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During the academic year 1958/59, a survey was made of interlibrary loan requests originating at Columbia University Medical Library. A high percentage of requests came from a relatively few requesters. However, analysis based on "one-time" and "repeat" categories for the patron and his requests indicated a situation less extreme than "monopoly use by an elite group." Requests were classed by type, age, language, title, etc., and were also correlated with such variables as citation source, requester's academic status and experience, and estimated importance of material. The analysis aims to uncover patterns significant for cooperative planning. Did the repeat and one-time requester show distinctive characteristics and habits? Which materials attracted more repeat requests? Findings generally favored cooperation, at least for a library servicing nonstudent researchers. Unpredictability of researchers' needs was noted. Apart from specific findings, this paper offers methods for statistical analysis of interlibrary loans.

The article presents a study concerning the "parts" of cut-paper art products in an attempt to know the influence of teacher motivation and non-motivation on its overall aesthetic quality in art education. In relation, the definition of terms, population, and the experiment's procedure are presented. The study shows that the amount of overall aesthetic quality judged in the "parts" had much influence on the overall aesthetic quality in the final art product. It suggests that all complex relationships should be carefully defined and explored to understand the relation among the creator, the creative process, and the final art product.

The article presents the author's views on the ideals of Eastern women. There are a considerable number of Western men in whom there is a survival of the Eastern view about women, although they take very good care not to carry the Oriental notion of impersonality and sacrifice into their conception of what is seemly in men. This ideal is not imposed upon women by men, but is the national and eternal ideal of both sexes, It is less obviously ridiculous for an Oriental to assert that women like seclusion, ignorance, and subjection, because when any living creature is accustomed from birth to certain conditions, that creature suffers when transplanted to other conditions. The author firmly believes that he has seen so many women gain joy and hope by the opening of doors: seen dull eyes brighten and sad lips smile to hear words spoken which at last express their inmost and hitherto unfriended thoughts and aspirations and sorrows, The depression of life and energy, of will and genius, that comes from slavery is spiritual murder, and the kind of slavery which is involved in the subjection of one sex to the other is the most penetrating conceivable; for it permeates flesh and spirit. It is life-long, it corrupts the ethical standard of both slave and slave-owner, so that no one yet knows what women can do nor to what heights men can rise.

Tins paper is intended as an effort at taking-stock of the reference group concept after nearly three decades of use, the latter two of which have been marked by its more than ample employment. Its popularity indeed has so frequently led to its serving as an all-purpose post hoc explanation of behavior that it has led to the wry definition, "Your reference group is a group that you behave like and you behave like them because they're your reference group" (Cohen, 1962: 104). The inconsistencies, lack of clarity, but also areas of agreement which have marked the varied formulations of the concept, will be apparent from the following review and commentary. The Final discussion indicates some of the matters still to be considered in the use of thin important but perhaps overworked concept. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationship between the quantity and quality of scientific output of 120 university physicists was studied. Although these two variables are highly correlated, some physicists produce many papers of little significance and others produce a Jew papers of great significance. The responses of the community of physicists to these distinct patterns of research publication were investigated. Quality of output is more significant than quantity in eliciting recognition through the receipt of awards, appointment to prestigious academic departments, and being widely known to one's colleagues. The reward system operates to encourage creative scientists to be highly productive, to divert the energies of less creative physicists into other channels, and to produce a higher correlation between quantity and quality of output in the top departments than in the weaker departments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents information regarding the problems faced by the developing countries in their course of development. The problems faced by the developing countries of the world are numerous and of critical importance. These problems include those of industrialization and economic development, of changing traditional social institutions such as stratification and power mechanisms so that they facilitate rather than inhibit modernization, and of providing ever-increasing percentages of citizens with an education that teaches the economic and social skills requisite to assuming rewarding roles in a changing society. However, in the array of social and behavioral sciences that have been brought to bear upon the problems of developing countries, social psychology has been noticeably absent. Anthropologists have carried over their interest in traditional societies to include concern with the problems these societies face in the processes of modernization and development, particularly as these processes affect values and institutions such as the family and religion.

This paper examines the hypothesis that residential mobility is disruptive of social relations; and it seeks to identify patterns of adaptation which emerge from that disruption. Among other things, it is found that women who moved between 1966 and 1969 were more frequently sociable both before and after their move than those who did not move. Further, differential patterns of disruption hold for intra- and extra-neighborhood contacts. There is, in addition, a period of heightened social interaction on the part of the most recent movers. Spatial mobility, it is concluded, does exert changes on the social lives of women in households. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports that with regard to attributes associated with individuals that is personality traits, the criterion problem is very often submerged in the multitude of possible measures that are advanced. It would seem that the ultimate criterion should be the ability to classify individuals in a consistent manner that is in accord with the expert definition of the variable. This means that if the judges find it satisfactory, a paper-and-pencil test could be provided which would measure the characteristic of "authoritarian." This would leave open the question, however, of whether authoritarianism is a behavior among individuals or a disposition to answer a paper-and-pencil questionnaire in a given way. If the assertion is that authoritarianism is a tendency to behave in a given way in interpersonal relations rather than in a given way to a paper-and-pencil questionnaire, then the criterion problem is not satisfied even when the judges agree that certain paper-and-pencil responses should be classified as authoritarian.

This paper traces the development of interest in consumer socialization. Major policy and conceptual issues are posed, and research in several areas of study is reviewed. Directions for research are specified in three key areas: consumer socialization processes, content of learning, and permanence of early learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is concerned with some of the often neglected behavioral problems associated with the practice of management by objectives. These include problems relating to managerial style, adapting to change, interpersonal skills, setting objectives, measurement, and management by objectives quality control. The paper concludes with some criticisms of the current state of management by objectives research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The basic hypothesis of this paper is that occupational group ties are stronger in Britain than in the United States. A number of test implications are inferred from this hypothesis and the relevant evidence on each of these, to be found in existing comparative studies, is presented. Occupations in the two countries are first compared as independent collectivities with respect to their autonomy, socialization, colleague relationships, deviance, and occupational identity. They are then considered within their normal organizational environment, and the differences between the two countries in the relationship between these occupational groups and the administration of the organization are compared. Three types of organization are distinguished: where one group forms a large majority, where two groups are approximately equal, and where one or more groups form a small minority. Some proposals are made for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on a study of the scientific output of British University chemists. The relationships between three different aspects of scientists' work (quantity, quality and industrial orientation) were examined, and whilst quantity and quality were highly correlated, industrial orientation appeared to represent a different dimension of research performance. Quality of output was the best Predictor of the recognition received by a chemist from the scientific community (in terms of medals, appointment to advisory committees, etc), his industrial involvement much the least good. It appears that a minority of British university chemists are oriented towards the industrial, rather than the basic research community in terms of their contributions and of their rewards. The influence of institutional affiliation upon recognition, for a given level of output, was examined. As in studies of American scientists, but in contrast to earlier work on British ones, institutional affiliation did appear to influence the recognition received. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite a dearth of relevant empirical evidence, the proposition that the extended family encourages and facilitates high fertility has become widely accepted. This paper summarizes the main theoretical discussions, presents illustrative data, and analyzes the conceptual and methodological adequacy of reported studies. It concludes that it is essential to distinguish between individual and aggregate levels of analysis and between co-residence and kin interaction. It would also be valuable to define more carefully the various types of family structure, to keep the time reference of fertility (current or cumulative) congruent with that of family structure (cross-sectional or longitudinal), to take into account age at marriage and extent of celibacy, and to be more alert to the possibility of opposing causal forces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Path analysis has been widely employed in recent years as a concise means of simultaneously analyzing the interrelationships among a large number of variables. The utility of this method in family research is demonstrated in the present paper. Four independent variables —socio-economic status, aptitude, educational plans, and marriage expectations—are related to the age at marriage among a subsample of 4,000 married young people from a nationwide longitudinal survey. Of the four independent variables, expected age at marriage, stated some time prior to marriage, is shown through path analysis to be the best single predictor of actual marriage age. The additional accuracy in prediction through assessment of the other variables is negligible. A multiple causality model, based on path analysis and including additional variables to those employed in this paper, is advocated as a means to optimize prediction of marriage- and family-related outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper reviews research findings from various European countries (including the author's own studies in Vienna) on intergenerational relations between parents and their grown-up children. Numerous data disprove certain important features of the classical theory of the isolated nuclear family in industrialized and urbanized society. Although, according to newer data, joint living is a minority pattern, effective interaction (economic support, help in both ways and mutual visiting) is frequent and emotionally important particularly to the elderly. ‘Intimacy—but at a distance—corresponds to wishes of both generations. A special section of the paper is dedicated to propositions for theoretical innovation in the problem area studied including, e.g., a criticism of role theory, a criticism of statements on family cohesion based on findings of help patterns only. The paper postulates an amalgamation of major aspects of social gerontology with a sociology of the family cycle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the author's criticism to the key points presented in a paper focusing on familial development, selective needs and predictive theory. His paper fail to spell out the relationships between the structural framework developed in the earlier chapters of the paper including the hypotheses set forth in the following chapters. The theorists appear to depend more on intuition that on any explicit theory of relationships when it comes to drawing up concrete lists of paired situations.

This study reports one "spin-off" from the basic technology of sensitivity training, which is now widely used for inducing attitudinal and behavioral change in organizations. Changes in attitudes of members of a complex business organization are reported in this paper, and they support the value of the "confrontation design." Similar results have been obtained in other business and government settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews studies published between 1964 and May 1968 on laboratory training in human relations and its use in attempts to enhance the effectiveness of organizations. After some of the difficulties in conducting such research in this area are considered, findings are examined as they relate to five issues in the design and the application of laboratory training. These findings are also compared with findings from a similar review reported by the author four years ago. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sociologists have given insufficient attention to the influence of structural properties on the process of socialization. This paper sets forth a set of typologies which is expected to place limits on, but not necessarily determine, the behavioral alternatives within socialization systems. The outline can be used as a heuristic device for comparative analysis of socialization research and for the design and evaluation of socialization programs. Three aspects of the structure of socialization systems are discussed--the novice-agent relationship, the setting, and the target roles. Novice-agent relationships are characterized by four dimensions: 1) specification, 2) relative anomie, 3) incumbency of the target role, and 4) role repetition. Variations in types of setting are: 1) formality of setting, 2) individual or group socialization, 3) serial and disjunctive socialization. Target roles may vary along six dimensions: 1) voluntary, involuntary or semi-voluntary entrance, 2) time boundaries of roles, 3) valuation of roles, 4) socialization into social group or social category, 5) degree of institutionalization of roles, and 6) relation of role to novice's identity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates and attempts to explain some relationships between control achieved through structural arrangements and control achieved through supervisory style. Eighty large governmental psychiatric hospitals and 52 small private hospitals were studied. With some exceptions--and these apparently traceable either to the differential effects of size or sponsorship--maximum structural control (approximating that of bureaucratic organizations) was found in association with a limited employee control, and, minimal structural control (resembling that of less bureaucratic institutions) was found in association with more pervasive employee control. In general, the scope of employee control varied inversely with the scope of patient control--sometimes because of structural arrangements and sometimes because of supervisory style. These basic patterns are discussed in their relation to classical Weberian conceptions of formal organizations, as well as to more recent theoretical formulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on an analysis of public school teaching staffs as variations of primary groups. From survey data, schools were classified according to indices of social relations among teachers. Several dimensions of the primary group were treated as attributes of school staffs in defining crucial tasks of teaching and relating them to peer influence. With both reported behavior and attitudes as dependent variables, hypotheses concerning the differential impact of three types of peer relations were tested. It was found that certain forms of social structure influenced behavior alone in some settings; in other settings, both behavior and attitudes were affected. Moreover, how the tasks of teaching were defined was an important organizational condition for the efficacy of given forms of peer influence. Findings generally supported the hypotheses developed, although the restricted definition of peer influence and its situationally specific meaning restrict the interpretation of data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The administrator frequently bases decisions and actions on his perception of other people. Behavioral scientists have been systematically studying the process of perception, focusing in recent years on interpersonal perception. Although their work has been done largely in laboratory settings, their conclusions have relevance for the administrator. This paper examines some of the recent work on interpersonal perception and suggests some implications for administrative practice. No easy means is proposed to make objective what is essentially a subjective process; nevertheless it is possible to indicate some guidelines and precautions to use in this complex aspect of interpersonal relations. Understanding the process of interpersonal perception is one means of trying to avoid gross errors in interpersonal judgments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper argues that the bases of formal authority—legitimacy and position—need to be distinguished from sources of functional authority—technical competence and human relations skills—which support and often compete with formal authority. Four analytical types of authority relations are developed from the literature and the examination of superior-subordinate relationships among seventysix of the seventy-seven members of three public service organizations. In all three organizations, but particularly among welfare workers, considerable importance was attributed to legitimacy and position as bases of authority. Police officers, however, singled out authority of person more frequently than either authority inherent in position or authority derived from superiors. Welfare organization members attached more importance to legitimacy and position than to technical competence and experience as sources of authority. School employees stressed professional competence as a base of authority much more than either police officers or welfare workers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on the possibilities and limitations of cross-national and cross-regional research. In approaching cross-national and cross-regional research, the author has taken for granted the fundamental rationale of comparative study as such, and disregarded general problems of its validity. This is so, as the last Congress considered this issue, and the main points of these deliberations are on record. Instead, the author has tried to focus on more specific topics of conceptualization, methodology and organization, as they bear directly upon rural social study. Accordingly, the papers included have two major foci and fall into two groups; in each of which the author has tried to secure a discussion of both theoretical as well as applied and practical aspects. The first group, focuses on problems of the proper meaning or nature of comparative research and on the essential qualities it must have to be effective. The second group is related to problems attending the execution of comparative projects. The first of the two deals mainly with major questions of methodology: firstly, with problems of interpersonal relations, including those of political clearance, of tackling cultural variations and of stereotyping; and secondly, with technical ones, chiefly the comparability of secondary data, the utilization of and relationship to theoretical models and the standardization of field procedures.

The pluralist and interest-group (or modified Marxian) views of society offer two competing sets of hypotheses concerning the relationship between objective and subjective social status and the role of other variables in this relations/tip. Using a 1964 national sample survey of the United States, this paper specifies and examines these hypotheses more fully. Starting with a series of simple formulations, and building up to a fuller multivariate recursive system, the paper concludes that the data are more consistent with the interest-group approach than they are with the pluralist approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building upon the sexual socialization ideas of Gagnon and Simon and others which have stressed male-female differences in premarital sexual behavior, the social and psychological management of the first coital experience is examined. Using data from a 1967 national sample of university undergraduates, the idea of a double standard is explicated in terms of reportage about first coitus—to whom the person reports the event, how many people, how soon, and the like. Evidence pointing to a pattern of male "ego-sex" emerges within the context of the so-called "male bond" (male peers as audiences for sexual prowess), which contrasts sharply with the modal females's management of first coitus. The paper concludes with a brief discussion of future trends in gender styles and premarital sexuality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents an integrative analysis of voluntary associational leadership and reputational influence. It is noted that the degree to which leadership in voluntary organizations contributes to reputational influence patterns in the general community is not an easily predictable phenomenon. It becomes clear that no "a priori" assumptions can be made about the role of voluntary groups in the general leadership of any given community. There is a need, however, to distinguish the "organizational community" from the community in which formal voluntary groups are of considerably less significance. The study results of the overlap of reputational influentials and formal leaders in four towns are given in tabular form. The factors are number of reputational individuals, number of formal leaders, maximum possible overlap, actual overlap and percentage overlap. From the point of view of influence structures, it was discovered that the larger the town the greater the number of persons who receive a given proportion of nominations as an influential. The results of the study presented in this paper justify the trend toward the use of a combination of the positional and reputational methods of identifying leaders.

The purpose of the research reported in this paper is to assess the usefulness of the instrumental-expressive typology in the study of voluntary associations using data provided by university students. The hypotheses center around two basic considerations. The first one extents to which members of the two types of associations differ according to a number of significant sociological variables (e.g., the degree of involvement in friendship networks outside the association). The second consideration is the possible differences in the ways new members are incorporated into instrumental and expressive associations. The three criteria determining the differentiation between the instrumental and expressive association are given. It also discusses personal influence and associational membership. Instrumental and expressive scores of nine associations are presented in tabular form. In conclusion, the instrumental and expressive dimensions represent a sociologically significant way of classifying associations. This distinction may be more useful in some sociological research than the more common systems of classification that are not directly related to sociological theory.

The paper presents some strong, though limited, empirical generalizations about the effects of cohesiveness on a wide variety of behaviors: cooperation, competition, conformity, productivity, and learning among group members. There is also a more descriptive literature from sociology and anthropology which deals with cohesion and the ethnic organization of current and historic groups. In the paper, findings from these disparate sources are examined. When combined, these diverse sources of research data offer some insights into the internal characteristics of groups which have emerged from poverty. From this perspective the literature permits the prediction of some of the antecedents and consequents of changes in group cohesiveness and ethnic organization among those who are presently poor. Recent changes in the ideology and cohesiveness of poor blacks is used as an illustrative case. The present account includes: a selective discussion of experimental findings on group cohesiveness, some experimental results of the effects of ethnic identity, examples of ethnic and religious organization among current and historic disadvantaged groups (with ethnic cohesiveness among poor blacks used as a current illustration), and some conclusions and predictions.

This paper describes three methods used by engineers and scientists to enrich their understanding of a technical subject prior to an interpersonal communication. Professionals may: (a) store the information need in hopes of an accidental or working encounter with the required information (piggybacking), and/or (b) verify and extend their background by contact with friendly associates (friendly consultation), and/or (c) review the literature of the field which is peripheral to their own (professional peripheration). Factors which determine the methods used are proposed: the opportunity cost of time, the extent to which similar needs have been encountered before, and the breadth of the user's problem). Implications for the management of R & D organizations concern the provision of peripheral literature, the development of skills involved in consultation, and the clarification of the organization's technical goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A theory is formulated with which to analyze transactions in social relationships. Economic types of exchange characterized by calculation and self-interest on the part of the actors are contrasted with more "social" forms of transaction such as occur in the cases of role relationships with interlocking rights and obligations and persons strongly attached to one another. The social factors and conditions determining the types of transaction likely to occur between actors are examined in the paper. The key idea in this respect is that the structural and temporal context of interaction, including the past and anticipated character of their relationship, affects actors' orientations toward one another, their preferences, decisions and interaction patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses evaluation and cross-cultural application of a Japanese form of the survey of interpersonal values. There is a growing literature reporting studies in which American paper and- pencil personality tests have been translated and then used in cross-cultural research. The present paper reports such an evaluation of a Japanese translation of the Survey of Interpersonal Values (SIV) prior to cross-cultural application. The scales in the SIV originally had been identified by means of an item factor analysis. A similar analysis was proposed for the translated items in order to determine whether the same constructs would emerge as factors in the Japanese culture. The results of the factor analysis indicated that the constructs incorporated in the SIV do emerge as factors in the Japanese culture, and that the large majority of the items in translation have their principle loadings on the same factors as did the corresponding original items. Data were gathered at five Japanese universities for samples of 258 males and 505 females selected so as to be comparable in educational and socioeconomic level to the individuals comprising the American normative group. In addition, 249 male and 227 female students were similarly selected and tested at three different Japanese urban high schools. The latter two groups were to be compared with an American sample made up of students from five Southern California high schools, of similar age and grade level.

Within the present paper, we have attempted to clarify the role of social structural variables in shaping friendships. Our interest in the friendship relationship has stemmed from the conviction that it constitutes a role relationship in which healthier behavior may be observed. In addition we feel that the study of such a relationship might lead to better understanding of the manner in which personality and social structural variables interact. Social structure has been broadly conceived as the framework which defines and delineates the range of friendships available to an individual. The variable of social status and role are viewed as being particularly important in structuring communication and interaction patterns of participants within a social setting, and in predisposing certain relationships more than others to move beyond the formally prescribed level of interaction. The fact that role prescriptions within a given social structure may force certain participants to become involved in interlocking interactions is viewed as having a two-fold significance. On one hand, it allows each participant to explore the desirability of becoming involved in a less formally prescribed interaction with his co-participant. On the other hand, if one or both participants do not wish to become involved in a less formal personality-centered type of interaction, the fact that the relationship has been formed and continues to be based upon social structure allows for the maintenance of a less affectively personally involved relationship without its disintegration. We have suggested that as the nature of the friendship relationship is explored more fully, it becomes clear that it must be viewed as a special type of role relationship--an integrative one in the sense that the multiple roles of each participant are brought together, shared and organized. In this connection, we hypothesize that the more central are the roles that each partner can share with the other in their friendship relationship, the greater the amount of closeness possible and the more satisfaction they experience in their mutual friendship interaction. `Within the present paper, we have spoken as if there were no individual differences in response to social structure. The fact that this isn't the case presents numerous opportunities for further exploration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper tested experimentally the relationship between group cohesiveness, defined as the willingness of individuals to stay in their group, and power, and acceptance. Power was defined as the ability to satisfy needs and acceptance as to the willingness to do so. A division of groups into three categories was suggested. In an instrumental group people seek to receive power and acceptance; in a mutual acceptance group people join having in mind to give and to take power and acceptance; in a vectorial group the aim of the people is to give power and acceptance either to some individuals or to an ideal. It was found that cohesiveness is better correlated to power than to acceptance in the instrumental and vectorial groups, and better correlated to acceptance in the mutual acceptance group. When all three groups were exposed to stress, cohesiveness has suffered most in the instrumental group and least in the vectorial group. All these findings are tentative and more experiments are forthcoming in order to corroborate the data obtained in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information about various developments taking place in the field of sociology at the international level. A Conference for the study of British society and the problems it presents to immigrants will be held in London from April 20-22, 1966, jointly sponsored by the Royal Anthropological Institute and the Institute of Race Relations. There will also be contributions from Holland, France and Germany, concerning these countries. On March 4-6, 1966, a Conference on "Interdependencies of National and International Political Systems," jointly sponsored by the committee on comparative politics of the Social Science Research Council and the Center of International Studies, Princeton University, was held at the Princeton Inn. Two papers were prepared for the conference and circulated to the participants in advance "National Political Systems and International Politics Notes on the Need for Research," by Harry Eckstein and Harold Sprout of Princeton University, and "Toward the Study of National-International Linkages," by James N. Rosenau of Douglas College, Rutgers--The State University. The Second World Conference on World Peace through the Rule of Law was held at Washington D.C., September 12-18, 1965. It was a meeting of the legal profession from different parts of the world. About 3000 delegates from 115 nations met at Washington, among them were a large number of High Court Judges and Attorneys General.

This Paper resents a definition and typology of "awareness contexts" and offers a paradigm for their study. The paradigm emphasizes the developmental interaction processes deriving from given awareness contexts, and directs attention to transformations of those contexts. The writings of four sociologists are located within the paradigm with respect to the types of awareness context they assume and the segments of the paradigm they treat. Implications of the paradigm for future research and theory are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper is conceptual; its aim is to state what we consider the essential structural categories in race relations viewed as an empirical system. It is the contention of this paper that two general theories currently in use the "cycle of race relations" and "caste and class" -are not incompatible and that the conflict between them is more apparent than real. Polemicists' outcries notwithstanding, a critical examination of empirical research on race relations indicates that these two theories can be and in fact have been effectively implemented. Faulty theory construction, faulty methodology, and faulty implementation of an essentially good theory are perhaps more frequent in sociology than in other sciences. There are some students who are prone either to place unusual emphasis on certain aspects of a theory or to use it as an interpretative device rather than as an hypothesis to be tested. It is our belief that a statement of the essential requisites in race relations would enable students of race and cultural contacts to implement better these two theories and would terminate excessive polemics in this area.

This paper is based on the proposition that law can also provide a clue to normative arrangements at the micro level since societies often codify rules which are common to inter- personal relationships and are especially likely to embody rules thought to have positive moral value in their legal codes. In this paper the author tries to do three things. First, the author points to deficiencies in the exchange theory model of interpersonal interaction which have not been elaborated on by recent critics. Second, the author develops a theory of "norm-making" which suggests a mechanism by which parties can attach social guarantees to highly particularized modes of inter- action. Third, the article draws on American contract law to specify the conditions which must be fulfilled if attempts by parties to introduce particularized norms into their relationship are to be successful. Contractual agreements are one kind of agreement in which parties endeavor to create norms which will govern their future relationship. The process of creating such norms, while analogous to the more widespread norm-making which occurs in informal social relationships, is in many ways different from what occurs at the informal level.

The article presents an insight to the colleague relationships among Indian lawyers. For the litigants of an Indian district, the court is an important occasional social arena. In the lives of lawyers outside the courts, caste is significant. In general, however, caste does not have the role- summation significance for city professionals that it has in village life. For almost everything that goes on in the courtroom, there exists somewhere a set of written rules namely government manuals on court upkeep and organization, textbooks on advocacy, codes and case law. Colleague interactions here are highly legalistic in content. The constant struggles of lawyers to prevent conflicting hearings from getting on their appointment books suggest that there is scope for some division of labor even if not amounting to formal specialization in fields of law. Unlike, the linkages of an action set, the alliance does not have a variety of possible bases. All the ties that are used in alliances are those created by mutual involvement in the day to day working of the courts.

The article introduces research papers included in the December 1954 issue of the journal "American Sociological Review." In this issue fourteen articles are published which place a central emphasis on the nature and consequences of lace-to-lace interaction. These articles, which might ordinarily have been spread through several issues, are collected into a special issue in order to direct attention of members of allied disciplines, like anthropology, and psychology, to the variety and extent of sociology's present commitment in the small group field. Within the ranks of sociology it is hoped that this issue may help to capture the minds and talents of members who have not previously concerned themselves with small group research. There is every prospect that authors of articles in the present issue, with their average age in the low thirties, will for many years be deeply involved in the development and clarification of small group thinking. The case for the study of small groups will be most satisfactorily resolved if their enthusiasm can be sustained, their work criticized, and their ranks increased.

The paper develops and tests the thesis that differential commitment to the scholarly perspective explains differences in involvement in traditional Judaeo-Christian religion. Utilizing data from a probability sample of full-time faculty in rank at all accredited colleges in a midwestern urban area, the study developed a scale to measure differential commitment to the scholarly perspective. Correlations between scholarly perspective score and religiosity scores supported the thesis. These relationships were stable when controlling for sectarian and nonsectarian types of school milieux. Quality of respondent' educational background did not explain the relationships between scholarly commitment and religiosity. Rather commitment to the scholarly perspective accounted for some of the relationship between quality of education and religious involvement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Utilizing replies from a selected sample of contributors to the literature of symbolic interactionism, this paper examines the nature and extent of institutional ties among respondents holding similar views as to appropriate methodology in sociology. The specific institutional ties examined are those as: (1) fellow graduate students, (2) teachers and students, and (3) departmental colleagues. The methodological differences between the Chicago and Iowa schools, described in other studies, manifest themselves in the present sample, as do other views not neatly classifiable within either of these schools of symbolic interactionism. The more unconventional the conception of methodology held by a respondent, the more likely is the respondent to have been a fellow graduate student, a departmental colleague, and/or involved in a teacher-student relationship with other symbolic interactionists favoring the same conception. Respondents preferring the more orthodox methodological stances in modern sociology are less likely to have shared in such institutional flea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports an exploration of the relationship between members' role performance and the benefits they receive from their organizations. The general relationship is interpreted in the context of a "social exchange model" for voluntary associations. Data for the analysis pertain to members of four voluntary farm organizations: Farm Bureau, Farmers Union, National Farmers Organization, and Grange. The data were obtained in a state-wide survey of Wisconsin farm operators in 1965. In general, the data show a moderate relationship, in a positive direction, between benefits and role performance. The benefits tend to differ in the magnitude and, in some instances, in the direction of their relationships to such performance. The findings indicate the importance of taking into account magnitude and direction of relationship, as well as interaction among the benefits and among costs, in order to devise a viable social exchange model of cost benefit relations for voluntary associations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review of but a small amount of the empirical and theoretical research should suffice to indicate the areas of focus and concern in relating family and home environment with juvenile delinquency. It is evident that significance is attached to family cohesion, affection and adjustment both between the parents and between parent and child. Many authors (Udry, 1966; Blood and Wolfe, 1960) maintain that communication is a basle ingredient for a successful marriage. The open communication between spouses facilitates an understanding of expectations, interests, and frustrations. A marriage void of communication may lead to inhibited and ritualistic discussions, inner frustrations, and an absence of expectations and desires. If one accepts this position concerning communication between spouses, then there is reason to believe that based on the above-cited works, facilitation of the channels of communication within the family may influence the delinquency of the children. It appears plausible that a child who perceives the channels of communication within his family to be dosed may feel alienated from the family as a primary group. Without communication, the child may feel that the parents are not interested in his ideas and behavior, that the parents underestimate his desires and expectations, and that the parents reject him. Without communication the parents may not, indeed, be aware of the child's desires, values, and actions and may not succeed in transmitting their own values to the child. Although the parents would not condone delinquent behavior, as a result of their lack of communication with the child the parents may, by remaining silent, be sanctioning behavior of which the child feels the parents are aware. That is, if the child engages in delinquent behavior and feels that the parents are aware of that behavior, then he expects some negative sanctioning by his parents; due to the lack of communication, the parents may not be aware of the behavior, they do not sanction the child, and thereby reinforce his delinquent behavior. A lack of communication of this nature indicates a misunderstanding between parents and child concerning acceptable behavior and values. With the assumptions set forth above, it is of value to investigate the relationship between communication within the family and the delinquency of the child. It is the intention of this paper to ascertain: (1) the degree of communication that exists between the parents and the child concerning the child's participation in various forms of delinquent behavior; (2) the degree of communication that exists between the parents and the child concerning the punishment to be meted out for such behaviors; and (3) the effect of this communication on the child's participation in delinquent forms of behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sociologists and social psychologists, perhaps more than some of their fellow social scientists, have striven for what is in many respects one of the most elusive aims of science—valid generalizations. Examination of the results of the past thirty years of research are, however, far from encouraging. Arnold Hose, in addressing himself to the problem of generalization in the social sciences, is tempted to raise the question as to whether or not there has been considerably more striving than achieving. Certainly it is apparent that the replications often do not verify the original study. The data presented in this paper are drawn from a study of delinquent behavior which I conducted in New Zealand. My research in this field constituted in part a replication of research conducted by Nye and Short in the United States. The data from these two studies provided an opportunity for fruitful cross-cultural comparisons in the area of delinquent behavior. The rationale presented in this paper may be interpreted as a modest attempt to pursue what Rose has called "generalizability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports a purely exploratory attempt to locate the role-specific-significant others (Sullivan's significant others) and the orientational others of a small sample of college students enrolled in a large midwestern university. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While social scientists are aware that the relationship between an independent and dependent variable may be spurious, they are much less aware that the absence of relationship may be equally spurious. The chief reason is that the relationship is concealed by a suppressor test factor. This paper supplements earlier discussions of this topic by considering the logical status of suppressor test factors and compensating influences. Examples of antecedent, intervening, and component suppressor variables and of compensating influences are provided. It shows that, in a causal sense, standard test factors and suppressor test factors generate opposite interpretations of spuriousness, but in a formal sense they are the same. Several substantive contributions of suppressor variables to social science are discussed. Suppressor variables are not rarities, but may actually appear as often as standard test factors in research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the author proposes a social psychology research, which may increase understanding of inter-personal relations in the U.S. The methods which seek to take account of the individual as a dynamic process are the clinical ones. These approaches will be best used when coordinated with other techniques already developed in the field of social psychology. An example of such coordination in the investigation of social psychological problems is to be found in the University of California Public Opinion Study. For the study of anti-democratic trends, projective techniques have been found valuable. Whereas in the area of internal economic tensions, an assessment center is needed to incorporate principles such as: basing of research upon a fundamental theory of personality; assessment of persons as wholes and as members of natural groups; use of multiform clinical procedures with the techniques of attitude and opinion measurements.

Previous research has shown that youth tend to follow parental wishes in future oriented situations and peer wishes in current oriented situations. This paper evaluates this assumption and explores the utility of differing types of situations in measuring the parent and peer orientations of youth. It is found that (a) the content of the situation is more important in the choice of courses of action than the pressures of either parents or peers, and (b) parent-peer orientations have a systematic, but minimal influence, on choice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]