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Sue Cunningham brings a global perspective to everything she does, and the benefit of this lens is clear in "Global Exchange," in which advancement leaders from around the world address the critical issues facing the sector. With voices from schools, colleges, universities, and foundations, "Global Exchange" represents a collection of today's 'best thinking' in educational advancement--guided, gathered, and annotated by someone who has led advancement offices on three continents. These chapters offer the insights and understanding of senior professionals who collectively represent more than 200 years of experience in shaping strategy and guiding successful advancement programs. A must-read for advancement professionals. "Global Exchange: Dialogues to Advance Education" captures state-of-the-art thinking from institutional and foundation leaders, advancement professionals, and professionals from around the globe. Sue Cunningham leads 10 conversations on topics of critical interest to the education sector, including: (1) Building the Profession; (2) Advancement Leadership; (3) Ethics of Philanthropic Engagement; (4) Art and Science: The Role of Data; (5) Crossing Borders: The Global Context; (6) Diversifying the Profession; (7) Thinking Outside-In on Alumni Relations; (8) Collaborating Beyond Institutional Borders; (9) Leadership Through Crisis and Beyond; and (10) Public Perception of Higher Education.

This essential resource helps educators tackle common and challenging dilemmas that arise in today's classroom--such as diversity, privilege, and intersectionality. This book examines common issues educators face when teaching social justice and diversity-related courses and offers best practices for addressing them. Contributors discuss the many roles instructors play inside and outside of college and university classrooms, for example, in handling personal threats, responsibly incorporating current events into classroom discussion, navigating their own stigmatized or privileged identities, dealing with bias in teaching evaluations, and engaging in self-care.

Critical, creative and collaborative thinking should be at the centre of all 21st century teaching and learning. "Creating Thinking Classrooms" is loaded with examples, stories and strategies for reinvigorating schools with this quality thinking. Written for leaders who support teachers, this guide treats educational change as a process of renovation, rather than process of revolution, and emphasizes building upon, refining and sustaining the many good things happening in today's schools. Practical and user-friendly, it emphasizes five key principles for learning and teaching: (1) Engaging students; (2) Sustaining inquiry; (3) Nurturing self-regulated learners; (4) Creating assessment-rich learning; and (5) Enhancing learning through digital technology. As a balanced and reasoned response to the challenges and opportunities facing schools, this book separates the rhetoric of school reform from reality by analyzing what's actually happening and offering a plan educators can use. Recapture the fundamentals of classroom learning with a practical and powerful roadmap charting the way forward.

This book redefines teaching as a profession with pronounced service and moral dimensions, then shows how this new paradigm can be instilled in both teacher education programs and teaching practice. The book argues that teaching practice requires much more than knowledge and technical competence. It calls for reflection and inquiry, a dedication to democratic principles, and a strong commitment to educational renewal and change. The book reveals how teacher education can be structured to emphasize the moral and service responsibilities of the profession, especially by forging close ties with local schools and communities, to produce caring and effective teachers. It is a comprehensive account of what goes into the substance and process of preparing professional educators, from selection to induction into teaching. The story that unfolds in the collaboration of the University of Connecticut and several schools is one of redesigning virtually every component into something very different from what existed before without stopping the traffic of future teachers from crossing the bridge to practice. The six chapters include: (1) "Teaching as a Profession in a Democracy: Creating a New Picture," (2) "Cultivating Reflective Practice and Inquiry," (3) "Becoming a Teacher: The Moral Dimensions," (4) "Creating Educative Communities," (5) "The Teacher's Responsibility to Diverse Learners," and (6) "Enabling Teachers to Assume Leadership Roles." (SM)

This practical guide describes ways of working with learners diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) by using Multiple Intelligences Theory. Written for all educators as well as parents, it examines curricular, instructional, school partnering, and leadership issues that may arise for these students in grades K-8. Supported by real-life examples, it presents constructive strategies to help teachers work with ADHD students in ways that honor their strengths and allow for meaningful inclusion in the general education classroom. As viewed through the lens of an MI curriculum, ADHD is not a disadvantage; it is an integral component of the way a student processes information and makes sense of the world. This thoroughly readable resource features: (1) An innovative application of MI Theory based on the authors' extensive research and their experience working with students, teachers, and administrators; (2) Practical, tested strategies and materials for teachers who work with one of today's most prevalent and challenging school populations; (3) Free online MIDAS assessments, one for the teacher and one for the student with ADHD; and (4) Hundreds of case studies and examples that illustrate how MI Theory can apply to all students in a general education classroom.

This book, divided into four sections, looks at growth and no-growth positions in a future society. Section one deals with ways of looking at the future and concludes with an effort to look at the methodology of futurists and to describe how they work. Section two addresses practical questions faced by colleges of education concerning supply and demand alternatives, forms of schooling and deschooling in the future, and alternative forms of governance that may appear in the future. Section three describes tools whereby decentralized, small, community-centered political groups can gain control of their own futures. This section is comprised of two segments, one on the legal future of small, community, culture-based education, and the second on how such communities can acquire sufficient tools to plan their own educational futures. Section four presents the Deans Committee's critiques of the preliminary recommendations made by the Study Commission with respect to future study, which emphasizes decentralized planning, a no-growth economy, community futuristics, and the limitation of the encapsulating effects of schooling vis-a-vis society and nature. (PD)

Examines contrasting scenarios of the proposed National Information Infrastructure and its antecedents, the Internet and the NREN (National Research and Education Network). Topics include a public network offering popular services versus a private, revenue-driven network; network development; information superhighway analogies; network benefits; and fiber optic technology. (Author/LRW)

In a recent article, D. Stewart has misrepresented the positions of some of those who view teachers as facilitators of learning. The author defines four principles that represent a sensible interpretation of facilitating learning. The idea of the teacher as facilitator actually holds great promise for improved teaching. (SLD)

This book, which contains 19 chapters, examines children's learning processes in light of reconceptualizations of Piagetian theory. Part one traces the theoretical question underpinning this examination and includes three chapters: "General and Specific Views of the Mind, its Structure, and its Development"; "A Neo-Piagetian Approach to the Issue of Cognitive Generality and Specificity"; and "Advantages and Limitations of the Neo-Piagetian Position." Part two examines the role of central conceptual structures in the development of children's logico-mathematical thought in four chapters: "Synchrony and Asynchrony in the Development of Children's Scientific Reasoning"; "Synchrony and Asynchrony in the Acquisition of Children's Everyday Mathematical Knowledge"; "A Neo-Structural Analysis of Children's Response to Instruction in the Sight-Reading of Musical Notation"; and "Testing for the Presence of a Central Quantitative Structure: Use of the Transfer Paradigm." Part three focuses on the role of central conceptual structures in the development of children's social and emotional thought in five chapters: "Young Girl's Conception of Their Mother's Role: A Neo-Structural Analysis"; "The Development of Empathic Cognition in Middle and Early Childhood"; "A Neo-Structural Analysis of Children's Narrative and Its Development"; "Young Children's Awareness of Their Inner World: A Neo-Structural Analysis of the Development of Intrapersonal Intelligence"; and "Testing for the Presence of a Central Social Structure: Use of the Transfer Paradigm." Part four addresses the role of central conceptual structures in the development of children's spatial thought in two chapters: "Stage and Structure in the Development of Children's Spatial Representations"; and "Horizontal and Vertical Structure: Stages and Substages in Children's Motor Development." Part five examines cross-domain synchrony and asynchrony in the acquisition of different central conceptual structures in four chapters: "Parallels in the Development of Children's Social, Numerical, and Spatial Thought"; "Analyzing the Basic Cognitive-Developmental Processes of Children with Specific Types of Learning Disability"; Stage and Structure in the Development of Children with Various Types of Giftedness"; and "Cross-Cultural Variation in the Structure of Children's Thought." The final chapter, "The Mind and Its Modules: Toward a Multi-Level View of the Development of Human Intelligence," serves as a conclusion. The book includes 450 references, as well as author and subject indexes. (MDM)

A summative evaluation study of six experimental school library media education programs was conducted as the final phase of the School Library Manpower Project. The six programs consisted of one bachelor's level program, four master's level programs, and one sixth-year program. Data for the study was obtained from program directors, students enrolled in the programs, program graduates who were working in a media center or related job, and the job supervisors of program graduates by use of a Behavioral Requirements Analysis Checklist and a Structured interview questionnaire. The survey demonstrated that the experimental programs produce acceptable graduates and that satisfactory procedures had been developed for evaluating the field-relevancy of professional school media education programs. It was concluded that the School Library Manpower Project goals--job definitions, suggested educational curricula, and quality control evaluative procedures--had been accomplished. The field work involved in each program was found to be the major factor in making the programs occupationally relevant. The questionnaires used, survey data, and program status reports are appended. (Author/PF)

The monograph provides background information, questions and comments about current trends in development theory and practice and their impact on education. It is offered as a framework for consideration by policy makers, planners, and administrators in developing countries and in aid-giving agencies who are concerned with policies and programs to maximize human resource development. In view of the extremely wide range of resources and problems in the developing world, the propositions were necessarily stated in general terms and may be expected to have varying degrees of relevance in different nations. A preface, introduction, and summary are presented, as well as the following chapters: Current Concepts of Development and Their Impact on Education, discussing expanded developmental concepts, educational impact, and distinguishing characteristics of nonformal education; Reformulating National Education Policy For Human Resource Development, discussing sector reviews and policy questions. Appended material includes: notes on the text; a bibliography of 39 references, 10 of which are annotated; and, a listing of international research findings regarding nonformal education and literacy. (Author/LH)

Two of the rural regions currently undergoing dramatic landscape change are the Sierra Nevadas, John Muir's "Range of Light," and the Blue Ridge Mountains, described by John Denver in his song "Take Me Home, Country Roads." These are mythical landscapes, the Sierras of television's "Bonanza" and the Blue Ridge Mountains of Mount Airy, North Carolina, television's "Mayberry." These are landscapes on opposite sites of the USA yet undergoing similar transformations. The Sierra Nevada is a 400-mile-long stretch of extraordinary beauty and landscape diversity. Approximately two thirds of the bird and mammal species and one half of all the reptile and amphibian species in California are found here. The world's largest living plants, the Giant Sequoia, are found there, as is the tenth deepest freshwater lake in the world, Lake Tahoe. Almost two thirds of the range (12.6 million acres) is publicly owned and lies in three national parks - Yosemite, Sequoia, and Kings Canyon - nine national forests, and the lands of the Bureau of Land Management. The remaining one third is privately owned. These are some of the most heavily used public lands in the country. Yosemite National Park alone attracts 4 million visitors a year (The Wilderness Society 2004, 1). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper begins by briefly indicating the principal, non-standard motivations of the author for his decades of work in Computability Theory (CT), a.k.a. Recursive Function Theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interest is in characterizing insightfully the power of program self-reference in effective programming systems (epses), the computability-theoretic analogs of programming languages. In an eps in which the constructive form of Kleene's Recursion Theorem (KRT) holds, it is possible to construct, algorithmically, from an arbitrary algorithmic task, a self-referential program that, in a sense, creates a self-copy and then performs that task on the self-copy. In an eps in which the not-necessarily-constructive form of Kleene's Recursion Theorem (krt) holds, such self-referential programs exist, but cannot, in general, be found algorithmically. In an earlier effort, Royer proved that there is no collection of recursive denotational control structures whose implementability characterizes the epses in which KRT holds. One main result herein, proven by a finite injury priority argument, is that the epses in which krt holds are, similarly, not characterized by the implementability of some collection of recursive denotational control structures. On the positive side, however, a characterization of such epses of a rather different sort is shown herein. Though, perhaps not the insightful characterization sought after, this surprising result reveals that a hidden and inherent constructivity is always present in krt. Know thyself. - Greek proverb [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Computability theoretic learning theory (machine inductive inference) typically involves learning programs for languages or functions from a stream of complete data about them and, importantly, allows mind changes as to conjectured programs. This theory takes into account algorithmicity but typically does not take into account feasibility of computational resources. This paper provides some example results and problems for three ways this theory can be constrained by computational feasibility. Considered are: the learner has memory limitations, the learned programs are desired to be optimal, and there are feasibility constraints on obtaining each output program and on the number of mind changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this chapter, we discuss the concept of statistical power and show how the sample size can be chosen to ensure a desired power. Power is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when the null hypothesis is false, that is the probability of saying there is a difference when a difference actually exists. An underpowered study does not have a sufficiently large sample size to answer the research question of interest. An overpowered study has too large a sample size and wastes resources. We will show how the power and required sample size can be calculated for several common types of studies, mention software that can be used for the necessary calculations, and discuss additional considerations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate a new paradigm in the context of learning in the limit: learning correction grammars for classes of r.e. languages. Knowing a language may feature a representation of the target language in terms of two sets of rules (two grammars). The second grammar is used to make corrections to the first grammar. Such a pair of grammars can be seen as a single description of (or grammar for) the language. We call such grammars correction grammars. Correction grammars capture the observable fact that people do correct their linguistic utterances during their usual linguistic activities. We show that learning correction grammars for classes of r.e. languages in the -model (i.e., converging to a single correct correction grammar in the limit) is sometimes more powerful than learning ordinary grammars even in the -model (where the learner is allowed to converge to infinitely many syntactically distinct but correct conjectures in the limit). For each n ≥ 0, there is a similar learning advantage, where we compare learning correction grammars that make n + 1 corrections to those that make n corrections. The concept of a correction grammar can be extended into the constructive transfinite, using the idea of counting-down from notations for transfinite constructive ordinals. For u a notation in Kleene's general system (O, < o) of ordinal notations, we introduce the concept of an u-correction grammar, where u is used to bound the number of corrections that the grammar is allowed to make. We prove a general hierarchy result: if u and v are notations for constructive ordinals such that u < ov, then there are classes of r.e. languages that can be -learned by conjecturing v-correction grammars but not by conjecturing u-correction grammars. Surprisingly, we show that — above "ω-many" corrections — it is not possible to strengthen the hierarchy: -learning u-correction grammars of classes of r.e. languages, where u is a notation in O for any ordinal, can be simulated by -learning w-correction grammars, where w is any notation for the smallest infinite ordinal ω. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper solves an important problem left open in the literature by showing that U-shapes are unnecessary in iterative learning. A U-shape occurs when a learner first learns, then unlearns, and, finally, relearns, some target concept. Iterative learning is a Gold-style learning model in which each of a learner's output conjectures depends only upon the learner's just previous conjecture and upon the most recent input element. Previous results had shown, for example, that U-shapes are unnecessary for explanatory learning, but are necessary for behaviorally correct learning. Work on the aforementioned problem led to the consideration of an iterative-like learning model, in which each of a learner's conjectures may, in addition, depend upon the number of elements so far presented to the learner. Learners in this new model are strictly more powerful than traditional iterative learners, yet not as powerful as full explanatory learners. Can any class of languages learnable in this new model be learned without U-shapes? For now, this problem is left open. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper discusses the complexity involved in considering targeted product users' anthropometric variation in multivariate design problems, such as the design of workplaces or vehicle interiors. The authors argue for the advantages of offering designers a number of predefined digital human models to incorporate in the CAD product models. A study has been carried out in order to illustrate the use of predefined digital human models in vehicle interior design by using the Digital Human Modelling (DHM) tool RAMSIS. The paper takes a designer's view of digital human modelling and illustrates how DHM can be of great value in the design process, but also considers what implications this has on the functionality and usability of DHM tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

U-shaped learning behaviour in cognitive development involves learning, unlearning and relearning. It occurs, for example, in learning irregular verbs. The prior cognitive science literature is occupied with how humans do it, for example, general rules versus tables of exceptions. This paper is mostly concerned with whether U-shaped learning behaviour may be necessary in the abstract mathematical setting of inductive inference, that is, in the computational learning theory following the framework of Gold. All notions considered are learning from text, that is, from positive data. Previous work showed that U-shaped learning behaviour is necessary for behaviourally correct learning but not for syntactically convergent, learning in the limit (= explanatory learning). The present paper establishes the necessity for the whole hierarchy of classes of vacillatory learning where a behaviourally correct learner has to satisfy the additional constraint that it vacillates in the limit between at most k grammars, where k ≥ 1. Non U-shaped vacillatory learning is shown to be restrictive: Every non U-shaped vacillatorily learnable class is already learnable in the limit. Furthermore, if vacillatory learning with the parameter k=2 is possible then non U-shaped behaviourally correct learning is also possible. But for k=3, surprisingly, there is a class witnessing that this implication fails. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this research is to develop a representation method that allows knowledge to be readily shared between collaborating systems (agents) in a design/manufacturing environment. Improved mechanisms for interpreting the terms used to describe knowledge across system boundaries are proposed and tested. The method is also capable of handling complex product designs and realistic manufacturing scenarios involving several parties. This is achieved using an agent-architecture to simulate the effects of individual manufacturing facilities (e.g. machine tools and foundries) on product features. It is hypothesised that knowledge sharing between such agents can be enhanced by integrating common product and manufacturing information models with a shared ontology, and that the shared ontology can be based largely on The Process Specification Language (PSL). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chapter 5 of the book "Reproductive Allocation in Plants" is presented. It discusses the implications of sex-specific physiology to the cost of sexual reproduction in plants. It highlights dimorphic sexual systems to link physiological process to gynodioecy, compared pollen versus seed production, and the potential causes of sex differences in physiology and its relationship to reproductive investment different sexual systems.

The present work studies clustering from an abstract point of view and investigates its properties in the framework of inductive inference. Any class S considered is given by a numbering A0,A1,... of nonempty subsets of $\mathbb{N}$ or $\mathbb{Q}^k$ which is also used as a hypothesis space. A clustering task is a finite and nonempty set of indices of pairwise disjoint sets. The class S is said to be clusterable if there is an algorithm which, for every clustering task I, converges in the limit on any text for ∪i ∈ IAi to a finite set J of indices of pairwise disjoint clusters such that ∪j ∈ JAj = ∪i ∈ IAi. A class is called semiclusterable if there is such an algorithm which finds a J with the last condition relaxed to ∪j ∈ JAj ⊒ ∪i ∈ IAi. The relationship between natural topological properties and clusterability is investigated. Topological properties can provide sufficient or necessary conditions for clusterability but they cannot characterize it. On one hand, many interesting conditions make use of both the topological structure of the class and a well-chosen numbering. On the other hand, the clusterability of a class does not depend on the decision which numbering of the class is used as a hypothesis space for the clusterer. These ideas are demonstrated in the context of geometrically defined classes. Clustering of many of these classes requires besides the text for the clustering task some additional information: the class of convex hulls of finitely many points in a rational vector space can be clustered with the number of clusters as additional information. Similar studies are carried out for polygons with and without holes. Furthermore, the power of oracles is investigated. The Turing degrees of maximal oracles which permit to solve all computationally intractable aspects of clustering are determined. It is shown that some oracles are trivial in the sense that they do not provide any useful information for clustering at all. Some topologically difficult classes cannot be clustered with the help of any oracle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a highly prevalent sexually transmitted virus that causes genital warts in men and women and is associated with an increased risk of genital tract neoplasia in women (1,2). Nucleic acid amplification techniques such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) have enabled the sensitive and specific detection of HPV DNA in many different bodily fluids and tissues (3-5). Although HPVs were first detected in semen in 1986 (6), there have been limited attempts to develop and refine protocols for their detection in this fluid (7,8). Diagnostic methods that enable the detection of HPV in semen (7,9-11) offer the promise of reducing the risk of transmission of the virus to the recipients of donor semen during artificial insemination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Much of modern genetics is based on analysis of DNA sequence. Therefore, there is great pressure to scale up sequence analysis while decreasing its cost. The most promising platforms are based on the use of oligonucleotide arrays (DNA chips), which perform many analyses in parallel (1). Arrays comprise libraries of oligonucleotides or polynucleotides attached to solid supports at defined locations. Assays can be performed on the whole library simultaneously, increasing both the speed and accuracy of analysis of the target nucleic acid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The surgeon performing diagnostic ultrasound gains a distinct advantage by being a clinician-sonographer. He or she leverages that advantage by mastering methods of optimizing the ultrasound image. Unlike traditional abdominal scanning, in which an experienced sonographer optimizes and captures select images for interpretation by another physician, the surgeon simultaneously scans and interprets. Such skills are facilitated by selecting the appropriate transducers and pre-sets on the equipment, optimizing the controls that improve image resolution, and developing the ability to recognize and avoid common ultrasound artifacts and pitfalls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chapter 10 of the book "Film Technology in Context," is presented. It discusses the process of converting photographic images into electronic images with the use of telecine machines. It compares videotape formats in terms of cost, quality and application. Film and video frame rates are also discussed.

Chapter 9 of the book "Film Technology in Context" is presented. It discusses the process of screening the answer print of a finished film. Release prints are then printed based on the approved answer print. It also discusses the method of applying subtitles in some films that require it. It also details the storage and preservation of films after duplicate negatives and release prints are made.

Chapter 8 of the book "Film Technology in Context" is presented. It explains how sound is transferred, edited, mixed and synchronized in the production of film. It discusses the different soundtracks that are used in making the final mix of the movie, it includes the print master, digital soundtracks and music and effects tracks. It also discusses the analogue soundtrack quality in terms of compression and equalization, density and volume, and loudness.

Chapter 7 of the book "Film Technology in Context" is presented. It discusses laboratory processes of printing films. It details the emulsion geometry of camera negatives in both contact and optical printing. It also discusses several considerations in printing in Super 16 film stocks. Details on blowing-up film to other film formats are also discussed.

Chapter 6 of the book "Film Technology in Context," is presented. It discusses film negative matching during negative cutting using a series of running numbers printed into the edge of negative films. The series of numbers aid in the precise matching of edited or cut portions of the film. The process and preparation for negative cutting is also discussed.

Chapter 5 of the book "Film Technology in Context" is presented. It discusses the process involved in film printing using contact or optical printing machines. The film process involves color correction, film grading and film exposure. It also discusses the selection and screening of work prints, as well as technical problems that may arise in printing film.

Chapter 3 of the book "Film Technology in Context" is presented. It discusses various film stock, including 35 millimeter (mm) film and 16 mm film. It also provides information on the types of color film stock, which includes camera negative films, color reversal film and print film. Black and white film stocks are also discussed.

Chapter 2 of the book "Film Technology in Context" is presented. It discusses post production aspects to consider when choosing between film and video production, including image quality, production style and production cost. It discusses the alternative pathways for post production, which are traditional sprocket edit film finish, non-linear edit film finish and non-linear edit video finish.

Chapter 1 of the book "Film Technology in Context" is presented. It describes the properties and procedures of film post production for both traditional and conventional film-makers. It highlights the history of film and video, as well as digital imaging. It discusses the differences between film and video, which includes differences in intermittent movement, frame rate and resolution.

Facial expressions are an important source of information for human interaction. Therefore, it would be desirable if computers were able to use this information to interact more naturally with the user. However, facial expressions are not always unambiguously interpreted even by competent humans. Consequently, soft computing techniques in which interpretations are given some degree of support would seem appropriate. This paper describes how the mass assignment approach to constructing fuzzy sets from probability distributions has been applied to i) the low-level classification of pixels into facial feature classes based on their colour to segment a facial image into possible facial feature regions, ii) to make a final decision on which combination of these regions correctly extracts the facial features, and iii) to generate rules which classify the emotional content of the image according to values taken from these extracted regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the major challenges for the neuropharmacologist is to relate functions to the numerous ligand binding sites identified in brain tissue; there are, for example, at least seven postulated 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) receptors and associated subtypes. Such studies involve biochemical measurement of changes in second messenger systems, behavioral tests of receptor function or measurement of physiological responses produced by receptor activation, such as release. Most studies measuring release have used radiolabeled transmitters and their release from slices in vitro. A more direct approach would be to measure changes in the release of endogenous transmitter in response to selective agonists and antagonists. In recent years, two methods for measuring endogenous transmitter metabolism and release in vivo have attracted considerable attention. The first involves intracerebral perfusion, using microdialysis tubes in which the perfusate samples are collected and assayed for their transmitter and metabolite content, using specific and highly sensitive assay methods (Ungerstedt, 1984; Marsden, 1985). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Techniques for measuring ion concentrations in tissue have been vitally important for critically evaluating a broad range of physiological phenomena. Refinements that allow ion activities to be monitored with considerable spatial and temporal precision have been particularly valuable for this purpose. These methods are widely applied to the study of the nervous system, whose characteristic feature of excitability results in a complex set of dependencies on highly regulated ionic gradients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An optical measurement of membrane potential using a molecular probe might be beneficial in a variety of circumstances. "Such a probe could, we believe, provide a powerful new technique for measuring membrane potential in systems where, for reasons of scale, topology, or complexity, the use of electrodes is inconvenient or impossible" (B. M. Salzberg, personal sentence). The possibility of using optical methods was first suggested in 1968 by the discovery of potential-dependent changes in intrinsic optical properties of squid giant axons (Cohen et al., 1968). Shortly thereafter, (1968) found stimulus-dependent changes in fluorescence of stained axons, and in 1971 a search was begun (Cohen et al., 1971) for dyes that would give signals large enough to be useful for monitoring membrane potential. By now more than 1000 dyes have been tested for their ability to act as molecular transducers of changes in membrane potential into changes in three types of optical signals: absorption, birefringence, and fluorescence. This screening effort has resulted in the discovery of dyes with a signal-to-noise ratio 100 times larger than was available from any signal in 1971. Several of these dyes (see, e.g., Fig. 1) have been used to monitor changes in potential in a variety of preparations. For reviews, see (1978), (1979), (1983), (1988), and (1988). An earlier discussion of methods was published (Cohen and Lesher, 1986). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As other chapters in this book demonstrate, intra- and extracellular recording provide considerable information about the electrical behavior of cells. However, as Hodgkin and Huxley (1952) taught us long ago, analysis of the mechanisms that generate electrical activity is far easier with voltage clamp. If the behavior of ion channels depends on voltage, the first step in studying such channels is to control the voltage. Under voltage clamp, the kinetic behavior of a channel (or of a macroscopic assemblage of channels) is at its simplest. Without voltage clamp, there is a complex interaction between channel gating and membrane potential. When channels open, current through them affects the membrane potential, which in turn makes channels open (or close), affecting the membrane potential.... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this chapter, we will give an overview of the methods for making electrical recordings from single ion channels in cell membranes and in planar lipid bilayers, endeavoring to point out the advantages and limitations of each approach. Since extensive treatments of various aspects of the techniques are currently available, including complete books devoted to patch clamping (Sakmann and Neher, 1983a) and to ion channel reconstitution (Miller, 1986), we attempt to present an integrated view, with references to other discussions of details of the theory and practice that provide additional information that might be necessary to establish these techniques in the laboratory. Since the techniques of single-channel recording are being applied to an expanding range of biological problems, numerous companies are beginning to address the needs of researchers in these areas. Consequently, we will list some sources of useful equipment, software, and supplies. Finally, we will attempt to highlight current developments in instrumentation and techniques, which have appeared since other reviews were written. Of particular interest are recent approaches to presentation, analysis, and modeling of single-channel data that have just appeared or are in press at the time of writing of this article. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The technique of intracellular recording is useful in studies seeking information about the functioning of individual neurons, their place in neuronal circuitry, and their membrane properties. For some of the just named applications, intracellular recording is the only method for obtaining the desired information. The functional significance of neurons is examined in the whole animal in intracellular experiments studying the responses of neurons during behavioral tasks or following sensory stimulation. The role of neurons in networks is studied by observing the synaptic responses generated by stimulation of connected structures. There are several standard tests of connectivity that can be made using intracellular recording techniques: 1.Verification of a projection through antidromic activation can be made (e.g., Andersen et al., 1964; Kitai et al., 1972). This is usually done as a screening procedure to select projection neurons during an experiment.2.The nature of synaptic inputs can be examined. Here the sign (inhibitory or excitatory) of an input, its mechanism (i.e., ionic specie, conductance increase, disfacillitation, and so on, and, in many cases, the neurotransmitter can be learned (e.g., Coombs et al., 1955, Kita et al., 1983;). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents a research guide to the life and works of author William Morris. Born 24 March, 1834, Walthamstow, England into a middle-class family of comfortable means; 1847 father dies; 1853 enters Exeter College, Oxford, meets Edward Burne-Jones; 1856 is articled to architect G. E. Street: writes tales, articles, and poems for The Oxford and Cambridge Magazine; under the influence of Dante Gabriel Rossetti gives up architecture to try painting in London; 1857 paints frescoes with Rossetti, Burne-Jones, and others in Oxford; 1858 publishes The Defence of Guenevere, 1859 marries Jane Burden; 1861 efforts made to furnish his new house--The Red House in Upton, Kent--lead to the founding of the decorative arts firm which becomes his chief vocation.

This article focuses on feminist critics' adoption of the postmodernist theory of feminist criticism. The author argues that feminist criticism has produced the female subject, one who remains trapped within the confines of heterosexual ideology, rather than the feminist subject, an individual who, conscious of herself as both inside and outside that ideology, is capable of change and of changing the conditions of her existence. She suggests that the lesbian roles of butch and femme exemplify the kinds of self-determination that the feminist subject demands. She finds examples of butch-femme subjects who escape the kinds of theoretical assimilation that currently makes homosexuality welcome even as it erases the individual presence of gay men and, particularly, lesbians.

After the current section, the history (1.2.) of evoked potentials (EP—for abbreviations, see the end of this chapter) is briefly presented, followed by a discussion of how EPs can be broken down into components (1.3.). General methodology (2.) is then presented, covering recording techniques (2.l.), including electrodes and their placement (2.1.1.), reference electrodes (2.1.2.), EEG amplifying, filtering, and digitizing (2.1.3.), and recording artifacts (2.1.4.). The discussion of methodology then turns to analysis techniques (2.2.), from averaging and peak detection (2.2.l.), and alternative analysis methods (2.2.2.), to factor analysis (2.2.3.), spectral analysis (2.2.4.), and topographical display (2.2.5.). Increasing use is being made of methods of generator localization (2.3.), from scalp EPs (2.3.1.), from evoked magnetic fields (2.3.2.), and from depth recordings and brain lesions (2.3.3.). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In contrast to unit action potentials recorded from discrete neurons, field potentials, as the name implies, are not restricted to the spatial domain of a neuron or of the brain. As a result of the volume-conducting properties of the brain, field potentials reflect activity of a population of neurons. They are often used, therefore, as a monitor of the gross brain state during sleep, behavioral activation, and epilepsy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many advances in neurophysiology depend on prior advances in technology and physical sciences. Neural signals are small electrical and chemical events, and sophisticated equipment is required to record and analyze these events. Many technological advances like the mirror galvanometer, the vacuum tube, the transistor, and the integrated circuit (IC) have been used to explore the human and the animal brain. Currently, the microprocessor promises to revolutionize the neurophysiological laboratory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]