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Many online platforms are designed to facilitate transactions between buyers and sellers of goods and providers and recipients of services. To that end, platforms establish and enforce their own rules, policies, and mechanisms. However, how they (can) go about that is regulated by law. In this Chapter, we assess the scope for establishing and enforcing platform rules through the means of private law in the Netherlands. Under Dutch private law, the enforcement by platforms of their rules can simply be accomplished with ordinary means of contract law, combined with the de facto power mechanisms at the disposal of platforms (eg control over payments, management of review and reputational instruments, exclusion from participation/membership, termination of contract). However, these means are subject to review by courts whenever platform participants, via either individual or collective actions, contest the actions of the platform. In this Chapter, we describe and critically assess the current state of Dutch law by (i) providing an overview of the relevant legal framework in the area of private law; and (ii) reviewing the case law concerning the private law regulation of online platform contracts, rules, and activities. Accordingly, we will discuss how online platform regulation is affected by the default or mandatory rules applicable to specific contracts (eg agency, brokerage, and services more generally), general terms and conditions, unfair commercial practices, precontractual information duties, and e-commerce. We will not be concerned with case law in the domains of administrative law, competition law, criminal law, labor law or tax law. The resulting assessment charts the scope for online platforms to set their own rules and policies for transactions regarding goods and services in the Netherlands.

Contract law offers protection to those who are defined within the legal system as weaker parties, such as employees, tenants, and consumers. In that context, weaker parties are routinely and tacitly assumed to be acting in an economically rational manner, an assumption that affects when and how they are offered protection. But insights from behavioral science reveal that people – and thus weaker parties too – have limited cognitive capacities and by no means always make economically rational decisions. The discrepancy between how weaker parties actually make decisions and how they are assumed to do so leads to deficiencies in their current protection. Although nudging could potentially be applied to better protect weaker parties without restricting their freedom of contract, no systematic research yet exists on how to do that and what the limits are to how that may be done. This doctoral thesis therefore answers the question as to how nudging can contribute to the protection of weaker parties in Dutch contract law. The first part – the legal framework – addresses why, when and how weaker parties are protected, and the deficiencies of their current protection. The second part – the theoretical framework – analyses the potential and limits of using nudging to protect weaker parties. The third part – the case studies – applies the theoretical framework to three issues concerning the protection of weaker parties, illustrating the operation of the theoretical framework and making specific recommendations for applying nudging to protect weaker parties. Nudges that help people make their own decision can contribute to more and better protection in case various specific types of lack of cognitive capacity or lack of ability to resist occur and, indirectly, sometimes also to more and better protection in case a lack of information occurs. Steering nudges can contribute to more and better protection in case of a lack of cognitive capacity, a lack of ability to resist, or a l

The purpose of the work is to analyze the international legal experience of digitization of monetary payments in the field of public-private partnerships, as well as to highlight key features and positive trends in this matter. The object of the study is the international legal experience of digitization of monetary settlements in the field of public-private partnerships. The research methodology consists of the following research methods: theoretical generalization, scientific abstraction, systemanalysis, comparative analysis, historical method, and a group of logical methods. With the help of the conducted research, the peculiarities of digitization of monetary settlements in the field of public-private partnerships in different countries were analyzed. In particular, it was determined that the process of digitization of monetary payments in the sphere of public-private partnership differs in different countries., Teniendo en cuenta que cada vez se digitalizan más esferas de la vida pública, es necesario analizar la digitalización de los pagos monetarios en el ámbito de la colaboración público-privada, teniendo en cuenta la experiencia jurídica internacional. El objetivo del trabajo es analizar la experiencia jurídica internacional de digitalización de pagos monetarios en el ámbito de las asociaciones público- privadas, así como destacar las principales características y tendencias positivas en esta materia. El objeto de estudio es la experiencia jurídica internacional de digitalización de liquidaciones monetarias en el ámbito de las colaboraciones público-privadas. La metodología de investigación consta de los siguientes métodos de investigación: generalización teórica, abstracción científica, análisis de sistemas, análisis comparativo, método histórico y un grupo de métodos lógicos. Con la ayuda de la investigación realizada, se analizaron las peculiaridades de la digitalización de liquidaciones monetarias en el ámbito de las asociaciones público-privadas en diferentes países. En particular, se determinó que el proceso de digitalización de los pagos monetarios en el ámbito de la asociación público-privada difiere en los distintos países.

The thesis explores the possibility in Swedish law for an injured party to claim damages under two different sets of rules, namely contract law and tort law, with emphasis on possible alternative routes to compensatory damages. Liability for damages can be based on contractual liability rules or non-contractual liability rules (tort law). The interaction between contract and tort liability is one of the ‘classics’ of private law. Tort liability in contractual relationships gives rise to questions related to some of the core concepts in private law. It also gives rise to certain practical problems, since the outcome of a case may differ depending on whether the claim for damages is based on a breach of contract or a violation of a tortious duty. In this thesis, the question of alternative routes to compensation, i.e. alternative claims, is investigated with regard to sale of goods, transportation and construction contracts, negligence and strict liability, product liability, pure economic loss and negligent misrepresentation. In a chain of contracts, i.e. when parties are linked through contracts without being party to the same contract, a direct claim in tort may by extension lead to an impact of tort law on contract law. The consequence is a possible confusion of the two areas (‘contort’ law). In an international context, this interaction is especially challenging. Our globalized and decentralized market creates complex patterns of liability. Thus, the potentially alternative claims in contract and tort law become a more visible and important question. The thesis provides an outline of different approaches to overlapping and parallel rules of liability in Swedish law. In the thesis, comparisons are also made against other legal systems.

The writing deals with the problem of the current inflation’s level in megaprojects, in order to avoid that it leads to their failure. Firstly, the paper focuses its attention on the megaprojects’ contracts concluded when the purchasing power has been low and stable for a long time. In relation to these cases, the present devaluation of money is an extraordinary and unpredictable event, at least because it is due mainly to the war between Russia and Ukraine, and partly to the long Covid19 economics effects too. As a result, both under many European contract laws and international models it can be addressed in terms that involving, directly or indirectly, the client in a renegotiation, whose goal is to rebalance the megaprojects contract’s performances considering the new reality. Secondly, the author tries to identify best practices in relation to contracts that has been concluded when the inflation was already at current level, or it was predictable that it would have been such a strong rise. In these situations a good solution would be the so-called stabilization clauses, as foreseen by a recent Italian statute in the field of public procurement, and for megaprojects contracts by NEC and Fidic models.

Blockchains and smart contracts are novel concepts that provide unique challenges to legal systems. This research outlines the extent to which these new and innovative technologies create potentially unhinging effects for the laws of contract in Europe. It does so by taking three steps. First of all, in light of the transboundary nature of the technology, this research looks at French law, German law, English law, and Dutch law to analyse the impact on the different systems of contract law. Whilste doing so it looks at formation of contracts, interpretation of contracts, and vitiation of contracts. Secondly, it analyses the impact of the technology on the European rules on unfair terms in consumer contracts. This research argues that the existing rules on unfair terms in consumer contracts should be applied to smart legal agreements in business-to-consumer relations. Lastly it analyses the existing European private international rules on the basis of which jurisdiction and applicable law is determined. In this respect the research concludes that the vast majority of these European rules are ‘smart contract’-proof.

Wat zou het antwoord van het Nederlandse overeenkomstenrecht op plotselinge schaarste moeten zijn? In deze bijdrage staat de verhouding tussen schaarste, contractuele gebondenheid en publieke belangen centraal. Een markt, als verdelingsmechanisme van schaarse middelen en arbeid onder eindverantwoordelijkheid van de overheid, kan zelf als publiek belang worden beschouwd. Juist vanwege het denken in markten, kan het Nederlandse overeenkomstenrecht uitstekend worden uitgelegd in rechtseconomische termen. Vanuit rechtseconomisch perspectief is contractuele gebondenheid cruciaal voor een goed functionerende markt, ook bij plotselinge schaarste. Door een rechtseconomische analyse van het leerstuk van de onvoorziene omstandigheden, wordt de afgelopen coronarechtspraak geplaatst in het kader van een ideale markt en bovendien aangegeven waar rechtseconomische concepten dat leerstuk kunnen verhelderen.

The present work addresses a very specific and at the same time classic subject within civil law institutions such as donation, it appears that our system classifies it among con-tracts, despite the fact that the Spanish Civil Code systematically places it among the ways of acquiring property, just before dealing with matters relating to inheritance due to death or inheritance. In addition to the analysis of the legal nature of the pure and simple donation, as well as its configuration, up to a dozen modalities or special types of dona-tions are also studied, drawing the profiles of the legal nature and the effects that derive from each one such specific type. In addition to following all of the above, glossing the legal precepts, the study is accompanied by extensive jurisprudence, together with the most qualified doctrine on donations to end with a useful bibliographical review of a spe-cific nature., El presente trabajo aborda una materia muy específica y a la vez clásica dentro de instituciones del Derecho civil como es la donación, figura que nuestro sistema la encuadra entre los contratos, pese a que el Código civil español la ubique sistemáticamente entre los modos de adquirir la propiedad, justo antes de tratar las materias relativas a las sucesiones por causa de muerte o hereditarias. Además del análisis de la naturaleza jurídica de la donación pura y simple, así como su configuración, se estudian también hasta una decena de modalidades o tipos especiales de donación, dibujando los perfiles de la naturaleza jurídica y los efectos que se derivan de cada uno de tales tipos específicos. Además de seguir todo lo anterior glosando los preceptos legales el estudio se acompaña de una nutrida jurisprudencia, junto a la doctrina más cualificada en materia de donaciones para terminar con una útil reseña bibliográfica de carácter específico

This blog examines the ever-growing catalogue of restrictions on who can participate in the EU public procurement market and, consequently, with whom the public buyer (the contracting authority) cannot contract. We start by showcasing how freedom of contracting – one of the fundamental principles of contract law – is limited in the context of public procurement (section 1). Next, we look outside of EU Public Procurement Directives to sources of additional restrictions. These represent a clear reaction to contemporary challenges and include Sanctions Against Russia (section 2), Foreign Subsidies Regulation and International Procurement Instrument (section 3), Deforestation-Free Products Regulation and the Proposal for an Anti-Greenwashing Directive (section 4). Finally, we provide some conclusions.

An analysis of the role of private autonomy in megaprojects contracts to face government restrictions due to Covid-19, or to other future pandemics, will be presented. The starting point will be the solutions that can be achieved following the rules contained both in the most used international contractual models (FIDIC and NEC) and in contract law, relating to deals concluded before and after February 2020. Then, the essay will try to identify models by which – since a pandemic is no longer an unforeseeable event – it is in advance established by the parties what would happen in case that Covid-19 restrictions were restored or a similar situation arose again, in whole or in part. In particular, the aim of the investigation is to find solutions that do not allocate the entire pandemic risk to the contractor or the client, as general or specific contract rules already do imposing a compensation. On the contrary, the purpose is to go over the “all or nothing” rule and attempting to allocate the pandemic risk in such a manner that megaprojects, if it is still possible, can successfully proceed.

Much attention has been directed towards digitization's potential effect on both transaction costs and organizational designs over the past few years. In particular, digitalization is argued to dramatically lower transaction costs, not only within organizations but also across multiple entities. Blockchain technology firmly positioned itself within mainstream awareness as the groundbreaking emerging technology. The emerging blockchain technology holds the promise of removing the requirement for trustworthy entities (central intermediaries) to secure transactions through digital systems. This paper explores the positions of this technology in cost management through the prism of the institutional transaction costs economy approach We argue that technology based on blockchain has significant promise to help to reduce both economic and social cost impact on the transaction. We employ the setting for developing better insight into different industries & corporate functions in which information asymmetries between the buyer and real estate promoter as well as the associated transaction costs involved in the property transfer are large and frequently intractable. We outline the ways in which blockchain technologies embedded in a decentralized transaction-based system can help overcome these issues in the area of asset management. Our results suggest that information sharing regarding assets performance moderates both the effects of contractors-side adverse choice as well as decrease the vertical moral hazard of assets through generating a disciplinary incentive. Additionally, in this work, we find evidence of an incentive for assets to exhibit opportunistic behavior when value-added Information of the asset nature are available.     JEL Classification: D00 Paper type: Theoretical Research, Au cours des dernières années, une grande attention a été portée à l'effet potentiel de la digitalisation tant sur les coûts de transaction que sur les conceptions organisationnelles. En particulier, la numérisation est censée réduire considérablement les coûts de transaction, non seulement au sein des organisations, mais aussi entre plusieurs entités. La technologie blockchain s'est fermement positionnée dans la conscience du grand public comme une technologie émergente révolutionnaire. Cette technologie émergente promet de supprimer l'exigence d'entités de confiance (intermédiaires de confiance) pour sécuriser les transactions par le biais de systèmes numériques. Ce papier explore les positions de cette technologie dans la gestion des coûts à travers le prisme de l'approche de l'économie des coûts de transaction institutionnels. Nous soutenons que la technologie basée sur la blockchain est très prometteuse pour contribuer à réduire l'impact des coûts économiques et sociaux dans la transaction. Nous employons les paramètres pour développer une meilleure compréhension de différentes industries et fonctions d'entreprise dans lesquelles les asymétries d'information entre l'acheteur et le vendeur de biens immobiliers ainsi que les coûts de transaction associés impliqués dans le transfert de propriété sont importants et souvent insolubles. Nous exposons les moyens par lesquels les technologies blockchain intégrées dans un système décentralisé basé sur les transactions peuvent aider à surmonter ces problèmes dans le domaine de la gestion des actifs. Nos résultats suggèrent que le partage d'informations concernant la performance des actifs modère à la fois l'effet du choix défavorable du côté des entrepreneurs et diminue l'aléa moral vertical des actifs en générant une incitation disciplinaire. De plus, dans ce travail, nous trouvons des preuves d'une incitation pour les actifs à avoir un comportement opportuniste lorsque des informations à valeur ajoutée sur la nature de

This dissertation explores design liability in the UAE construction industry. First and foremost, design liability in the UAE is a matter of contract between the parties to a construction contract, however, the terms and conditions if the contract are also subject to the laws of the UAE. In addition to discussing the current outlook for the UAE construction industry, this dissertation will examine the principles governing the formation and performance of a construction contract and the level of design liability that the parties normally assume. This will be examined in accordance with the laws of the UAE governing contracts. Not only do parties execute construction contracts in accordance with contract law, but the parties are also subject to laws governing delict and the provisions of delict will be examined with respect to the parties’ design liabilities and the risks and remedies that whilst not always provided for under a contract are important considerations. An important facet of the law which is commonly overlooked in contracts in the UAE concerning design liability is decennial liability and this will be examined in detail and the risks, liabilities, and remedies available under the provisions of the law will be discussed. The model form of contract most widely used in the UAE will be reviewed in relation to contract law, liability for delict and decennial liability. The model form of contract will be discussed to determine if the provisions of the law are well considered and if any inconsistencies can be identified.

The thesis seeks to investigate whether there is a general duty to give notice in the event of a breach of contract in situations not covered by a statutory regulation. A particular purpose is to clarify the inner nature of the legal institute of notification when it comes to contracts on complex intangible services, such as legal advice and investigation services. A legal dogmatic method is applied. Supported by case law from the Supreme Court as well as by doctrine, the conclusion is that there is indeed a general duty to give notice in the event of a breach of contract in Swedish law. At the same time, the author identifies certain ambiguities in the scope of this duty. A recent case seems to indicate that the general duty to give notice is limited to breach of contract in the strict sense. Another ambiguity is whether preclusion is the exclusive legal consequence of a failure to notify, or whether less intrusive consequences may follow. For complex intangible services, the investigation indicates that the duty to give notice starts even before actual knowledge of the breach of contract, which is surprising since there is no obligation to investigate the performance of such services in Swedish law. The length of the notification period is estimated to be around six months for advanced complex intangible services, such as legal advice, and about a month or two shorter for somewhat less advanced services, such as investigation of real estate. This is to be seen as the main rule, but a balanced assessment of the circumstances in casu must be made to determine the length of the notification period in the individual case. Finally, a proposal for a clarified and modified legal regulation is presented de lege ferenda, which emphasizes that the duty to give notice applies to all forms of breach of contract and that, as a default rule, preclusion is the legal consequence in case of a failure to notify. A less intrusive alternative rule is suggested for situations where th, Uppsatsen syftar till att utreda rättsläget i frågan om en allmän reklamationsplikt vid avtalsbrott i situationer som inte omfattas av någon lagreglering. Ett särskilt syfte är att klargöra reklamationsplikten närmare beskaffenhet när det handlar om avtal om komplexa immateriella tjänster, såsom rådgivnings- och undersökningstjänster. En rättsdogmatisk metod tillämpas. Utredningen kommer fram till att det finns en allmän reklamationsplikt vid avtalsbrott i svensk rätt. Slutsatsen stöds av rättspraxis från Högsta domstolen liksom av doktrin. Samtidigt identifierar författaren vissa oklarheter i den allmänna reklamationspliktens omfattning. Ett färskt rättsfall kan uppfattas som att den allmänna reklamationsplikten är begränsad till avtalsbrott i strikt mening. En annan oklarhet är om rättsföljden vid försummad reklamation alltid är preklusion, eller om mindre ingripande konsekvenser kan bli aktuella. Författaren gör bedömningen att det rättsliga stödet är svagt för någon annan rättsföljd än preklusion. Utredningen visar att reklamationsplikten vid komplexa immateriella tjänster startar redan före faktisk vetskap om avtalsbrottet, vilket är överraskande eftersom undersökningsplikt saknas. Reklamationstidens längd bedöms vara omkring sex månader vid komplexa immateriella tjänster av det mera avancerade slaget, såsom juridisk rådgivning, och någon månad kortare vid något mindre avancerade tjänster, såsom undersökning av fastigheter. Detta gäller i princip oavsett partsförhållandena och är att ses som huvudregler. En sammanvägd bedömning av omständigheterna ska göras för att bestämma reklamationsfristens längd i det enskilda fallet. Avslutningsvis presenteras, de lege ferenda, ett förslag på en förtydligad och modifierad rättslig reglering, där det understryks att reklamationsplikten gäller vid alla former av avtalsbrott och att preklusion är rättsföljden vid reklamationsförsummelse enligt huvudregeln. Detta kompenseras med en mindre ingripande alternativregel som kan ti

The main objective of this thesis is to explore and describe the possibilities for legal operationalization of CSR in contract law, sales law and consumer sales law, marketing law and company law. A supplementary aim is to identify regulation on and illustrate the regulatory context of CSR. The illustration provides a background and a framework for the main objective of the study, as well as confirms the legal relevance of CSR. Legal operationalization of CSR requires that CSR is anchored in law and that there are mechanisms for enforcement available. In contract law, CSR is legally anchored when a CSR condition follows from a contract. In a Swedish sales law context, legal anchoring takes place when a buyer’s expectation regarding CSR is not met and this is considered a defect, fel. From a marketing law point of view, the possibilities to consider a CSR statement an unfair commercial practice are relevant. In a company law context, CSR is legally anchored when included in the articles of association, in an instruction from the general meeting or the board, in the board’s internal guidelines or in the remuneration guidelines of the company. In all, contract parties, shareholders and the board are “strong” legal subjects, in that they are able to proactively formulate and anchor CSR norms in law. In company law, the understanding of the company’s interest and purpose, as well as the business case for CSR and the understanding of profit create borders within which the company law operationalization of CSR functions. Sales law and marketing law offer retroactive tools to market actors. The possibilities to anchor CSR in marketing law are vast, whereas the applicability of the sales law rules to a large extent is dependent on the connection between the (failed) CSR expectation and the sold goods. The remedies in the explored areas of law typically do not protect the CSR interest in question directly.

The basis of any contract is the agreement of two or more parties. In traditional Swedish and English contract law theory, a contract is formed through the reciprocal exchange of an offer and a corresponding acceptance. Together, these declarations of will represent the common intent of the parties, which binds them to their respective contractual obligations and determines the contents of the contract. In the contemporary commercial sector, the use of standard forms (i.e., sets of terms that have not been individually negotiated) has become more prevalent. This has led to the rise of a particular legal issue, called the “battle of forms”: a situation where both parties refer to their own, conflicting, standard forms during the formation of contract, where after they proceed in fulfilling their contractual obligations. Consequently, the exchanged declarations of will lack conformity in these cases, and there is no discernible common will of the parties. In order to conclude that a contract has been formed, and to decide its contents, this conflict needs to be resolved. The traditional approach to resolving the issue of battle of forms in English law is to regard the last referenced standard terms in the contractual negotiations as an offer (or counter-offer), and the other party’s conduct as an acceptance. This approach largely corresponds with how the issue likely would be resolved according to traditional Swedish contract law principles. However, in the legal scientific environments of both Sweden and England, ideas and concepts of a modern contract law has developed. Included therein is the idea of taking a more flexible stance with regard to the formation of contract. When viewing the contractual relationship holistically, and partly liberated from the offer-acceptance approach, the battle of forms can be resolved by letting the court construe the different sets of terms together, and re-place conflicting terms with suitable substitutes by implication. These mod

The Swedish doctrine of assumptions (förutsättningsläran) entitles one party to avoid the contract and get relief from consequential liabilities. The contract will be void and the considerations will be returned as if the contract has never existed. Today the doctrine of assumptions is particularly interesting to investigate in the context of recent global events of Covid-19. The outbreak of Covid-19 in January 2020 and pronouncement of Covid-19 being a pandemic by the World Health Organisation in March 2020 have affected nearly every organisation in the world. The range of Covid-19 pandemic and the governmental measures as a result of it are unprecedented in the modern history and have apparently brought fundamental changes in the global economy. As a result, many countries had to introduce lock-downs of the societies with various levela of restrictions which placed many countries’ economies on hold. Many factories were closed, and supply chain disrupted as just few consequences. Covid-19 has brought about the devasting affects not only on global economy, but also on contractual relationships. Many companies have, however, relied upon the force majeure clauses which is a local measure agreed between the parties in the contract. This thesis is analysing the doctrine of assumptions from the perspective of a state measure in Sweden. The purpose of this analysis is to contribute to the discussions on the doctrine’s meaning and relevance in the modern contract relationships and to suggest enshrining it into law. The doctrine of assumptions has its roots from the roman times but has been developed predominantly during 19th and 20thcenturies. It has been discussed vividly in the scientific circles in terms of its applicability, context and pre-requisites resulting in developing its subjective, objective and mixed branches. In Swedish courts the doctrine was applied already in 1930ties giving rise to its objective variant. Even though there have been differences in opin, Pacta sunt servanda eller att avtalet skall hållas är en av de grundläggande avtalsrättsliga principer som binder avtalsparter till att utföra prestationer de utlovat. Principen understödjer stabilitet i avtalsförhållandet trots att förutsättningarna till sådant förhållande ändras med tiden. Parterna står även för risken att vissa omständigheter kan förändras under avtalstiden, t.ex. kostnader som stiger utan att ge rätt till kompensation. Det är dock inte alla utomstående faktorer som parterna bör eller kan absorbera inom sin risktagandeförpliktelse. I motsats till avtalsbundenhetsprincipen ligger en annan avtalsrättslig princip i botten, dvs ekvivalensprincipen. Ekvivalensprincipen innebär att avtalsförpliktelser ska medföra likvärda utbyten av prestationer. Detta är relevant för riskfördelningen ifall oförutsedda omständigheter inträffar.[1] Covid-pandemin är ett av de senaste exemplen av oförutesedda omständigheter vilket påverkat samhället och den globala ekonomin oerhört mycket. Pandemin har fått breda konsekvenser för både individer och företag i världen. De ekonomiska konsekvenserna till följd av pandemin i världen blir påtagliga. De globala branscher som påverkas markant är exempelvis turistindustrin, transportindustrin och tillverkningen av elektriska komponenter och råvaror och livsmedelsindustrin. Medan turistindustrin återhämtar sig under nästkommande år, kommer en ökning av priser i den globala transportindustrin eller av elektriska komponenter att slå hårt mot de långvariga kommersiella avtalen. Det kan i sin tur leda till att en gång lukrativa avtal förvandlas till en total förlust, och det kan även driva ett påverkat företag till konkurs. I svensk rätt finns flera rättsliga verktyg vilka kan berättiga en påverkad part att avstå från avtalsbundenhet. Ett av dessa verktyg är förutsättningsläran. Förutsättningsläran är en doktrin som utgår från att en part kan befrias från sin avtalsförpliktelse om förhållandena vid tidpunkten för avtalets ingående

Traditionally, contract law is considered uniformly based on individualism. This normative support asserts the difference between one’s interests and those of others, advocating the predominance of self-interest. Nevertheless, recent events that have affected the contractual relationships, beckon a critical appraisal of whether there is only one com-mon normative foundation. In this regard, solidarity and altruism challenge the postulates of individualism and can be used as candidates for the grounds of contract law. This work explores such possibilities and seeks to position solidarity and altruism in this field. Finally, it is shown in what sense altruism has more relevance than solidarity to ground contract law and to face the individualistic prism., De manera tradicional, se considera que el derecho de contratos está uniformemente fundamentado en el individualismo. Este sustento normativo afirma la diferencia entre los intereses propios y ajenos, abogando por el predominio del autointerés. Sin embargo, los recientes eventos que han incidido en la contratación invitan a evaluar críticamente si solo hay un fundamento normativo común. Al respecto, la solidaridad y el altruismo desafían los postulados del individualismo y pueden esgrimirse como candidatos para la fundamentación del derecho contractual. Este trabajo explora tal posibilidad y busca posicionar la solidaridad y el altruismo en ese ámbito. Finalmente, se muestra en qué sentido el altruismo tiene mayor pertinencia que la solidaridad para fundamentar el derecho de contratos y hacer frente al prisma individualista.

O presente estudo objetiva apresentar a disciplina normativa e dogmática do contrato de transporte marítimo de mercadorias no direito marítimo contratual brasileiro, a fim de compreender e analisar as cobranças judiciais fundadas na cláusula demurrage de contêiner. Assim, abordam-se aspectos teóricos e práticos do contrato estudado, suas fontes e da cobrança de sobre-estadia de contêiner, bem como a aptidão dos modelos jurídicos propostos por doutrina e jurisprudência para regular com racionalidade, segurança e justiça a matéria. Trata-se de pesquisa qualitativa e de caráter exploratório que se aproveita do método dedutivo, sob o prisma jurídico-normativo-conceitual, utilizando-se de instrumentais bibliográficos, tais como fontes primárias, doutrina, artigos científicos e literatura especializada, nacional e estrangeira., This study aims to present the legal aspects of maritime transportation agreement under Brazilian law, in order to assess and analyze possible judicial charges that are based on the container demurrage clause. Thus, the paper analyzes the contract from a theoretical and practical perspective, its sources and the charges for container demurrage, as well as the suitability of the legal frameworks that are proposed either by legal scholars and precedents to regulate the matter. This is a qualitative and exploratory research based on the deductive method, under the grounds of legal concepts and rules, while using primary sources of bibliography, such as scientific papers on the matter.

The essay addresses certain fundamental issues raised by the use of smart contracts from the perspective of «general» contract law, with special regard to the self-executing nature of smart contracts. In particular, the essay investigates the relationship between smart contracts and supervening circumstances, the remedial techniques that can operate in a self-executing context, the relationship between smart contracts and the choices (including imperative ones) of the legal system, as well as the related problems of the functioning, in this framework, of the techniques of contract integration, which, as is known, play a significant role especially in civil law systems.

This paper addresses the regulation of the practice of usury under Brazilian Private Law and advocates that the Brazilian “Usury Law”, which regulates the limitation on interest that shall be stipulated by the parties in contracts regulated by the Civil Code (which do not involve consumers), has been revoked when the 2002 Civil Code has been put into effect. It is shown, however, that the conclusion reached by Brazilian Courts in order to limit the interest rates in these contracts to 12% per annum (1% per month) is correct, even if the arguments have not been solidly built. The paper also mentions, without trying to expand it further, special provisions that are reserved for interest rates in the context of financial and banking operations as well as consumer contracts., Este artigo aborda a disciplina da usura no direito civil brasileiro. Sustentamos que a Lei de Usura, no que disciplina a limitação imposta aos juros estipulados em contratos civis e empresariais (não de consumo), foi revogada pela Código Civil de 2002. Demonstramos, porém, que a conclusão a que os Tribunais têm chegado, ao limitar os juros desses contratos a 12% ao ano (1% ao mês) é correta, ainda que obtida por vias argumentativas menos consistentes. Tratamos, ainda, separadamente, e sem a pretensão de esgotar a exposição, do regramento especial reservado aos juros no contexto das operações financeiras e das relações de consumo.

Platform-user agreements generally seek to regulate long-term relationships in a highly detailed manner, whilst retaining the operator’s commercial capacity to maintain and develop the Platform. Accordingly, unilateral variation clauses are core elements of the private governance of platform ecosystems. Whilst the contemporary growth of diversity in platform structures can manifest in more diverse user terms, e.g. in integrated or collaborative platforms, the core capacity to steer the contractual relationship generally remains with the operator. This is arguably necessary for the business efficacy of digital platforms in an increasingly complex legal and economic landscape. However, despite their prevalence, such terms remain a borderline feature of contract law, challenging doctrinal conceptions of contract as a static, bilateral consensus and raising questions of validity and interpretation. Invalidity is only likely where terms breach explicit regulatory standards, or provide an imbalance that is unconscionable or unfair under established contractual doctrine. Whilst regulatory protections exist for some users at an EU level, these remain relatively formalistic and limited in scope. Nonetheless, validity does not imply unlimited use of unilateral variation clauses. Contractual interpretation is influenced by the regulatory framework, which imposes systemic expectations of general business conduct in digital markets, establishing standards of objectivity and appropriateness. In non-intermediary platform settings, where regulatory protection is more limited, interpretation inspired by principles of administrative law and derived from the nature and purpose of the contract may restrict the operator’s discretion. Though not unfamiliar to contemporary contract law, such standards are complex and outcomes will rely heavily on specific circumstances.

The essay points out some of the legal issues involved in the use of smart contracts in the insurance sector, especially with regard to the possible automation of pre-contractual risk assessment and indemnity settlement. Indeed, technological development makes it possible to self-enforce the insurance policy: in other words, compensation can be automatically estimated through index-based methods. Therefore, the need arises to investigate the compatibility of such techniques with the mandatory principles of insurance law, such as the indemnity principle. Furthermore, other issues can be identified in relation to the change of the distribution of information among the parties of the contract, due to the use of artificial intelligence for the purpose of risk assessment prior to contract formation.

The novel coronavirus (Covid-19) pandemic has resulted in the disruption of activities in major centres of global production, with adverse portents for contractual obligations across global supply chains. The global pervasiveness and dynamic propagation of the risks arising from contractual failures provides an opportunity to reconsider the nature and impact of mechanisms for excusing failure to perform contractual obligations under adverse circumstances (Excuse).Such mechanisms include those found in the general law (for example, frustration in common law and analogous doctrines in civil law traditions) and contractual clauses (for example, Force Majeure and hardship clauses). Establishing extant rights and obligations under current contracts may provide only limited illumination on how parties will address these failures. Principles in economics of contract (e.g. incomplete contract and transaction cost theories) and the commercial reality of global supply chains both suggest that parties tend to lean towards contract- and relationship-saving adjustments, rather than strict enforcement of rights. Therefore, this article analyses the doctrinal and contractual regimes of Excuse with a view to assessing their respective scopes for transaction and relationship saving. It also highlights the peculiar nature of supply chain relationships wherein exchange partners enter into a sequence of dyadic relationships aimed at delivering a good or service to the end user. The tension between that operational logic and the legal principle of privity of contract makes these relationships – undergirded as they are by what we call “operationally-linked (but) legally separate” (O.L.L.S.) contracts – peculiarly vulnerable to mismatches in their Excuse regimes. Mismatches occur where failure to perform a determinant contract is more easily or much earlier excusable than in a dependent contract within the same chain operation. This may, in turn, exacerbate risks of supply chain disruptio

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Recommendation 1 The Productivity Commission is to be congratulated for producing a comprehensive discussion paper on the complex and tangled topic of the right to repair. Taking an interdisciplinary, holistic approach to the issue, the Productivity Commission shows a strong understanding that the topic of the right to repair is a multifaceted policy issue. Its draft report covers the fields of consumer law, competition policy, intellectual property, product stewardship, and environmental law. The Productivity Commission displays a great comparative awareness of developments in other jurisdictions in respect of the right to repair. The policy body is also sensitive to the international dimensions of the right to repair – particularly in light of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. The Productivity Commission puts forward a compelling package of recommendations, which will be useful in achieving law reform in respect of the right to repair in Australia. Recommendation 2 There is a strong body of evidence that intellectual property restrictions do impact upon the right to repair. The evidence is more than merely anecdotal or patchy (as suggested by Draft Finding 5.1). There has been threats of litigation in respect of copyright relating to repair manuals. The High Court of Australia and the Australian Parliament have expressed concerns about the breadth of technological protection measures. There has been major litigation over the spare parts exception under designs law. There has been major litigation over patent law, and the distinction between repair and refurbishment. There has been policy discussion about repair information and trade secrets – resulting in action by Treasury and the Australian Parliament. Recommendation 3 This submission agrees with draft finding 5.1 that ‘copyright laws that prevent third-party repairers from accessing repair information (such as repair manuals and diagnosti

Understanding online behaviours of extremist groups requires observation, analysis and often dissemination. Academic researchers, government agencies, and civil society groups collect and analyse social media feeds, possibly through application programming interfaces (APIs), to understand violent extremist networks. This collection and use is subject to a range of legal requirements across various jurisdictions. Legal issues include contract law requirements around the enforceability of terms and conditions agreed to when accessing social media feeds, privacy and data protection requirements, and copyright law restrictions. This post provides an overview of the restrictions these legal requirements create concerning open-source intelligence activities aimed at understanding violent extremist networks.

The research method used in this research is the normative juridical method, carried out as an effort to obtain the necessary data regarding the problem. The data used are secondary data consisting of primary, secondary and tertiary legal materials. The data was collected by means of library research by studying the literature related to the sale and purchase of land, contract law, laws and regulations regarding bankruptcy and legal protection for buyers

Considering recent litigation in the Australian courts, and an inquiry by the Productivity Commission, this paper calls for patent law reform in respect of the right to repair in Australia. It provides an evaluation of the decision of the Full Court of the Federal Court in Calidad Pty Ltd v Seiko Epson Corporation [2019] FCAFC 115 – as well as the High Court of Australia consideration of the matter in Calidad Pty Ltd v Seiko Epson Corporation [2020] HCA 41. It highlights the divergence between the layers of the Australian legal system on the topic of patent law – between the judicial approach of the Federal Court of Australia and the Full Court of the Federal Court of Australia, and the endorsement of the patent exhaustion doctrine by the majority of the High Court of Australia. In light of this litigation, this paper reviews the policy approach taken by the Productivity Commission in respect of patent law, the right to repair, consumer rights, and competition policy. After the considering the findings of the Productivity Commission, it is recommended that there is a need to provide for greater recognition of the right to repair under patent law. It also calls for the use of compulsory licensing, crown use, competition oversight, and consumer law protection to reinforce the right to repair under patent law. In the spirit of modernising Australia’s regime, this paper makes a number of recommendations for patent law reform – particularly in light of 3D printing, additive manufacturing, and digital fabrication. It calls upon the legal system to embody some of the ideals, which have been embedded in the Maker’s Bill of Rights, and the iFixit Repair Manifesto. The larger argument of the paper is that there needs to be a common approach to the right to repair across the various domains of intellectual property – rather than the current fragmentary treatment of the topic.

For a successful construction project, it is necessary that the parties have good communication and collaboration. However, the regulation regarding the parties' exchange of information is somewhat unclear. The parties are responsible for ensuring that the provided information is correct, but there is some uncertainty regarding what is required for information to be considered provided. The person who receives information has in some cases an obligation to notify of deficiencies that has been discovered, as well as an obligation to review received documents. The meaning of the latter obligation is, in my view, unclear. By applying the method of interpretation that has been developed in case law, I have intended to establish what is required for information to be considered provided, as well as what the parties' obligation to review entails in more detail. In interpreting what is required, optional law has been of major guidance. I have found that the recipient's impression of the provided information is of decisive importance for the question of liability. In interpreting the parties' obligation to review, however, the regulation within construction contract law prevents guidance from being sought in the optional law. This means that no more detailed requirements can be set for the parties' obligation to review information. The parties shall only review such deficiencies that actually have been discovered. I have not found it necessary to change the regulation of the parties' responsibility for provided information to further promote communication and collaboration. However, the introduction of a provision resulting in that the contractor can contribute with competence more freely without risking liability can further promote these interests. I have found the regulation concerning the parties' obligation to review information unsatisfactory, by introducing an obligation to notify deficiencies that the parties must discover, a more even distribution of the parties 'r, För ett framgångsrikt entreprenadprojekt är det nödvändigt att parterna har en god kommunikation och samverkan. Den entreprenadrättsliga regleringen kring parternas utbyte av information är dock något oklar. Parterna ansvarar för att tillhandahållen information är riktig, men det finns viss osäkerhet kring vad som krävs för att ett tillhandahållande ska anses ha skett. Den som mottar information har i vissa fall en skyldighet att underrätta om brister och liknande i denna som faktiskt upptäcks, samt en skyldighet att granska mottagna handlingar. Innebörden av denna granskningsskyldighet är, enligt min mening, oklar. Genom att tillämpa den tolkningsmetod som utvecklats i praxis har jag ämnat fastställa vad som krävs för att en part ska anses ha tillhandahållit information, samt vad parternas granskningsskyldighet närmare innebär. Vid tolkningen av vad som krävs för att ett tillhandahållande ska anses skett har den dispositiva rätten varit till stor ledning. Jag har ansett att mottagarens intryck av tillhandahållandet får en avgörande betydelse för ansvarsfrågan. Vid tolkningen av parternas granskningsskyldighet hindrar emellertid det entreprenadrättsliga avtalssystemet att ledning söks i den dispositiva rätten. Regleringen medför att det inte kan uppställas några närmare krav på parternas granskning av information. Parterna ska endast granska sådana brister som faktiskt upptäckts. Jag har inte funnit det nödvändigt med en ändrad reglering av parternas ansvar av tillhandahållen information för främjandet av informationsutbyte och samverkan. Införandet av en bestämmelse som medför att entreprenören friare kan bidra med sin kompetens utan att riskera ansvar torde dock ytterligare främja dessa intressen. Regleringen av parternas granskningsskyldighet är emellertid otillfredsställande. Genom att införa en underrättelseskyldighet kring brister som parterna måst upptäcka uppnås en mer jämn fördelning av parternas ansvar och skyldigheter, vilket torde främja såväl parternas

This dissertation analyzes the impact that European Union law has had upon Cyprus law, focusing on the problems that arose after the financial crisis and how EU law can be used as a vehicle for dealing with problems of over-indebtedness. Contract law and civil procedure in Cyprus are only now experiencing major processes of transformation as a result of the financial crisis and the claims that reach courts, despite acceding to the EU 17 years ago. EU accession was initially seen by many as an opportunity for reform and modernization of the legal system, however, in certain areas of the law this was only realized, as a result of the problems caused by over-indebtedness and the lack of specific institutions to deal with such problems.

The implementation of Contract Law 9/2017 of 8th November on Public Sector Contracts (LCSP), effective from 9th March 2018, imposed a great change for Spanish universities and, thus, for the three SUG public universities. Subsequently, the General State Budget Law for 2018 allowed a certain flexibility, easing this limit control for public administrations carrying out research activities. This article aims to show the different decisions taken by the three SUG public universities, analyze their impact on minor contracts, and compare them to those of the rest of the CRUE universities.The implementation of Contract Law 9/2017 of 8th November on Public Sector Contracts (LCSP), effective from 9th March 2018, imposed a great change for Spanish universities and, thus, for the three SUG public universities. Subsequently, the General State Budget Law for 2018 allowed a certain flexibility, easing this limit control for public administrations carrying out research activities. This article aims to show the different decisions taken by the three SUG public universities, analyze their impact on minor contracts, and compare them to those of the rest of the CRUE universities., A posta en marcha da Lei 9/2017, de 8 de novembro, de contratos do sector público (LCSP), que entrou en vigor o día 9 de marzo de 2018, impuxo un gran cambio para as universidades españolas e, polo tanto, para as tres universidades públicas do Sistema Universitario de Galicia (SUG). Posteriormente, a Lei de orzamentos xerais do Estado para o ano 2018 introduciu certa flexibilidade á hora de relaxar o devandito control dos límites para as Administracións Públicas que realizan actividades dedicadas á investigación. O obxectivo que se pretende con este traballo é mostrar as diferentes decisións que se tomaron nas tres universidades públicas do SUG para analizar o impacto desas resolucións na contratación menor, así como unha comparativa co resto de universidades presentes na Conferencia de Reitores das Universidades Españolas (CRUE).

El presente trabajo analiza, esencialmente, el impacto de la tecnología blockchain en el derecho contractual mediante los llamados «contratos inteligentes» y su encaje en el ordenamiento jurídico. Así, se aborda el concepto de smart contracts y se examinan las principales características de la tecnología blockchain y del contrato inteligente, así como los límites sustantivos propios de estos contratos. En este sentido, se presentan las diferencias con la contratación tradicional y se proponen mecanismos de mejora con relación a los contratos inteligentes. De igual modo, se contempla específicamente la cuestión relativa al consentimiento prestado por las partes en esta forma de contratación y se establece la necesidad de intervención notarial en aras a la protección de dicho consentimiento. Finalmente, se plantea un modelo de arbitraje inteligente que permita paliar el efecto de automatismo propio de los smart contracts., El treball analitza, essencialment, l’impacte de la tecnologia blockchain en el Dret contractual mitjançant els contractes intel·ligents i el seu emplaçament en l’ordenament jurídic. Així, s’incideix en el concepte d’smart contracts i s’examinen les característiques principals de la tecnologia blockchain i del contracte intel·ligent, i també els límits substantius d’aquests. En aquest sentit, es presenten les diferències amb la contractació tradicional i es proposen mecanismes de millora en relació amb els contractes intel·ligents. Igualment, s’estudia específicament la qüestió relativa al consentiment prestat per les parts en aquesta forma de contractació i s’estableix la necessitat d’intervenció notarial amb la finalitat de protegir aquell consentiment. Finalment, es planteja un model d’arbitratge intel·ligent que permeti pal·liar l’efecte d’automatisme propi dels smart contracts., The present study investigates the impact of blockchain technology into contractual law through the so-called smart contracts and its place within the legal system. Thus, the concept of smart contracts is approached and the main characteristics of blockchain technology and smart contracts are examined, as well as the substantive limits of these contracts. To that end, the differences with traditional contracts are presented and, in relation to smart contracts, upgrades mechanisms are suggested. Likewise, the given consent by the parties within this form of contracting is discussed and the necessary notarial intervention is laid down with the goal of protecting that consent. Ultimately, a smart arbitration model is proposed in order to relieve the automation effect of smart contracts.

Purpose: This study evaluated the publications published in journals indexed in the Scopus-Elsevier database on Contract Law as article title from 1960 – 2019. Methods: Data of published documents on contract law downloaded from Scopus-Elsevier database on comma-separated value (CSV) file to fill the study's purpose. To calculate the year-wise publications, estimate the document's format, assess the pattern of authorship, place of publication, and gauge the first author's affiliation with their country. Results: There is 1551 document written by 2017; 1.3 authors in nine publication formats. Articles, book chapters, and review articles 1237; 79.7% attract the researchers for due attention and publish these at 1366 places. Seventy-three countries participated in 1551 documents; the United States 305; 19.6%, United Kingdom 281; 18.1%, and Germany 174; 11.2% are on the top slots among the 73 countries. . Conclusion: This study reveals that the law of contract is an emerging subject in the discipline of law. Geo-political situations, international trade, and the country's own rules and customs played an essential role in making legal agreements or contracts between two parties.