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In an authentic flight simulator, the instructor is traditionally located behind the learner and is thus unable to observe the pilot's visual attention (i.e. gaze behaviour). The focus of this article is visual attention in relation to pilots' professional learning in an Airbus A320 Full Flight Simulator. For this purpose, we measured and analysed pilots' visual scanning behaviour during flight simulation-based training. Eye-tracking data were collected from the participants (N = 15 pilots in training) to objectively and non-intrusively study their visual attention behaviour. First, we derived and compared the visual scanning patterns. The descriptive statistics revealed the pilots' visual scanning paths and whether they followed the expected flight protocol. Second, we developed a procedure to automate the analysis. Specifically, a Hidden Markov model (HMM) was used to automatically capture the actual phases of pilots' visual scanning. The advantage of this technique is that it is not bound to manual assessment based on graphs or descriptive data. In addition, different scanning patterns can be revealed in authentic learning situations where gaze behaviour is not known in advance. Our results illustrate that HMM can provide a complementary approach to descriptive statistics. Implications for future research are discussed, including how artificial intelligence in education could benefit from the HMM approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emerging technologies such as augmented reality are impacting the field of education, it can be seen in the attention given to technology, specifically augmented reality. Systematic reviews on research related to learning through augmented reality aim to find gaps of augmented reality in learning. However, there is a limited number of systematic reviews that analyze current research articles that discuss learning experiences. Thus, this paper aims to analyze recent research articles on (1) the learning experience of augmented reality, (2) the usability of the applied method, (3) issues, and (4) the challenges of learning through augmented reality. Forty-eight articles in the recent five years, from 2018 to 2022, were selected, based on the designed query and PRISMA method. All articles were analyzed and the results show that the System Usability Scale (SUS) is the most popular usability questionnaire and qualitative method to evaluate learning experience. This scale was used in almost 70% of the research articles selected for this review. Several constructs to evaluate learning experience were identified including satisfaction, learning efficiency, assessment, and engagement. The limitations and challenges are summarized into three categories: respondent, data collection, and technical issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We designed a microbial science popularization product based on virtual reality technology, "Micro World – Exploring the Microbial Kingdom," and conducted usability tests. Participants used head-mounted VR glasses to experience virtual scenarios teaching microbiological knowledge. The product's user experience was evaluated through a User Experience Questionnaire (UEQ), and the results showed that our product provided both usefulness and enjoyment. In addition, the quality of participants' relevant knowledge acquisition was measured using the Student Education of Educational Quality (SEEQ). The SEEQ results show that "Micro World" is an effective tool for popularizing microbiology science and can actively promote students' independent learning and improve learning quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although research has touted the value of making in educational settings, scant work has been done in formal school contexts utilizing quantitative methods. This could be attributed to the various challenges in integrating making in school settings. To fill in the gap, this study presents an approach to integrate making into science classes at the 3rd to 5th grade levels in a U.S. public school for four consecutive years (2015–2019). We examined the effect of the program on students' self-beliefs (self-efficacy, motivation, and self-concept) using a longitudinal quasi-experimental design. We also examined the effect of making on students' knowledge and skills using state testing data. Results suggest that when averaged across post school year surveys, students in maker classes (vs. control) reported higher self-efficacy beliefs in science and making as well as more interests in STEM-related careers. Moreover, over two school years, we observed that students in the control group experienced declines on some of our variables while our maker students did not. Data thereby speaks to the potential value and promise of integrating making into formal school settings. Practical implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The research aims to investigate the impact of augmented reality (AR) technologies developed within the framework of primary school students' on student achievement, attitudes towards the course, attitudes towards technology, and participation in classroom activities. The contents of AR-based learning materials have been developed by 4th-grade teachers and writers within the context of the existing curriculum. The study process was carried out based on the instructional design model. The research was performed in conjunction with the quasi-experimental design among the experimental designs of quantitative research methods. Using the cluster random sampling method, students in the experimental and control groups were selected among 11 primary schools. The findings indicate that contrary to the students in the control group, the students in the experimental group had higher academic achievement and participation in classroom activities, and also their attitudes to the course and applied technology were more positive. Moreover, concerning the experimental group students, a positive and significant correlation between their academic achievements, attitudes towards the course, attitudes towards technology, and their participation and participation in classroom activities have been observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: TPACK is a widely used framework for assessing teachers' competence in integrating technology in education. However, previous studies have shown varying interpretations of the relationship between TPACK elements. Qualitative studies that assess the manifestations of TPACK by examining the practices of pre‐service teachers are rare. Objectives: This study investigates technology integration in innovative physics teaching and learning materials designed by pre‐service teachers and the manifestation of technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) in empirical cases. Methods: We qualitatively extracted the components of PCK, TPK, and TCK from the innovative physics teaching and learning materials developed by 22 pre‐service teachers in their fourth year at a teachers' college in South Korea. We scored them based on the new evaluation criteria established in this study. Results and Conclusions: Based on the materials, we identified three types of technology integration: Learning Materials Providing, Learning Activity Providing, and Virtual Experiments Creating. This study identifies teachers' level of TK and integrates it with TPACK expression. Results confirm the connection between TK and TCK and show that a strong PCK can serve as a basis for TPK. The TPACK expression pattern can help achieve balanced development of TPACK in teacher education. Lay Description: What is currently known about the subject matter: TPACK framework combines pedagogical, content, and technological knowledge in teachers' professional expertise.Despite TPACK's widespread use, studies showed varied interpretations of the relationships between its elements.TPACK measurement often relies on self‐assessment, lacking a total reflection of technology use in teaching.Few qualitative studies explore TPACK manifestations through pre‐service teachers' practices. What the paper adds to the currently known about: There are three types of technology integration: Learning Materials Providing, Learning Activity Providing, and Virtual Experiments Creating.The study found that pre‐service teachers in the virtual experiments creating type exhibit strong subject‐specific TPACK.In physics education, TK is essential and can be divided into the use of ICT and programming.The study correlates TK levels with TPACK expressions, resulting in five patterns based on PCK, TPK, TCK, and TK. The implications of study findings for practitioners: The study presents empirical evidence of TPACK manifestation in pre‐service physics teachers, focusing on TK.High programming TK has a significant impact on subject‐specific TPACK.The study confirms the TK‐TCK connection and highlights PCK's role in TPK.TPACK patterns can guide teacher education, fostering balanced development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies have suggested that virtual reality (VR) as an ‘empathy-making machine’ has the potential to trigger historical empathy. Different VR technologies offer different levels of immersion with different educational implications. Higher immersive VR technology has shown promise in enhancing learners’ empathy levels. However, how highly immersive VR promotes learners’ historical empathy in real-life classroom settings has not been explored. Hence, this study focuses on comparing two levels of immersive VR-supported learning for historical empathy acquisition among secondary learners. A total of 49 students were recruited. A quasi-experimental design was employed and the quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed to explore participants’ historical knowledge and empathy. The quantitative data show no significant difference between immersive virtual reality (IVR) approach-supported learning and flatscreen VR-supported learning. However, the qualitative analysis suggests that the students from the IVR group showed stronger ‘physical empathy’. Intriguingly, even though the tests did not demonstrate that the students learned more in IVR-supported learning, they self-reported that they learned better in IVR-supported learning. The paper identifies implications for the connection between ‘physical empathy’ and the level of immersive technology.

In recent times, science education has turned its attention toward computational modeling (CM). While there exists a substantial body of research on CM case design and practical applications, a notable gap exists in systematic reviews of these studies. Although systematic reviews of computational thinking in science classrooms exist, they diverge from the definition of CM, often omitting pertinent articles. This study adhered to the standardized process of systematic literature review, selecting Web of Science (WOS) and Scopus as the databases. It established search keywords and criteria for the inclusion and exclusion of literature. After multiple rounds of screening, this study ultimately obtained 70 works related to CM. For the results, this study begins with an analysis of publication distribution, research popularity trends, research types, and methodologies. Subsequently, it delves into participant profiles, encompassing their geographical distribution, educational levels, and sample sizes. Furthermore, it scrutinizes case types, modeling tools, and the fundamental functionalities within case design. Lastly, it explores the scientific disciplines and student competencies that researchers prioritize in CM’s practical application, along with the evaluation methods, collected data, and core empirical findings. The findings of this study offer valuable insights for future research directions, catalyzing deeper exploration within the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Families with disabled children in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) face unique challenges that impact their quality of life (QoL). Saudi Vision 2030 aims to empower all citizens, including those with disabilities. This research is a review that explores how the Semantic Web (SW), a technology enabling intelligent data interoperability, can be utilized to enhance the QoL for families with disabled children within the framework of Vision 2030. Two instruments were developed and administered by the researcher for data collection in addition to a review of the literature and related studies. First, needs assessment open interviews aimed to analyze the challenges and needs of the Saudi family caregivers. Second, an SW-QoL questionnaire was conducted to explore the key features and functionalities of SW that could fulfill those needs and improve the caregivers’ QoL accordingly within the context of Saudi Vision 2030. The findings of the study propose that SW has got the promising potentials, if applied, to improve the QoL among Saudi family caregivers of disabled children. The study pinpoints that SW’s ability to empower families, improve resource access, and promote social inclusion directly aligns with Saudi Vision 2030’s vision for a more inclusive and equitable society. Applying SW applications in QoL programs remains a suggested area of experimentation in KSA as this research is a call to action. To improve the QoL among Saudi family caregivers of disabled children, further research is recommended to examine the SW functions on the improvement of their QoL. The SW power of linked data could be designed for promoting powerful informed decision-making, as well as SW reasoning engines could be developed for personalizing resources among family caregivers. In addition, SW virtual communities of practice could be built for enhancing resource sharing and social inclusion among those families. Studies are also needed in alignment with the aspirations of KSA Vision 2030 for determining the effect of the information accessibility function of SW on enhancing caregiver families’ access to the target information and support services. Above all, the impact of coordinated care via SW could be investigated to reduce the administrative burdens among caregiver families via data connection from different government agencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Digital media are widely used among Higher Education (HE) students; however, it is not clear yet how students from different disciplines apply learning technology. When differences in technology use were found among disciplines, they were identified broadly, for example, between soft and hard sciences, that is, social sciences/humanities vs. natural sciences. Beyond this, disciplines may also differ according to their traditions, norms and values that form their discipline-specific cultures. Thus, based on the theoretical perspectives of social cognitive theory and organisational culture, this present study aimed to examine students’ technology use in different HE disciplines. In a multilevel analysis, data from four German universities were analyzed, including more than 1,200 students from 105 disciplines. The findings suggest that students in different disciplines vary substantially in their average use of study-related technology. Furthermore, on the individual level, study-related technology use depends on individual factors, e.g., perceived usefulness. This present study's results contribute to further extending our knowledge about student technology use in HE. Above all, the conceptual and methodical models can serve as a theoretical and empirical basis for future studies. To analyze disciplinary differences, the study shows that a rough classification, for example hard versus soft disciplines, is not sufficient. Instead, the different disciplines need to be distinguished.

Previous studies reported that acquiring computer programming skills is challenging and might result in high dropout rates. A quasi-experimental design was used to examine the role of different factors in dropping out of an e-based computer programming course. This study applied a knowledge in programming assessment test (20 multiple-choice questions covering the following topics: variables, loops, conditionals, functions, and general knowledge of Python), The Learning Motivating Factors Questionnaire, The Big Five-2, and The Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction & Frustration Scale. Ninety-four participants (38 males and 56 females) completed the course, while 305 participants started it. The mean age of e-learners was 29.96 years (SD 8.27), age range = 18 to 54. The results showed that e-learners who completed the course had higher initial knowledge assessment scores than those who dropped out after the first assessment. Reward and recognition as a motivator were significantly higher in males who completed the course than those who dropped out after the second knowledge assessment. Extraversion was significantly lower in females who completed the course than those who dropped after the first or second knowledge assessment test. Relatedness frustration was significantly higher in those who dropped out after the first knowledge assessment. Due to significant limitations of the sample size, cultural context, measures applied, and research design, the findings would preferably be regarded with caution.

The aim of this study is to use augmented reality and hands-on activity with phonics cubes to create an augmented reality English learning system named the Rolling Alphabet-AR System to investigate its impact on English learning, flow experience, and English self-efficacy for sixth graders. This study adopted quasi-experimental research on 114 sixth graders from Taiwan, which comprised experimental and control groups. The experimental group used the Rolling Alphabet-AR System to learn, and the control group used flash cards and picture cards. Before and after the experiments, these two groups took the Phonics vocabulary, flow experience, and English self-efficacy scales as pre- and posttests. The study was conducted 7 times in 7 weeks for a total of 280 minutes. The pre- and posttest results were analysed by independent sample t tests in SPSS 20.0. Using the Rolling Alphabet-AR System in English learning positively impacts English learning effectiveness and flow experience for sixth graders. This study combined AR learning with manual operations to prove that this combination can effectively improve students' English learning results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of augmented reality (AR) using a 3D app in a smartphone on students' learning outcomes and satisfaction in teaching angle measurement error to vocational high school students with different spatial ability. A quasi-experimental pretest/posttest was employed. There were 197 students from three vocational high schools in the southern, northern, and eastern part of Taiwan participated in this study. To minimize the biased result, we established one control group and one experimental group in each school. The experimental group used multimedia teaching tools and AR technology as a supplement, while the control group was taught by multimedia teaching tools only. We assessed some factors that possibly affect the learning outcomes and learning satisfaction, including different spatial abilities and different digital materials as teaching tools. Our finding highlights that different teaching materials influence students' learning outcomes and satisfaction, whereas spatial ability does not affect. Further discussion and implementation are also identified in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Around the world, the number of English speakers and the significance of the English language are constantly increasing. Among various technology-supported instructional styles, Mobile Learning (M-Learning) has been recognized as a promising approach to enhance students' competencies and skills in the English language. By examining previous literature, a number of reviews have been performed to investigate the role of M-learning in the English language. However, none of these studies has highlighted the trends, opportunities, and challenges identified in the most cited articles that focused solely on the English language. Therefore, to address these limitations, this study performed a review of the top 100 most cited articles, published between 2007 and 2020, indexed by the Web of Science, and addressing the English language only. The results revealed that most research in Mobile English Language Learning (M-ELL) followed an experimental design and employed a single mobile learning implementation. Additionally, the current study identified a number of research areas that require additional research attention. For example, further research is needed among students learning from home, more qualitative research is needed, and additional research is required to improve students' higher-order thinking skills. The outcomes of this study provide a reference to researchers and educators who intend to use mobile technologies in the area of language education, especially in the context of the English language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recent pandemic brought on considerable changes in terms of learning activities, which were moved from in-person classroom-based lessons to virtual work performed at home in most world regions. One of the most considerable challenges faced by educators was keeping students motivated toward learning activities. Interactive learning environments in general, and augmented reality (AR)-based learning environments in particular, are thought to foster emotional and cognitive engagement when used in the classroom. This study aims to compare the motivation and learning outcomes of middle school students in two educational settings: in the classroom and at home. The study involved 55 middle school students using the AR application to practice basic chemistry concepts. The results suggested that students' general motivation towards the activity was similar in both settings. However, students who worked at home reported better satisfaction and attention levels compared with those who worked in the classroom. Additionally, students who worked at home made fewer mistakes and achieved better grades compared with those who worked in the classroom. Overall, the study suggests that AR can be exploited as an effective learning environment for learning the basic principles of chemistry in home settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Writing an English research article for novice English as an additional language (EAL) writers is a challenging task that requires experience and training at both the sentence and meaning levels. One strategy that EAL writers employ when writing a research article is the use of formulaic sequences (FSs). However, available FS corpora are general purpose and are very limited in size. Previous studies have reported the effectiveness of FS usage in writing using a small set of FSs. The present work proposes an assistive environment for academic writing improvement through the use of domain-specific FSs. FSs are extracted from published articles and are classified under rhetoric categories using a machine learning technique. The user can then search for and add new FSs of his/her choice from any research article using proposed prototypes. The effectiveness of the proposed approach was evaluated in a real environment. The results show a positive impact of the proposal in terms of academic writing improvement. Novice writers who worked with the proposed prototype reported a significantly higher degree of perceived usefulness than those who worked with the traditional phrasebank approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the age of generative AI, can teaching videos be efficiently and effectively generated by large language models? In this study, the authors used generative AI tools to develop four short teaching videos for a management course and then compared them with human-generated videos on the same subjects in an online experiment. In an across-subject experimental design, 447 participants completed two treatment conditions presenting different mixes of AI-generated and human-made videos. The participants were asked to rate their learning experiences after each video and had their learning outcomes tested in a multiple-choice exam at the end of the session (N = 1788 video treatments). The findings show that human-generated videos provided a statistically significant but small advantage to participants in terms of learning experience, indicating that the participants still prefer to be taught by human teachers. However, a comparison of exam results between the experimental groups implies that the participants eventually acquired knowledge about the content to a similar degree. Given these findings and the ease with which AI-generated teaching videos can be created, this study concludes that AI-generated teaching videos will likely proliferate. • This study compares the learning effects of AI-generated versus human-made teaching videos. • In an online experiment, 447 participants watched four teaching videos, filled out a survey, and took an exam. • Participants prefer human-made teaching videos in terms of learning experience. • When watching AI-generated videos, participants achieved equally high learning outcomes. • Teaching videos can quickly be made using generative AI tools and can be expected to proliferate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using computational methods to produce and interpret multiple scientific representations is now a common practice in many science disciplines. Research has shown students have difficulty in moving across, connecting, and sensemaking from multiple representations. There is a need to develop task-specific representational competencies for students to reason and conduct scientific investigations using multiple representations. In this study, we focus on three representational competencies: 1) linking between representations, 2) disciplinary sensemaking from multiple representations, and 3) conceptualizing domain-relevant content derived from multiple representations. We developed a block code-based computational modeling environment with three different representations and embedded it within an online activity for students to carry out investigations around the earthquake cycle. The three representations include a procedural representation of block codes, a geometric representation of land deformation build-up, and a graphical representation of deformation build-up over time. We examined the extent of students' representational competencies and which competencies are most correlated with students' future performance in a computationally supported geoscience investigation. Results indicate that a majority of the 431 students showed at least some form of representational competence. However, a relatively small number of students showed sophisticated levels of linking, sensemaking, and conceptualizing from the representations. Five of seven representational competencies, the most prominent being code sensemaking (η2 = 0.053, p < 0.001), were significantly correlated to student performance on a summative geoscience investigation. • Representational competencies (RCs) enable students to build domain knowledge. • Students developed knowledge of the earthquake cycle using the three representations. • Students can link, make sense of, and understand dynamically-linked representations. • RCs are significant indicators of performance on real-world investigation tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many children fail to comprehend what they read because they do not monitor their understanding, which requires making accurate judgements of what they know and then employing repair strategies when comprehension fails. Relying on research from learning science and cognitive and developmental psychology, we developed the Word Knowledge e-Book (WKe-Book) to improve children's calibration of their word knowledge, strategy use, and word knowledge overall; skills which are associated with reading comprehension. The WKe-Book, which is read on a tablet computer, is a choose-your-own adventure book where choices require choosing between two rare words (e.g., cogitate vs. procrastinate). Depending on the word chosen, the story follows a different plot. There are also embedded comprehension questions where students receive immediate feedback with consequences for incorrect answers, such as being sent back to reread a few pages. In a randomized controlled trial, we tested whether students (N = 603 in 25 third through fifth grade classrooms in Arizona in the US) reading the WKe-Book would demonstrate improved word knowledge, strategy use, and word knowledge calibration. Classrooms were randomly assigned to read the WKe-Book immediately (treatment) or later (delayed-treatment control), and within classrooms, students were randomly assigned to either participate in a 15-minute weekly book club (book club treatment) or to read the WKe-Book independently with no book club (no book club control). Results revealed a significant treatment effect of the WKe-Book on students' word knowledge, word knowledge calibration, and strategy use, which predicted student performance on standardized reading comprehension and vocabulary measures. The effects were greater for students who participated in weekly book clubs compared to students in the no book club control. These findings suggest that the affordances offered by technology, which are unavailable in paper-based books, can support students' development of metacognition, including word knowledge calibration, strategy use, and word learning skills.

The internet provides up-to-date, multi-dimensional and spatial information on geographical conflicts worldwide. Internet searches can therefore be used in geography education for students to learn about geographical conflicts and to form their own opinions on them. However, previous research indicates that students lack competences in searching and evaluating digital information on geographical conflicts and also in processing the information found argumentatively. Therefore, we developed a digital learning unit, available as Open Educational Resource, to train upper secondary and university students in targeted strategies for conducting internet searches on geographical conflicts and developing subsequent argumentations. In this study, we investigated whether geographic internet searches and argumentation skills can be promoted using the learning unit. For this purpose, we analysed the work products of 39 students that they produced within the learning unit, consisting of an internet search on a geographical conflict and a subsequent argumentation. In addition, the students evaluated the learning unit using digitally provided questionnaires. A comparison of the students’ work results with previous research shows that the learning unit does not seem to affect the amount of information students find on the internet, but students seemed to engage more intensively with the information found. Using the information from the internet, students were able to create multi-perspective argumentations in which they could defend their opinions with justifications, counter-arguments and rebuttals. The results of our study thus show that internet searches on geographical conflicts and the development of subsequent argumentation can be promoted with the digital learning unit.

Although a large variety of methodologies, contexts and perspectives have been used to examine educational application of technology, there is a paucity of instruments that are designed to comprehensively evaluate the use of technology in education. This paper presents a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) of an instrument that incorporates eight key dimensions: learning, affective, behavioral, technology, design, pedagogy, presence/community, and institutional environment. These dimensions were derived from rigorous systematic literature review and field specialist validation processes. The model was then refined and empirically confirmed in this study by 1,352 participants undertaking a Coursera open online course. The results of applying the instrument, as well as qualitative feedback from participants, are shared to illustrate its breadth and utility. The final 28 item "Comprehensive Evaluation of Use of Technology in Education" instrument is provided in full to support consistent, holistic and robust evaluation and comparison of technology use across educational contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the field of environmental education, it is crucial to obtain a profound understanding of students' learning about ecosystem concepts, particularly with regard to the intricate processes of material cycling. Material cycling involves the movement and transformation of elements and compounds within ecosystems and serves as a cornerstone for effective instructional techniques aimed at improving learning outcomes. This study examines the synergistic potential of merging inquiry-based instruction with information literacy within the context of the "mini ecosystem" theme to increase seventh-grade students' comprehension of ecosystem concepts, material cycling, modeling design, and visual literacy. Utilizing a quasiexperimental design, the student cohort was divided into an experimental group that was exposed to inquiry-based instruction and information literacy and a control group that utilized integrated audiovisual media. Assessment tools included standardized tests, open-ended inquiries, design drawings, and evaluations of visual literacy. This study sheds light on students' comprehension of concepts related to ecosystems and material cycling and highlights the effectiveness of integrating inquiry-based instruction and information literacy. Notably, the experimental group surpassed the control group in several aspects, including understanding and higher-order thinking of ecosystem concepts, overall model design with material selection, and overall visual literacy, including aesthetic techniques and creative imagination. However, no significant differences were found in conceptual design or material cycling of model design or in theme composition in visual literacy. In both groups, students with higher pretest scores did not exhibit improvement in the understanding of ecosystem concepts. Despite the identified limitations, the results underscore the potential benefits of each individual component (i.e., inquiry-based instruction and information literacy) as well as their combined synergistic effect in bolstering students' grasp of ecosystem concepts. The study concludes by discussing its limitations and providing suggestions for future research. • Examine impact of integrating 5E inquiry with information literacy into ecosystem understanding. • Analyze grasp of ecosystem and material cycling, modeling design, and visual literacy. • Experimental group outperformed control group in various ecosystem concepts. • Low-scoring students notably improve in the ecosystem and material cycling concepts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Massive Online Open Course (MOOC) forum, learning engagement encompasses three fundamental dimensions—cognitive, emotional, and behavioral engagement—that intricately interact to jointly influence students' learning achievements. However, the interplay between multiple engagement dimensions and their correlations with learning achievement remain understudied, particularly across different academic disciplines. This study adopts an automated configurational approach that integrates bidirectional encoder representation from transformers (BERT) and fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) to explore the configurations of learning engagement, their connections with learning achievement, and variations across disciplines. Our analysis reveals a nuanced profile of learners' learning engagement, indicating the high-achieving individuals demonstrated more frequent posting and commenting behaviors and the high-level cognitive engagement than low-achieving individuals. Second, our analysis revealed multiple configurations where the coexistence or absence of factors at different levels of the cognitive, behavioral, and emotional dimensions significantly impacted learning achievement. Learners who conducted posting and replying behaviors, expressed positive emotions, and engaged in deep cognitive engagement tended to achieve superior learning outcomes. Third, there were significant differences in behavioral and emotional engagement among learners across different academic disciplines. Specifically, pure discipline learners were more inclined to engage in postin g behaviors than the applied discipline learners. Across academic disciplines, positive emotions correlated strongly with higher achievement. These findings deepen our understanding of the multifaceted characteristics of learning engagement in MOOCs and highlight the importance of disciplinary distinctions, providing a foundation for educators and designers to optimize learners' MOOC effects and tailor learning experiences in diverse disciplinary contexts. • Using automated configurational approach for analyzing learning engagement. • Building multiple configurations of learning engagement to identify achievement. • Revealing differences in configurations of learning engagement between disciplines. • Replying behavior, positive emotion and higher-order cognition linked to higher achievement. • Revealing behavioral differences between pure and applied subject learners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main drive for this study is to look into potential predictors of educational achievement using OECD's original Pisa 2018 dataset. This paper explores (i) access to ICT, (ii) physical characteristics of learning environment at school, (iii) quality of teaching staff and educational material, (iv) student characteristics and learning climate, and (v) political and economic structure of the country as potential true predictors of academic achievement. Our sample covers 41 countries and data used in our analysis are collected from 282,461 students distributed in 9,317 schools worldwide. Multiple linear regressions are developed and analyzed using stepwise estimation techniques. The results indicate that (i) availability of internet connection and enjoyable pastime activity at home have positive impacts on student's success, (ii) a strong correlation exists between high test scores and student characteristics & learning climate, i.e. students' sense of belonging at school, students' fear of failure and disciplinary climate, (iii) there is a negative relationship between academic performance and teacher enthusiasm & support, (iv) student success is negatively correlated with income level and political and economic freedoms but positively associated with economic competitiveness of a country, and (v) the students in lightly populated classes are more successful than those in overloaded ones and inadequate or poor educational material deteriorates educational outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Augmented reality (AR)-based learning environments are argued to foster cognitive and emotional involvement. Immersion has been identified as one of the driving forces that promote learning in technology-based learning environments. This study evaluated the learning effectiveness and immersion appeal of an AR-marker-based learning activity targeted at practicing basic chemistry concepts. Data were collected from a cohort of 124 middle school students in Mexico and analyzed using pretest–posttest comparisons and cluster analysis. The results suggest that students with higher immersive learning profiles achieve better learning outcomes compared with those with lower immersive profiles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to integrate video games into classrooms not as a replacement for regular lessons but as supplementary materials under the teacher's supervision. To this extent, the researcher created an educational English learning video game specifically modeled on the students' real lives. Ninety-six middle school students, 48 in the control group and 48 in the experimental group, participated in the study. While follow-up activities were used in the control group and the regular classroom teaching, students in the experimental group played the educational game under the teacher's supervision with no follow-up activities. Pre, post, and retention achievement tests were applied to the students. Semi-structured interviews were also conducted with 18 students from the experimental group. The results showed that the experimental group's vocabulary learning and retention were significantly higher than the control group. Also, the views of the students on English lessons and games based on their lives were promising. By considering the achievement test and students' views on the game developed, it can be said that the game in the study includes educational features as well as the basic features of the games. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brain–computer interface (BCI) technology has the potential to positively contribute to the educational learning environment, which faces many challenges and shortcomings. Cognitive and affective BCIs can offer a deep understanding of brain mechanisms, which may improve learning strategies and increase brain-based skills. They can offer a better empirical foundation for teaching–learning methodologies, including adjusting learning content based on brain workload, measuring student interest of a topic, or even helping students focus on specific tasks. The latest findings from emerging BCI technology, neuroscience, cognitive sciences, and psychology could be used in learning and teaching strategies to improve student abilities in education. This study investigates and analyzes the research on BCI patterns and its implementation for enhancing cognitive capabilities of students. The results showed that there is insufficient literature on BCI that addresses students with disabilities in the learning process. Further, our analysis revealed a bias toward the significance of cognitive process factors compared with other influential factors, such as the learning environment and emotions that influence learning. Finally, we concluded that BCI technology could improve students’ learning and cognitive skills—when consistently associated with the different pedagogical teaching–learning strategies—for better academic achievement.

The recent pandemic brought on considerable changes in terms of learning activities, which were moved from in-person classroom-based lessons to virtual work performed at home in most world regions. One of the most considerable challenges faced by educators was keeping students motivated toward learning activities. Interactive learning environments in general, and augmented reality (AR)-based learning environments in particular, are thought to foster emotional and cognitive engagement when used in the classroom. This study aims to compare the motivation and learning outcomes of middle school students in two educational settings: in the classroom and at home. The study involved 55 middle school students using the AR application to practice basic chemistry concepts. The results suggested that students’ general motivation towards the activity was similar in both settings. However, students who worked at home reported better satisfaction and attention levels compared with those who worked in the classroom. Additionally, students who worked at home made fewer mistakes and achieved better grades compared with those who worked in the classroom. Overall, the study suggests that AR can be exploited as an effective learning environment for learning the basic principles of chemistry in home settings.

Educators seek to develop accurate and timely prediction models to forecast student retention and attrition. Although prior studies have generated single point estimates to quantify predictive efficacy, much less education research has examined variability in student performance predictions using nonparametric bootstrap algorithms in data pipelines. In this study, bootstrapping was applied to examine performance variability among five data mining methods (DMMs) and four filter preprocessing feature selection techniques for forecasting course grades for 3225 students enrolled in an undergraduate biology class. While the median area under the curve (AUC) values obtained from bootstrapping were significantly lower than the AUC point estimates obtained without resampling, DMMs and feature selection techniques impacted variability in different ways. The ensemble technique elastic net regression (GLMNET) significantly outperformed all other DMMs and exhibited the least amount of variability in the AUC. However, all filter feature selection techniques significantly increased variability in student success predictions, compared to when this step was omitted from the data pipeline. We discuss the potential benefits and drawbacks of incorporating bootstrapping into prediction pipelines to track, monitor, and forecast classroom performance, as well as highlight the risks of only examining point estimates.

This study explores the pedagogical use of adaptive learning to foster learner-content interaction, and its subsequent impact on student performance in a large first year Macroeconomics course in an Irish University. To increase student-content interaction, an adaptive learning tool (LearnSmart) is employed to create five weekly adaptive reading assignments, over a six-week period. We include two separate indicators of learner-content interaction (the amount of time spent and number of completed adaptive assignments) in our analysis. Results indicate that student performance is enhanced by the number of completed adaptive assignments, which captures learner-content interaction and adaptive learning. However, the amount of time spent studying was negatively associated with performance. This surprising result comes as a novel contribution, which extends our knowledge of how adaptive learning technology can be potentially used to drive learner-content interaction and student performance. Pedagogically, our findings suggest the need for more intentional design and personalisation of learning activities to enhance student-content interaction and subsequent performance. • Adaptive learning enhances learner-content interaction and performance. • The number of completed adaptive assignments increases student performance. • The amount of time spent studying is negatively associated with performance. • A certain time investment is required to realise benefits from adaptive learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous computer-based collaborative learning environments have been developed to support collaborative problem-solving. Yet, understanding the complexity and dynamic nature of the collaboration process remains a challenge. This is particularly true in open-ended immersive learning environments, where students navigate both physical and virtual spaces, pursuing diverse paths to solve problems. In response, we aimed to unpack these complex collaborative learning processes by investigating 16 groups of college students (n = 77) who utilized an immersive astronomy simulation in their introductory astronomy course. Our specific focus is on joint attention as a multi-level indicator to index collaboration. To examine the interplay between joint attention and other multimodal traces (conceptual discussions and gestures) in students' interactions with peers and the simulation, we employed a multi-granular approach. This approach encompasses macro-level correlations, meso-level network trends, and micro-level qualitative insights from vignettes to capture nuances at different levels. Distinct multimodal engagement patterns emerged between low- and high-achieving groups, evolving over time across a series of tasks. Our findings contribute to the understanding of the notion of timely joint attention and emphasize the importance of individual exploration during the early stages of collaborative problem-solving, demonstrating its contribution to productive knowledge co-construction. This research overall provides valuable insights into the complexities of collaboration dynamics within and beyond digital space. The empirical evidence we present in our study lays a strong foundation for developing instructional designs aimed at fostering productive collaboration in immersive learning environments. • Capturing joint attention dynamics through multimodal engagement using ONA. • Attention coordination behavior differences between students with varying performance. • Role of timely joint attention engagement during critical moments in CPS processes. • Analyzing data at various temporal granularities for unique insights. • Highlighting the interpretative loop for a deeper comprehension of joint attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While benefits of using computer simulations in teaching and learning are well documented, actual classroom usage remains sporadic. It is acknowledged in the literature that greater embrace of general computer use can be developed when teachers hold positive attitudes towards it. However, to date, studies that investigate teacher attitudes specifically on computer simulations are limited. In this study, the researchers interviewed 14 secondary school science teachers in Singapore, to qualitatively unpack the nuances of the affective, behavioral and cognitive dimensions of teacher attitudes towards computer simulation. Through inductive thematic analysis, the study found the cognitive dimension is the most pronounced and is mediated by perceived usefulness and usability of the tool, student engagement and suitability and teacher professional needs. The authors suggest four ways to foster positive teacher attitudes: (a) overcoming logistical issues with flexible teaching and learning environments, (b) foregrounding the pedagogy of student-centeredness, (c) demanding user-friendly simulation tools, and (d) meeting teachers' needs for professional growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Augmented reality (AR) has evolved hand in hand with advances in technology, and today is considered as an emerging technique in its own right. The aim of our study was to analyze students' perceptions of how useful AR is in the school environment. A non-experimental quantitative design was used in the form of a questionnaire in which 106 primary sixth-grade students from six schools in the Region of Murcia (Spain) participated. During the study, a teaching proposal using AR related to the content of some curricular areas was put forward in the framework of the 3P learning model. The participants' perceptions of this technique were analyzed according to each variable, both overall and by gender, via a questionnaire of our own making, which had previously been validated by AR experts, analyzing its psychometric qualities. The initial results indicate that this technique is, according to the students, useful for teaching the curriculum. The conclusion is that AR can increase students' motivation and enthusiasm while enhancing teaching and learning at the same time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Training and examining healthcare practitioners' nursing skills by situating them in a contextualized environment to interact with trained simulated patients and making required decisions based on the collected information is a widely adopted approach in nursing training. In a nursing skills course, the flipped learning method shifts the lecture time to the before-class time, allowing more time for teachers' guidance and skills practice in the class. However, if students do not have in-depth understanding in the individual learning space, their learning achievement is often not as expected. In this study, an ASQ (Annotation, Summarizing and Questioning)-based flipped learning strategy for nursing skills training is proposed to engage nurse practitioners (NPs) in deep and effective learning. Moreover, an experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of the proposed approach on learners' learning achievement, nursing skills, self-efficacy, cognitive load, and critical thinking tendency. The experimental results showed that the approach not only improved NPs' nursing skills, but also significantly increased their self-efficacy and critical thinking tendency. • An ASQ-based flipped learning approach was proposed. • The approach helps students effectively identify key concepts before the class. • An experiment was conducted in a clinical nursing skills training course. • The approach improved the learners' nursing skills performance. • The approach improved the learners' self-efficacy and critical thinking tendency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present meta-analysis tested the effects of media literacy interventions on deviant behaviors, such as alcohol, smoking, body dissatisfaction, and eating disorders. A thorough literature search yielded a sample of 23 studies with 71 effect sizes. Results indicated that media literacy interventions showed a moderate effect size on reducing deviant behaviors. At posttest, Cohen's d = −0.32, 95% CI = [-0.43, −0.21]; at follow-up test, d = −0.23, 95% CI = [-0.31, −0.16]. There was no difference between the posttest and follow-up test. The present meta-analysis illustrates that media literacy interventions decrease deviant behaviors, and media literacy education is necessary for the positive development of children and adolescents. • Media literacy interventions reduces adolescent deviant behavior. • The effect sizes of media literacy interventions are moderate. • Media literacy intervention effects could maintain for a long time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To situate students in authentic English learning and practicing contexts so as to facilitate their writing performance, in this study, a mind mapping-based contextual gaming approach was proposed. A quasi-experiment was implemented by recruiting two English tourism classes of students from a university of science and technology in northern Taiwan. One class was scheduled to learn with the proposed approach, and the other was arranged to learn with the conventional contextual gaming approach. The students' writing performance, learning perceptions and generative uses were measured to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed approach. It was found that, compared to the control group students; the experimental group students who learned with the proposed learning approach had better writing performance in the aspects of fluency and elaboration with a small effect size. Additionally, it was found that most students considered the game to be beneficial and interesting, and they were in favor of the mind mapping strategy. Moreover, it was also found that the proposed learning approach is more likely to help students produce positive thoughts and feelings, generate diverse ideas, create a sense of exoticism and express actions or intent of actions. Finally, the limitations of the study and some suggestions for improvement of this proposed gaming learning environment and approaches are provided. • A mind mapping-based contextual gaming approach was proposed. • An experiment was conducted to evaluate the performance of the proposed approach. • The approach has been applied to an English tourism course. • The approach improved the students' writing performance and language use. • Some suggestions for improvement of this proposed approach are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Understanding the emotional aspects of pedagogical approaches for primary-aged school children engaged in synchronous audio-led one-to-one online tuition is the focus of this qualitative research study. Data are drawn from the process evaluation element of a large randomized control trial of a 27-week, affordable online mathematics tuition intervention that involved 600 pupils spread across 64 schools in England. Focus groups and interviews conducted with pupils and school staff were used to investigate the pupils' emotional experiences of the mathematics intervention, with reference to the pupil–tutor relationship and the online environment. Our findings suggest that audio-led synchronous one-to-one online tuition provides variable and limited access to emotionally positive pupil–tutor relationships. Whilst our study largely supports the argument that synchronous technologies enhance the sense of communicating with a "real" person (social presence), we conclude that this does not necessarily have a positive effect. We found that the quality of social presence is contingent on the quality of the pupil–tutor relationship. This paper advances our understanding of social presence theory and highlights the need for program developers to facilitate, and tutors, to consider pupil-sensitive collaborative teaching approaches. Highlights • Synchronous 1-2-1 online tuition provided limited access to emotionally positive pupil–tutor relationships. • The emotional quality of the tutor–pupil relationship is interconnected with pupils' sense of their tutors as "real" people. • Social presence is dependent on the quality of the pupil–tutor interpersonal relationship. • Text-based technologies can alleviate emotional and social stress. • Pupil-sensitive collaborative teaching approaches can enhance the emotional and pedagogic experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract There are a large variety of methodologies, contexts and perspectives that have been used to evaluate the use of technology in education. The vast array of literature involving learning technology evaluation makes it challenging to acquire an accurate sense of the different aspects of learning that are evaluated, and the possible approaches that can be used to evaluate them. This study conducted a systematic review of how technology use in education has been evaluated, based on 365 papers published in Computers and Education between 2015 and 2017. The papers analyzed encompassed a diverse range of education levels, disciplines and technologies, that were broadly commensurate with characterizations of the learning technology field from other studies. The analysis found that the evaluation of learning technology use tended to focus on eight themes: learning outcomes, affective elements, behaviors, design, technology elements, pedagogy, presence, and institutional environment. In the majority of studies (66.6%) at least one established instrument was used to evaluate the effectiveness of learning technology usage, however, a wide variety of instruments were observed within sub-themes of evaluation. The 22 instruments used to evaluate an aspect of learning technology usage in more than one study are identified. Evaluation trends for different disciplines, technologies and educational levels are also established. The findings provide an analytical framework that educators and researchers can utilize when evaluating the use of technology in education, and could potentially inform the development of new, more holistic and more robust evaluation methods. Highlights • Eight foci of learning technology evaluations emerged from a systematic review. • The main foci were learning outcomes, affective elements, behaviors and design. • Of the 365 papers analyzed, 66.6% used at least one instrument from a prior study. • The 22 instruments used in multiple studies to evaluate sub-categories are reported. • The results assist learning technology evaluation and characterize the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study is conducted to implement the newly developed questionnaire to assess readiness of academics for Implementation of e-learning programs. The questionnaire was developed and its validity, and reliability was evaluated. Then a cross sectional study was conducted including 907 academics in three categories (faculties, students, and employees) of Shiraz University of Medical Sciences. Data were analyzed in SPSS-16 using descriptive and inferential statistics. The results of the implementation of the questionnaire showed a significant relationship between e-learning knowledge and participants' position in the university, as the professors and students had higher levels of this knowledge compared to the university employees (P<0.001). There was a significant relationship between e-learning knowledge and academic degree in the study subjects (P=0.004). Skills and attitude were also significantly related to the variables of position, academic degree, and place of residence and hours of internet use. Skills, knowledge and attitude were all related to computer and internet access and language used on the internet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract An experimental study was conducted with 8th grade students (N = 41), ranging from 13 to 14 years old, whereby they solved first-degree equations using a step-based intelligent tutoring system. The aim of the study is to assess the training of the metacognitive knowledge monitoring ability carried out by an animated pedagogical agent integrated into the tutoring system. Students from the experimental group received metacognitive instructions from the agent, as well as some hints and feedback, whereas those from the control group received only hint-messages and feedback. Pretest and posttest sessions were carried out in order to collect the metacognitive knowledge monitoring ability indexes, as well as the students' performance grades for first degree equations solving. The results indicated that students who received metacognitive instruction presented greater improvement on metacognitive knowledge monitoring ability indexes. The study also monitored students' performance in solving equations during experimental sessions and found that those who received metacognitive instructions completed more equations correctly. This paper also discusses the implications of the results for the theory of metacognitive knowledge monitoring ability. Highlights • An agent that trains the knowledge monitoring ability is evaluated. • The agent's training can improve students' knowledge monitoring ability. • The agent's training can improve students' learning performance. • A correlation between students' performance and metacognitive ability is found. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract In this study, we systematically reviewed the experimental mobile learning studies published in 2010–2016. Moreover, the activity theory framework was adopted to investigate the insights and trends of mobile learning. That is, the dimensions of context, tools, control, communication, subjects and objectives were employed to analyze the studies. It was found that most experimental mobile learning studies engaged students in real-world contexts, and the activities were conducted based on the existing school curriculums. This means that researchers and school teachers noted the value of situating students in meaningful learning by helping them link what they had learned from the textbooks to real-world scenarios or daily life environments. In the meantime, the studies frequently involved the students in actively using mobile systems with communication facilities to acquire knowledge via interacting with peers, events, and specified real-world learning targets in the environment. On one hand, many researchers proposed to raise students' motivation; on the other hand, they expected to observe more of what the learners, particularly novices and low-achievement students, had done when observing their past interactions. Even so, it was found that mobile devices were considered a main way of allowing students to acquire self-learning materials rather than only mediation learning across contexts. As the current studies can be considered to contain blended rather than purely self-paced learning, there is still a large space for mobile learning progress and development. Highlights • A review on experimental m-learning was done based on the activity theory framework. • The studies published in 2010–2016 were investigated to find the trends of m-learning. • The context, tool, control, communication, subject and objective aspects were analyzed. • The phenomena of the m-learning activities conducted in the studies were reported. • Possible research issues of m-learning in the future were proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exergaming enables players to engage in real-life games and sports by allowing them to move from one place to another. To investigate the effects of students' performance of sit-up exercises during an exergame, this study utilized the Fit-Fun exergame. In this game, the agent (a rabbit) is triggered to jump every time it receives a signal from the sensory detector embedded in the exercise belt. The game also enables players to compete against each other by performing sit-up exercises. This study focused on the relationship between emotions and performance in the exergame. It examined the connections between beliefs about exercise health, gameplay interest, competition anxiety, practicing attitude, and exergaming performance. Elementary school students aged 11–12 years old participated in this single-group quasi-experimental study. A total of 228 valid questionnaires were collected over a period of 6 weeks during a series of 6 practice sessions. The research hypotheses were tested using structural equation modeling. The results revealed that exercise health belief was positively correlated with gameplay interest, but negatively correlated with competition anxiety. Additionally, practicing attitude was found to have a positive association with exergaming performance. Based on these findings, it is suggested that teachers can incorporate this exergame into synchronized competitions to motivate students to maintain their exercise routine by competing with their friends. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Existing studies on MOOCs examine learners' engagement processes but have not explored links between them and motivations to enroll. In our previous work, we identified three motivation groups in a MOOC for educators: intrinsic, professional, and prosocial. In the current study, we used process mining to compare the course engagement patterns of these three groups. We found that throughout the course, the intrinsic group was the most engaged, but the prosocial group became the most engaged by the end of the course. We also identified rarely visited pages and page sequences that do not follow the intended course structure. Our findings enhance existing research on motivation and engagement in MOOCs by showing how motivation relates to fine-grained engagement metrics. They suggest that MOOC developers may want to consider why some groups are less engaged and why some pages appear less engaging and change the course structure accordingly. • We explored the engagement patterns of learners in a massive open online course • Learners with intrinsic, professional, and prosocial motivations were compared • Intrinsic motivation was associated with higher engagement overall • Prosocial learners were more engaged at the end of the course • We identified sequences of page visits that do not follow the intended structure [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In today's digital age, incorporating technology in teaching has become increasingly important. To prepare future teachers, understanding the factors that influence the development of teachers' corresponding knowledge base is crucial. However, not only is there a small number of studies investigating the development of pre-service teachers' professional knowledge, but these studies also predominantly rely on cross-sectional and/or self-reported data. This pre-post study investigated the factors associated with the development of digital media Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) in physics teacher education through a seminar-based approach with N = 66 pre-service teachers (PSTs). Investigated factors include PSTs' PCK about students' conceptions (PCK-SC), general motivation to use digital media, interest in digital media, and previous experience with digital media. The findings suggest that a strong foundation in various aspects of PCK is essential for the development of digital media PCK, as PSTs' PCK-SC has proven to be a positive predictor for the development of PTSs' digital media PCK. Surprisingly, the study found that higher motivation to use digital media negatively affects the development of digital media PCK, suggesting that excessive motivation may hinder the acquisition of digital media PCK. Additionally, the study found that PSTs' interest in digital media positively influenced the development of digital media PCK, while previous experience with digital media had a negative impact on its development. The study suggests that future research should focus on investigating the general professional knowledge of PSTs and identifying the proficiency levels of PCK needed for the development of digital media PCK. It also emphasizes the importance of considering both, cognitive and affective aspects of teacher preparation, as seminars that solely focus on motivation may not be adequate in fostering effective technology integration. The study recommends that seminars on digital media integration should be situated at later stages of teacher education or after introductory courses that cover other facets of PCK. Furthermore, integrated seminars addressing multiple facets of PCK alongside digital media PCK could be explored in future research. Overall, this study provides insights into the factors influencing PSTs' development of digital media PCK and suggests avenues for further research to improve the integration of digital media in teaching practices for enhanced student learning outcomes. • Pre-post study investigating the development of digital media PCK in seminars. • Digital media PCK was measured using an established, validated test. • Analysis was conducted in a Bayesian framework using Bayesian multiple regression. • PCK about student's conceptions and interest positively predicted digital media PCK. • Motivation to use digital media and previous experience with digital media negatively predicted digital media PCK. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]