provedenih terapijskih vježbi ima značajan utjecaj na funkcionalnu onesposobljenost u bolesnika s kroničnom križoboljom. Što se tiče učinka terapijskih vježbi neposredno nakon terapijskih vježbi ni jedno od inicijalnih stanja više nije utjecalo na učinke terapijskog programa na funkcionalnu onesposobljenost (p ≥ 0,05), kao i 2 mjeseca nakon terapijskih vježbi (p ≥ 0,05). Druga hipoteza koja se odnosi na to da razina depresije, katastrofiziranja boli i intenziteta boli prije i nakon provedenih terapijskih vježbi ima značajan utjecaj na HR-QoL u bolesnika s kroničnom križoboljom potvrđena je u dijelu koji se odnosi na statistički značajnu povezanost između razine: depresije, katastrofiziranja boli i boli u pokretu prije terapijskih vježbi, a nije potvrđena u dijelu koji se odnosi na inicijalnu povezanost boli u mirovanju i HR-QoL. Gledano na učinke terapijskog programa neposredno nakon terapijskih vježbi ni jedno od inicijalnih stanja više ne utječe na učinke terapijskog programa na HR-QoL (p ≥ 0,05), kao i 2 mjeseca nakon terapijskih vježbi (p ≥ 0,05). Katastrofiziranje boli, depresija, bol, funkcionalna onesposobljenost i kvaliteta života povezana sa zdravljem znatno su se poboljšali nakon provedenih terapijskih vježbi, a učinci terapijskog programa vježbanja još su se poboljšali nakon 2 mjeseca od prestanka intervencije. Dob ne utječe na učinke terapijskog programa vježbanja na bol, katastrofiziranje boli, depresiju, funkcionalnu onesposobljenost i kvalitetu života povezanu sa zdravljem. Žene imaju veća poboljšanja kvalitete života povezane sa zdravljem uslijed terapijskog programa vježbanja u odnosu na muškarce. Zaključak: Fizioterapijske vježbe djelovale su pozitivno u smislu smanjenja razine depresije, katastrofiziranja boli, boli u mirovanju, boli u pokretu i onesposobljenja, a poboljšale su kvalitetu života temeljenu na zdravlju. Inicijalna depresija, katastrofiziranje boli i intenzitet boli nisu povezani s učincima terapijskih vježbi neposredno nakon njihova provođenja te dva mjeseca po završetku vježbanja. Purpose: Chronic low back pain is a prevailing state related to numerous psychosociological changes and is the example of a disease which demands a biopsychosociological approach. Therefore, to achieve optimal results in treatment it is necessary to identify which factors and in what extent they are important for the appearance, development and course of the disease. Psychological-psychiatric factors like depression, pain catastrophizing and pain intensity can significantly affect the disability of a patient with chronic low back pain. It is well known that therapeutic exercises which are the basic treatment for curing as well as preventing of worsening the state in patients with chronic back pain, have somatic but also psychological effects. But the intensity of their impact and how much they can affect that interaction is not known. Therefore the aim of this study was to evaluate the relation between depression, pain catastrophizing and pain intensity in relation to disability and overall health related life quality (HR-QoL) and what in this is the impact of therapeutic exercises in patients with chronic low back pain. The first study hypothesis is that the depression level, pain catastrophizing and the pain before and after the performed exercises have a significant impact on functional disability in patients with chronic nonspecific low back pain. The second study hypothesis is that the depression level, pain catastrophizing and the pain before and after the performed therapeutic exercises have a significant effect on health related life quality (HR-QoL) in patients with chronic nonspecific back pain. Methods: 129 consecutive patients with chronic low back pain participated in the study. The patients voluntarily answered an internal notice for participation in the study at the Samobor division of the Zagreb County Health Centre. There were 96 (74.42%) women and 33 (25.58%) men average age 49.30±5.47 (40 - 60 years span). The condition for participation in the study was self assessed pain, minimum 4 on the visual analog scale 0 - 10, and minimum 5 points in disability measured by Roland-Morris questionnaire. All patients performed the same therapeutic exercises 2 - 3 times a week through a four week period. The study parameters included self assessment of the pain intensity in movement and stillness (measured on VAS), pain catastrophizing (measured on PCS), depression (measured by BDI-II), functional disability (measured RMDQ) and general health related life quality (HR-QoL) (measured SF-36). The evaluation was carried out initially (before the start of exercises), after the performed therapeutic exercises and two months after the end of intervention. Results: Statistically significant: connection between depression, pain catastrophizing level and pain intensity was initially found in relation to physical disability and pain related life quality (p < 0.05). The first hypothesis that the depression level, pain catastrophizing and pain intensity before and after performed therapeutic exercises have a significant impact on functional disability in patients with chronic low back pain has been confirmed. As for the impact of therapeutic exercises immediately after therapeutic exercises, neither of the initial states had any further influence on the effects of therapeutic programme on functional disability (p ≥ 0.05), as well as two months after therapeutic exercises (p ≥ 0.05). The other hypothesis which refers to the fact that the depression level, pain catastrophizing and pain intensity before and after performed therapeutic exercises has a significant influence on HR-QoL in patients with chronic low back pain has been confirmed in the part which refers to the statistically significant connection between depression level, pain catastrophizing and movement pain before therapeutic exercises, but is not confirmed in the part which refers to the initial connection between pain at rest and HR-QoL. Looking at therapeutic programme effects immediately after therapeutic exercises, neither of the initial states have any further impact on the therapeutic programme effects on HR-QoL (p ≥ 0.05) as well as two months after therapeutic exercises (p ≥ 0.05). Discussion and conclusions: Most patients initially report mild to moderate pain intensity, minimal to moderate depression, a lower than established value for the significance of pain catastrophizing, disability ranging from minimal to moderate, and mean values of health-related quality of life components are significantly lower on average for overall physical health than for mean values of mental health. A positive interconnection was found between depression and catastrophizing pain, pain and functional disability because higher values also indicated greater disability. The results speak of depression as an important factor in the lives of patients with low back pain – having the higher value of depression there is the lower degree of health-related perception of quality of life. The interrelationship of the examined components was also confirmed, with the exception of the association between resting pain and catastrophizing pain and resting pain and HR-Qol. Intervention with the performed exercises had positive effects. Pain catastrophizing, depression, pain, functional disability and health related life quality have significantly improved after performed therapeutic exercises and the effects of the therapeutic exercise programme have improved even more two months after the end of the intervention. The age had no impact on the effects of the therapeutic exercise programme on pain, pain catastrophizing, depression, functional disability and HR-QoL. Women have a greater improvement of health related life quality as a result of the therapeutic exercise programme in relation to men. Physiotherapeutic exercises had a beneficial effect on lowering the depression level, pain catastrophizing, pain at rest and movement and disability as well as improved the HR-QoL. Initial depression, pain catastrophizing and pain intensity are not connected to therapeutic exercise effects immediately after they were performed as well as two months after the end of exercises.

Asimetrija je do sada bila većinom istraživana iz aspekta sportskih ozljeda. Tek nedavno, odnosi između asimetrija i sportske izvedbe je popularno istraživačko pitanje. Promjena smjera kretanja je krucijalna motorička sposobnost u timskim sportovima na visokoj razini kao što je košarka, no unatoč tome, utjecaj asimetrija na izvedbu promjene smjera kretanja je relativno nepoznata. Također, istraživanja koja su se bavila asimetrijama su se fokusirale na distalne dijelove (koljeno i gležanj) tijela, dok su proksimalni dijelovi (kuk i trup) ostali relativno neistraženi. Četrdeset i tri juniorska i seniorska elitna košarkaša su izmjereni u testovima funkcionalne dužine noge, izometričke jakosti kuka i trupa, pasivnog opsega pokreta kuka i trupa, jednonožnih horizontalnih i vertikalnih skokova te također u testovima promjene smjera kretanja 90/135/180° i T-test. Prosječna vrijednost asimetrija je bila u rasponu od 0,76 % za funkcionalnu dužinu noge pa sve do 40,35 % za gradijent sile tijekom fleksije kuka. Analiza odnosa između lokalnih (kuk i trup) te globalnih (skokovi) asimetrija je pokazala veliki broj značajnih povezanosti (ro = 0,304 – 0,576; p = 0,01 - 0,05). Analiza odnosa između lokalnih (kuk i trup) asimetrija i asimetrija u promjeni smjera kretanja je pokazala nekoliko značajnih povezanosti (ro = 0,312 – 0,402; p < 0,05). Analiza odnosa između globalnih (skokovi) asimetrija i asimetrija u promjeni smjera kretanja je pokazala dvije značajne povezanosti (ro = 0,323; 0,340; p < 0,05). Višestruka regresijska analiza sa šest nezavisnih varijabli je opisala 48 % (R2 = 0.48; p < 0.001) varijance izvedbe u T-testu. Jednostruka regresijska analiza, s nezavisnom varijablom omjera jakosti unutarnje i vanjske rotacije kuka, opisala je 10 % (R2 = 0.10; p < 0.039) varijance izvedbe promjene smjera kretanja za 90°. Višestruka regresijska analiza s tri nezavisne varijable je opisala 30 % (R2 = 0.30; p < 0.001) varijance izvedbe promjene smjera kretanja za 135°. Višestruka regresijska analiza s osam nezavisnih varijabli je opisala 53 % (R2 = 0.53; p < 0.001) varijance izvedbe promjene smjera kretanja za 180°. Višestruka regresijska analiza s četiri nezavisne varijable je opisala 49 % (R2 = 0.49; p < 0.0001) varijance asimetrije promjene smjera kretanja za 90°. Jednostruka regresijska analiza, s nezavisnom varijablom asimetrije opsega pokreta fleksije kuka, je opisala 18 % (R2 = 0.18; p < 0.005) varijance asimetrije promjene smjera kretanja za 135°. Višestruka regresijska analiza s dvanaest nezavisnih varijabli je opisala 76 % (R2 = 0.76; p < 0.0001) varijance asimetrije promjene smjera kretanja za 180°. Rezultati ukazuju na to da su asimetrije zavisne od zadatka i parametra te da korištenje univerzalne asimetrijske granice, kao što je

Cilj ovog rada bio je: (1) usporediti utjecaj strukturiranog skakačkoga treninga u trajanju od osam tjedana s utjecajem redovnog programa Tjelesne i zdravstvene kulture na pokazatelje živčanomišićne izvedbe kod dječaka sedmih i osmih razreda osnovne škole različite biološke dobi; te (2) istražiti utjecaj biološke dobi na veličinu učinka strukturiranog skakačkoga treninga tijekom istog vremenskog razdoblja. Izračunom vrijednosti vremenskog odmaka od dobi pri vršnoj brzini prirasta tjelesne visine, za 126 ispitanika određena je biološka dob te su inicijalno podijeljeni u skupinu biološki mlađih (vremenski odmak od dobi pri vršnoj brzini prirasta tjelesne visine < 0) i skupinu biološki starijih (vremenski odmak od dobi pri vršnoj brzini prirasta tjelesne visine > 0) ispitanika. Potom su slučajnim odabirom te dvije skupine po biološkoj dobi dalje podijeljene na eksperimentalne odnosno kontrolne skupine. Ispitanici iz eksperimentalnih skupina sudjelovali su u skakačkoj trenažnoj intervenciji dva puta tjedno kroz osam tjedana, dok su ispitanici iz kontrolnih skupina nastavili pratiti redovan program Tjelesne i zdravstvene kulture. Prije početka i po završetku trenažne intervencije procjenjivale su se: visina skoka iz čučnja (cm), visina skoka s pripremom (cm) te indeks reaktivne jakosti (mm/ms) za procjenu skakačke izvedbe; vrijeme sprinta na 20 metara (s) za procjenu sprinterske izvedbe; te izokinetička jakost mišića opružača potkoljenice dominantne noge (vršni moment sile (Nm)) za procjenu jakosti mišića opružača potkoljenice. Po završetku osmotjedne intervencije, obje eksperimentalne skupine ostvarile su značajan napredak u pokazateljima živčanomišićne izvedbe (gdje je p < 0,05; d = 0,28 – 1,00), dok promjene u pokazateljima živčanomišićne izvedbe kod kontrolnih skupina nisu bile značajne (svi p ≥ 0,05; d = -0,14 – 0,15). Serije univarijatnih analiza varijance (ANOVA) za ponovljena mjerenja pokazale su sljedeće: (1) napredak u svim pokazateljima živčanomišićne izvedbe bio je evidentno veći kod dječaka koji su sudjelovali u skakačkoj trenažnoj intervenciji naspram dječaka koji su pratili program Tjelesne i zdravstvene kulture, i (2) razlike u napretku između inicijalnog i finalnog mjerenja između biološki mlađih i biološki starijih ispitanika iz eksperimentalnih skupina uočene su samo za indeks reaktivne jakosti iako je, promatrano kroz analize unutar skupina, u svim pokazateljima živčanomišićne izvedbe kod biološki mlađih ispitanika primijećen trend većeg napretka u odnosu na biološki starije vršnjake. Rezultati ovog istraživanja pokazali su kako određene važne sastavnice tjelesne pripremljenosti zdravih netreniranih dječaka osnovnoškolskog uzrasta kronološke dobi 12-14 godina mogu biti akutno poboljšane dobro strukturiranom skakačkom trenažnom intervencijom i čini se da biološka dob igra u najmanju ruku ograničenu ulogu u usmjeravanju tih poboljšanja. The purpose of this study was two-fold: (1) to compare the effects of an eight week structured jump training program to the effects of the regular physical education program on measures of neuromuscular performance in boys of different maturity status attending grades 7 and 8 of the elementary school; and (2) to explore the impact of the biological age on the magnitude of the effect of structured jump training program during the same period. Peak high velocity (PHV) maturity offset value was used to determine biological age for one hundred and twenty-six participants who were initially categorized into two maturity groups: a pre-PHV group (age at PHV < 0,0) and a post-PHV group (age at PHV > 0,0). Then, they were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. Experimental groups participated in jump training program through eight weeks, while control groups continued with their regular physical education lessons. Squat jump height (cm), countermovement jump height (cm), and reactive strength index (mm/ms) as the indicators of jumping performance; 20-m sprint time (s) as an indicator of sprinting performance, and isokinetic strength of the knee extensors of the dominant leg (peak torque (Nm)) as an indicator of the function of the knee extensor muscles, were assessed pre- and post-intervention. Following the eight-week intervention, both pre- and post-PHV jump training groups made significant gains in measures of neuromuscular performance (where p < 0,05; d = 0,28 – 1,00), while changes in these measures of neuromuscular performance in the control groups were not significant (all p ≥ 0,05; d = -0,14 – 0,15). A series of repeated measures analyses of variance (ANOVA) indicated that: (1) the improvements in all measures of neuromuscular performance were evidently greater in jump training than in control group, and (2) maturity-related differences between jump training groups were observed only for reactive strength index although, based on the within-group analyses, a trend of greater progress in all measures of neuromuscular performance was observed in pre-PHV boys compared to their post-PHV peers). This study proved that certain important components of physical fitness in healthy untrained 12-14-year-old schoolboys may be acutely enhanced through a well-structured jump training intervention and that maturity seems to at least play a limited role in directing these enhancements.

Cilj istraživanja bio je procijeniti potrošnju energije pri različitim uvjetima trčanja sa i bez lopte (1000m na 80% VO₂max) koristeći pritom linearno trčanje, shuttle trčanje (180°) te linerano stani/kreni trčanje. Istraživanje je provedeno na dvije skupine igrača podijeljene s obzirom na pozicije u igri (bekovi: n = 15; krila/centri: n = 15). Eksperimentalni je pristup zahtijevao upotrebu sljedećih testova/uređaja: prijenosni metabolimetar korišten je za procjenu VO₂max za svaki tip trčanja, skok iz čučnja (OptoJump) za procjenu razlike jakosti donjih ekstremiteta prije i nakon svakog testa te je provedena subjektivna procjena umora nakon svakog tipa trčanja u svrhu procjene trenažnog opterećenja. Globalni navigacijski satelitski sustav korišten je za procjenu nagiba tijela te ubrzanja i usporavanja pri svakoj vrsti trčanja. Korišten je T-test za nezavisne uzorke i dvosmjerna analiza varijance ANOVA za određivanje značajnih razlika za svaku varijablu i u svim uvjetima trčanja. Rezultati ovog istraživanja mogli bi biti korisni za optimizaciju opterećenja tijekom košarkaškog treninga vezanog uz uvjete trčanja u različitim sezonama te za optimizaciju opterećenja u odnosu na pozicije i energetske kapacitete igrača. This study aimed to assess the energetic cost (C) at different running conditions (RC) with/without the ball (1000m at 80% of VO₂max) during: Linear running, Shuttle running (180°), Linear running with stop and restart, between two groups according to the position/role (guards: n=15; forwards/centres: n=15). Experimental approach to the problem required the following tests/devices: a portable metabolimeter was used to assess the metabolic parameters for each RC, Squat Jump (OptoJump) to assess the strength’s decrease difference of the lower limbs before/after each test and Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) after each RC to assess the training load, while the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS-IMU) was used to assess the body inclinations and Acceleration/Deceleration for each RC. The T-test was used for independent samples and Two-way repeated measures ANOVA was used to assess the significant differences for each variable between each RC. The results of this study could be useful not only for coaches to optimize basketball training load related to the RC (with and without the ball), but also to optimize the motor learning in young basketball players and to optimize the load of work in relation to the position and energetic capacities of players.

Temeljni cilj ove disertacije bio je ispitati utjecaj različite količine i vrsta povratnih informacija (PI) u procesu usvajanja tehnike skoka u dalj kod učenika osnovne škole. Dodatni cilj bio je utvrditi povezanost kinematičkih parametara i duljine skoka u dalj. Osamdeset i osam učenika i učenica, starosti (AS ± SD) 11,3 ± 0,5 godina, bez prethodnog iskustva u treningu skoka u dalj, raspodijeljeno je u jednu od četiriju skupina ispitanika koje su dobivale PI: (1) verbalno u odnosu na ključne greške, (2) verbalno i vizualno u odnosu na ključne greške, (3) verbalno i vizualno nakon svakog pokušaja, ili (4) nisu primale PI – kontrolna grupa. Eksperimentalni tretman je trajao 8 tjedana i bio organiziran u sklopu redovne nastave tjelesne i zdravstvene kulture, dva puta tjedno. Duljina skoka i relevantni kinematički parametri skoka u dalj izmjereni su prije i nakon eksperimentalnog tretmana. Rezultati istraživanja nisu potvrdili postavljenu hipotezu kojom je pretpostavljeno da će metoda učenja u kojoj učenik dobiva PI u smanjenoj količini proizvesti najbolje učinke. Jedina statistički značajna razlika u duljini skoka izračunata je između kontrolne grupe, koja je ostvarila napredak od 14 centimetara, i grupe koja je primala verbalne i vizualne PI nakon svakog pokušaja, a koja je ostvarila napredak od 41 centimetra. Djelomično je potvrđena hipoteza kako će kinematički parametri razlikovati grupe ispitanika, odnosno, da će vizualne PI u kombinaciji s verbalnim imati bolji učinak na izvedbu u usporedbi sa samo verbalnim PI. Iako promjene u različitim kinematičkim parametrima unutar grupa i razlike između grupa nisu sustavne, dio promjena moguće je pripisati utjecaju eksperimentalnog tretmana. Razlog takvog ishoda je kompleksna međusobna povezanost kinematičkih parametara i duljine skoka, te se u tom slučaju može govoriti o optimizaciji kinematičkih parametara. U potpunosti je prihvaćena hipoteza o povezanosti kinematičkih parametara i duljine skoka. Očekivano, najveću povezanost s duljinom skoka imala je varijabla brzina težišta tijela na početku odraza (r = 0,91) u finalnom mjerenju. Regresijskom analizom je potvrđena međusobna povezanost kinematičkih parametra i duljine skoka. Zaključeno je kako djeca osnovnoškolske dobi prilikom usvajanja kompleksne motoričke vještine bolje napreduju ukoliko primaju učestale verbalne i vizualne PI (nakon svakog pokušaja) u usporedbi s reduciranim PI (u odnosu na ključne greške). Također je zaključeno kako su relevantni kinematički parametri značajno međusobno povezani i značajno povezani s duljinom skoka. Rezultati ovog istraživanja upućuju na preporuku kako je u početnim fazama usvajanja složene motoričke vještine kod djece potrebno koristiti učestalije PI, a samu zavisnost o istim potrebno je prevenirati postupnim reduciranjem PI. Također, kombiniranjem verbalnih i vizualnih PI može se ostvariti dodatni učinak u optimizaciji strukture kretanja prilikom savladavanja složene motoričke vještine. The aim of this study was to examine the acquisition of the long jump skill in elementary school children using augmented feedback of varying type and frequencies. The secondary objective was to determine the relationship between the kinematic parameters of the long jump and the distance achieved. Eighty-eight boys and girls aged (mean ± SD) 11,3 ± 0,5 years, without any prior experience in long jump skill acquisition, were assigned to one of four study groups: (1) receiving only verbal feedback on key errors, (2) receiving both verbal and video feedback on key errors, (3) receiving both verbal and video feedback on all trials, and (4) receiving no feedback – control group. The experimental treatment lasted 8 weeks and was organized as part of regular physical education, twice a week. The long jump distance and relevant kinematic variables were recorded before and after the training intervention. The results of this study did not confirm the hypothesis that reduced (bandwidth) feedback would have the best effect on to the long jump skill acquisition. The only statistically significant difference in jump distance occurred between the control, which progressed 14 centimeters, and the group receiving 100% relative frequency of feedback, which reached progression of 41 centimeters. The hypothesis that the kinematic parameters would differentiate the groups and that verbal and visual feedback together would be more useful to the students than verbal feedback alone was partially accepted. Although the changes of different kinematic parameters within the groups and the differences between the groups are not systematic, changes in some variables can be described as the influence of experimental treatment. Such an outcome is possible due to the complex relations between kinematic variables and jump distance, and positive effects are shown in the optimization of these parameters. The hypothesis about relationships between kinematic parameters of the long jump and distance achieved was fully accepted. As expected, the strongest correlation coefficient was recorded between the variable velocity of the body's center of gravity at the beginning of the take-off (r = 0,91), in the final testing. Regression analysis was conducted to confirm the results of correlation analysis. It was concluded that, when learning a complex motor skill in a typical physical education setting, elementary school children are likely to benefit the most when receiving frequent feedback (both verbal and using video analysis, focusing on all trials) as compared to when receiving bandwidth feedback. It was also concluded that the kinematic parameters of the long jump are significantly related and significantly related to the distance achieved. The results of this study suggest that frequent augmented feedback should be used when children acquire complex motor skills for the first time. In addition, it is best to prevent dependence on such feedback by reducing augmented feedback gradually. The combination of verbal feedback with visual feedback can also have an additional effect in optimizing movement patterns in the acquisition of a complex motor skill.

The main purpose of this doctoral thesis is to determine in which way are level of physical activity (PA), adiposity, and injury related to the quality of movement patterns among adolescent population. Within this doctoral thesis, there are three distinct studies with related research questions and aims (Study 1, Study 2, and Study 3). Study 1 examined relationship between functional movement and PA in an urban adolescent population, while study 2 strive to identify association between adiposity and quality of movement patterns among the adolescent population. Finally, in Study 3, machine learning (ML) was used to predict injuries among adolescents by functional movement testing. Participants in all three studies were part of the Physical Activity in Adolescence Longitudinal Study (CRO-PALS) cohort. In Study 1 we included 725 adolescents (aged between 16 and 17 years) from CRO-PALS cohort. Movement quality was evaluated via Functional Movement ScreenTM (FMSTM) while PA was assessed with the School Health Action, Planning and Evaluation System (SHAPES) questionnaire. From SHAPES questionnaire, vigorous PA (VPA) and moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) was calculated. Confounders included chronological age, body fat and socioeconomic status (SES). Results of Study 1 indicated that after adjusting for age, body fat and SES, both VPA and MVPA showed minor but significant effects on total FMS score among girls (β=0.011, p=0.001, β=0.005, p=0.006, respectively), but not in boys (β=0.004, p=0.158; β=0.000, p=0.780). Regarding PA type, volleyball and dance improved total FMS score (β=1.003, p=0.071; β=0.972, p=0.043, respectively), while football was associated with lower FMS score (β=-0.569, p=0.118). Conclusively, results of Study 1 showed that PA level is positively associated with the functional movement in adolescent girls, but not in boys, where the type of PA moderates these associations. Because girls are more engaged in aesthetic sports activities that improve functional movement, and unlike boys are in the final stages of maturation, this could affect sexual dimorphism in the quality of movement among the adolescent population. In Study 2 participants were 652 urban adolescents (aged between 16 and 17 years). Body mass index (BMI), a sum of four skinfolds (S4S), waist and hip circumference were measured, and movement quality (i.e. functional movement – FM) was assessed via FMSTM. Furthermore, total FMSTM screen was indicator of FM with the composite score ranged from 7 to 21, with higher score indicating better FM. Multilevel analysis was employed to determine the relationship between different predictors and total FMS score. Results of the Study 2 demonstrate that, in boys, after controlling for age, MVPA, and SES, total FMS score was inversely associated with BMI (β=-0.18, p12 showed AUC of 0.54 (95% CI: 0.48–0.59) and 0.56 (95% CI: 0.47–0.63), for the nonathletic and athletic youth, respectively. However, in the nonathletic subgroup, ML showed that the Naïve Bayes exhibited highest AUC (0.58), whereas in the athletic group, logistic regression was demonstrated as the model with the best predictive accuracy (AUC: 0.62). In both subgroups, with given predictors: sex, age, BMI, body fat percentage, MVPA, training hours per week, SES, and total FMS score, ML can give a more accurate prediction then FMS alone. Results of the Study 3 indicate that nonathletic boys who have lower-body fat could be more prone to suffer from injury incidence, whereas among athletic subjects, boys who spend more time training are at a higher risk of being injured. Conclusively, total FMS cut-off scores for each subgroup did not successfully discriminate those who suffered from those who did not suffer from injury, and, therefore, this study does not support FMS as an injury prediction tool. Cilj Glavni cilj ove doktorske disertacije bio je utvrditi odnos između razine tjelesne aktivnosti (TA), adipoznosti te pojavnosti ozljeda i kvalitete obrazaca pokreta u adolescentskoj populaciji. Ovom disertacijom bit će obuhvaćene tri studije sa tri različita cilja (Studija 1, Studija 2 i Studija 3). Studija 1 utvrdit će povezanost između funkcionalnog pokreta (FP) i razine TA. Studija 2 imala je za cilj utvrditi povezanost između adipoznosti i kvalitete obrazaca pokreta kod urbanih adolescenata. U Studiji 3 metodama strojnog učenja (SU) pokušat će se predviditi pojavnost ozlijede putem FMSTM dijagnostičkog alata kod adolescenata u jednogodišnjem razdoblju. Sudionici koji su uključeni u navedene studije bili su dio opsežnije studije, Hrvatska longitudinalna studija tjelesne aktivnosti u adolescenciji (Physical Activity in Adolescence Longitudinal Study - CRO-PALS). Metode Studija 1 U Studiji 1 bila su uključena 725 ispitanika u dobi od 16 do 17 godina. Procjena kvalitete pokreta napravljena je uz pomoć instrumenta FMSTM (Functional Movement screenTM) dok se razina TA procjenila SHAPES upitnikom (School Health Action, Planning and Evaluation System). Iz podataka koji su dobiveni SHAPES upitnikom, izračunata je umjerena TA (UTA) te umjereno do žustra TA (UŽTA). Kao kovariajble, u svim analizama bile su uključene sljedeće varijable: kronološka dob, postotak tjelesne masti i socioekonomski status (SES). Rezultati Studija 1 Nakon što su analize bile podešene za kronološku dob, postotak tjelesne masti i SES, rezultati Studije 1 ukazuju da su UŽTA i UTA bile su značajno i pozitivno povezne sa sveukupim FMS rezultatom kod djevojčica (β=0.011, p=0.001, β=0.005, p=0.006), ali ne i kod dječaka (β=0.004, p=0.158; β=0.000, p=0.780). U dodatnim analizama, sudjelovanje u odbojci (β=1.003, p=0.071) i plesu (β=0.972, p=0.043) bilo je pozitivno povezano sa sveukupnim FMS rezultatom, dok je nogomet bio u negativnoj relaciji sa sveukupnim FMS rezultatom (β=-0.569, p=0.118). Zaključak Studija 1 Zaključno, razina TA je pozitivno povezana sa kvalitetom obrazaca pokreta kod djevojčica, dok kod dječaka te relacije nisu bile naznačene. Potencijalno objašnjnje uključuje to da se djevojčice nalaze u kasnijoj fazi sazrijavanja te su više uključene u estetske sportove koji unapređuju kvalitetu obrazaca kretanja. Također, utvrđeno je da vrsta TA moderira povezanost između kvalitete obrazaca pokreta i razine TA kod oba spola. Metode Studija 2 U Studiji 2 sudjelovalo je 652 ispitanika (16-17 god.) te su izmjerene sljedeće varijable: suma četri kožna nabora (S4S), opseg struka, opseg kukova te je izračunat indeks tjelesne mase (ITM). Kvaliteta pokreta (tj. funkcionalni pokret – FM) evaluirana je putem FMSTM dijagnostičkog instrumenta. Veći broj bodova na FMSTM skali ukazivao je na bolju kvalitetu pokreta dok je krajnji rezulat bio sveukupni FMS rezultat s rasponom bodova od 7 do 21. Za obradu podataka koristile su se metode višerazinskog modeliranja. Rezultati Studija 2 Nakon što su analize bile podešene za kronološku dob, UŽTA i SES, kod dječaka je sveukupni FMS rezulat bio negativno povezan sa ITM-om (β=-0.18, p12 pokazala skromnu točnost u populaciji nesportša (AUC: 0.54; 95% CI: 0.48–0.59), dok je u nesportskoj populaciji točnost bila veća (AUC: 0.56; 95% CI: 0.47–0.63). Među metodama SU, metoda Naȉve Bayes dala je najtočniji prediktivni model u podskupini nesportaša (AUC: 0.58). S druge strane, u podskupini sportaša, logistička regresija pokazala se kao metoda sa najuspješnijom prediktivnim modelom (AUC: 0.62). U obje podskupine, sa prediktorima: spol, dob, ITM, postotak tjelesne masti, UŽTA, broj trenažnih sati tjedno, kvalitetom obrasca pokreta i SES, SU daje točniju predikciju u usporedbi sa predikcijama dobevnim FMSTM dijagnostičkim instrumentom. Zaključak Studija 3 Rezultati Studije 3 ukazuju da su dječaci nesportaši, koji imaju manji postotak masti, skloniji većem riziku za ozljeđivanje. S druge strane, dječaci koji se bave sportom i koji provode više vremena trenirajući imaju najveći rizik za pojavnost ozljede. Zaključno, sveukupni FMS rezultat ne može uspješno predvidjeti pojavnost ozljeđivanja u populaciji sportaša i nesportaša. Stoga ova studija ne preporuča korištenje FMS dijagnostičkog instrumenta u cilju predikcije ozljeda.

Oštećenje sluha ubraja se u jedno od najčešćih prirođenih oštećenja i u prosjeku se javlja u 1 do 3 djece na 1000 novorođenčadi i ono osim što uzrokuje nemogućnost komunikacije djeteta sa svijetom, ima velik utjecaj i na emocionalni, socijalni, ali i na motorički razvoj djeteta. Dosadašnja istraživanja o motoričkom razvoju djece s kohlearnim implantatom jesu malobrojna i uglavnom im je predmet istraživanja bila ravnoteža, dok se mali broj istraživanja bavio samo dijelom široke lepeze motoričkih sposobnosti djece s kohlearnim implantatom te su im rezultati kontradiktorni. Cilj istraživanja bio je ispitati razlike u kinantropološkim obilježjima među skupinama učenika s kohlearnim implantatom uzimajući u obzir različitu etiologiju oštećenja sluha i učenika bez oštećenja sluha. Nadalje, istraživanjem su se željele utvrditi i razlike među navedenim skupinama s obzirom na spol, dob, dodatnu tjelesnu aktivnost, dob nastanka oštećenja sluha i dob kohlearne implantacije. Istraživanjem je obuhvaćeno ukupno 70 ispitanika bez oštećenja sluha i 70 ispitanika s kohlearnim implantatom, dobi 6 do 18 godina, koji su uključeni u redoviti osnovnoškolski ili srednjošklolski sustav obrazovanja Republike Hrvatske. Skupina ispitanika s kohlearnim implantatom dodatno je podijeljena s obzirom na etiologiju oštećenja sluha na dvije skupine – ispitanici sa stečenim oštećenjem sluha (n:33) i ispitanici s urođenim oštećenjem sluha (n:37). Za utvrđivanje motoričkih sposobnosti rabljena je druga inačica testa Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency. Kontrolne varijable jesu dob, spol, vrijeme nastanka oštećenja sluha, dob ugradnje kohlearnog implantata i uključenost u dodatnu tjelesnu aktivnost izvan redovite nastave tjelesne i zdravstvene kulture, te etiologija oštećenja sluha. Rezultati ovog istraživanja upućuju na to da učenici s kohlearnim implantatom različite etiologije oštećenja sluha imaju značajno slabije razvijenu, ne samo ravnotežu, kako je to uočeno dosadašnjim istraživanjima, nego cjelokupnu finu i grubu motoriku od učenika bez oštećenja sluha. S obzirom na etiologiju oštećenja sluha, utvrđeno je kako učenici s kohlearnim implantatom koji imaju stečeno oštećenja sluha, imaju značajno izraženiji deficit u većem broju mjerenih motoričkih sposobnosti od učenika s urođenim oštećenjem sluha. Također, kod iste skupine učenika sa stečenim oštećenjem sluha uočeno je kako s obzirom na dodatnu tjelesnu aktivnost njihov uspjeh u motoričkim sposobostima ne raste. Sve navedeno ide u prilog zaključku da kod stečenih oštećenja sluha razvoj motoričkih sposobnosti djece ipak je nešto slabiji. Hearing impairment is considered one of the most common inherited impairments and occurs in 1 to 3 out of a thousand newborn babies and, besides causing inability for a child to communicate with the world, has a great effect on the emotional, social and motor development of a child. Existing research on motor development of children with cochelear implant are few and mostly the topic of those research was balance, while smaller number of researches dealt with just a portion of a wide range of motor abilities of children with cochelear implant and their findings are contradictory. Aim of the research was to examine the differences in kinanthropological characteristics between groups of students with cochelear implant, in respect to different etiology of hearing impairment and students without hearing impairment. Furthermore, research was also aimed to determine differences between above mentioned groups, based on sex, age, additional kinesiological activity and age of cochlear implantation. The research included a total of 70 students without hearing impairment and 70 subjects with cochelear implant, ages 6 to 18, who have been included in regular elementary or secondary educational system in the Republic of Croatia. Subject group with cochelear implant has been additionally divided based on the etiology of hearing impairment into two groups – subjects with acquired hearing impairment (n:33) and subjects with inherited hearing impairment (n:37). Second version of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency was used for determining motor skills. Control variables are age, sex age when the hearing impairment occurred, age of cochlear implantation and participation in additional physical activity outside regular PE classes and etiology of hearing impairment. Results of this research suggest that students with cochelear implant of different hearing impairment etiologies have not only significantly less developed balance, as it was observed by the previous research, but also fine and gross motor skills as a whole in contrast to students without hearing impairment. In view of hearing impairment etiology, it has been determined that students with cochelear implant and acquired hearing impairment have a significantly more expressed deficit in a larger number of measured motor skills than students with inherited hearing impairment. In addition, it has been observed that the same group of students with acquired hearing impairment, with respect to additional physical activity, did not show growth in motor skills. Everything stated supports the conclusion that in cases of hearing impairment, the development of motors skills in children is still somewhat weaker.

Uvod. Važnost tjelesne aktivnosti u očuvanju psihofizičkog zdravlja dobro je utvrđena, a povećanje razine tjelesne aktivnosti nedovoljno aktivne studentske populacije bi trebao biti cilj javnozdravstvenih akcija. Kako bi one bile što učinkovitije, potrebno je prepoznati sve čimbenike, pa tako i psihološke, koji su pozitivno povezani s razinom tjelesne aktivnosti. Cilj istraživanja bio je utvrditi povezanost razine tjelesne aktivnosti i psiholoških varijabli kreiranjem prediktivnog strukturalnog modela tjelesne aktivnosti studenata. Metode. Sudionici istraživanja su bili studenti Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, njih ukupno 1304 s deset fakulteta koji pokrivaju 5 znanstvenih područja djelovanja. Od ukupnog uzorka, 857 je bilo studentica (65,7%), a 447 (34,3%) studenata. U provedenom istraživanju korišteni su sljedeći mjerni instrumenti: hrvatska verzija upitnika International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ, dugačka forma), Upitnik Teorije planiranog ponašanja o bavljenju tjelesnom aktivnošću, hrvatska verzija Upitnika ciljne orijentacije u sportu, hrvatska verzija upitnika EMI-2, Skala lokusa uzročnosti za vježbanje, hrvatska verzija HEXACO – PI - R upitnika ličnosti. Rezultati. Tjelesna aktivnost u slobodno vrijeme se direktno može predvidjeti namjerom za bavljenje tjelesnom aktivnošću, lokusom uzročnosti za vježbanje, te društvenim motivima za vježbanje. Uspješnost predviđanja tjelesne aktivnosti na temelju prediktorskih varijabli sastavljenih od osobina ličnosti i motivacijskih varijabli ovisi o razini tjelesne aktivnosti. Rezultati su pokazali da, s obzirom na razinu tjelesne aktivnosti, postoji statistički značajna razlika u stavovima, subjektivnim normama, percipiranoj kontroli, namjeri, orijentaciji na zadatak i učenje, lokusu uzročnosti za vježbanje, ugodnosti, ekstraverziji, emocionalnosti te psihološkim i društvenim motivima za vježbanje. Što se tiče uspješnosti predviđanja tjelesne aktivnosti ovisno o spolu, pokazalo se da nema razlike u uspješnosti. S obzirom na spol, postoji statistički značajna razlika u stavovima, percipiranoj kontroli, orijentaciji na ishod i rezultat, orijentaciji na zadatak i učenje, lokusu uzročnosti za vježbanje, otvorenosti ka iskustvu, savjesnosti, ugodnosti, emocionalnosti, poštenju/poniznosti, zdravstvenim i društvenim motivima za vježbanje, te u razini tjelesne aktivnosti u slobodno vrijeme i ukupne tjelesne aktivnosti. Zaključak. Varijable proizašle iz teorije planiranog ponašanja pokazale su se najkonzistentnijim prediktorima tjelesne aktivnosti. Preostale varijable koje su se pokazale uspješnim prediktorima su lokus uzročnosti za vježbanje, skupine društvenih i psiholoških Introduction. Importance of physical activity in psychophysical health preservation is well established, and increasing physical activity level of insufficiently active student population should be goal of public health actions. For them to be efficient, it is necessary to determine all factors, including psychological, that are related with physical activity level. Combination of psychological factors which, in prior research, proved to be succesful in predicting different kind of behavior, including physical activity, and which are based on theories of planned behavior, self-determination, motivation of achievement and HEXACO personality theory, should result in optimal predictive solution. The aim of this study was to determine relationship between leisure-time physical activity level and psychological factors (motivation variables and personality traits) by creating predictive structural model of student physical activity. Methods. Participants were 1304 students from ten University of Zagreb colleges that covers five different scientific areas. There were 857 female students (65,7%) and 447 male students (34,3%). Measure instruments used in condacted research were as follows: Croatian version of International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ, long form), Theory of planned behavior questionnaire regarding physical activity, Croatian version of Task and Ego orientation in sport questionnaire, Croatian version of EMI-2 questionnaire, the Locus of Causality for Exercise Scale, and Croatian version of HEXACO-PI-(R) personality measure. Results. Leisure- time physical activity can directly be predicted by intention to be physically active, by locus of causality for exercise and by group of social motives for exercise, with higher intentions, inner locus of causality and greater motivation by social motives leading to higher level of student leisure-time physical activity. Furthermore, student leisure-time physical activity level prediction by personality traits and motivation variables depends on student physical activity level. Final model solution created from sample of students who fullfil minimum leisure-time activity level recommendation explained 13,3% of student leisure-time physical activity variance, while final model solution created from sample of students who don't fullfil minimum leisure-time activity level recommendation explained 3,9% of student leisure-time physical activity variance. Results showed that, considering physical activity level, there is statistically significant difference in attitudes toward physical activity, subjective norms of physical activity participation, perceived control of physical activity, intention to be physically active, task goal orientation, locus of causality for exercise, agreeableness, exstraversion, emotionality, psychological motives for exercise and social motives for exercise. Considering gender, results showed that there is no difference in successfulness of predictive models, with final model solution created from male students sample explaining 16,5% of student leisure-time physical activity variance, while final model solution created from female students sample explaining 16,3% of student leisure-time physical activity variance. But, considering gender, there is statistically significant difference in attitudes toward physical activity, perceived control of physical activity, task goal orientation, ego goal orientation, locus of causality for exercise, openness to experience, conscientiousness, agreeableness, emotionality, honesty-humility, health motives for exercise, social motives for exercise and, in the end, in leisure-time physical activity level and total physical ctivity level. Conclusion. Theory of planned behavior variables proved to be most consistent leisure-time physical activity predictor, with exception of perceived control, which, contrary to theory assumptions, predicted only intention of physical activity, not behavior itself. Other variables that proved successful in predicting students leisure-time physical activity, regardless of analysed sample, were locus of causlity for exercise, social motives for exercise, psychological motives for exercise, ego goal orientation and agreeableness personality trait. Relatively small percentage of explained student leisure-time physical activity variance by psychological factors indicates a need to include factors from other fields (sociodemographic, sociological) in predictive model with wich we would be able to detect those most efficient, so most successful interventions for increasing physical activity level could be created.