Search

Magistrsko delo obravnava oceno potresne odpornosti obstoječih zidanih stavb s prikazom uporabe različnih metod na obstoječi večstanovanjski zidani stavbi. V prvem delu je predstavljeno tipično obnašanje zidanih stavb med potresom in zahteve, ki jih predpisuje standard Evrokod 8-3, ki obravnava obstoječe stavbe. Predstavljene so nekatere metode, ki so bile razvite za oceno potresne odpornosti stavbi. V drugem delu naloge je podrobneje opisana obravnavana stavba in izračunana njena potresna odpornost. Potresna odpornost objekta je izračunana s programom SREMB, s poenostavljeno metodo z upoštevanjem kritičnega strižnega porušnega mehanizma, z metodama RAN-Z in PO-ZID ter upoštevajoč grobo oceno z uporabo spletne aplikacije POTROG. Preverjena je tudi možnost prevrnitve zatrepnega zidu, kot najverjetnejšega izvenravninskega mehanizma porušitve. V nadaljevanju so predvideni možni ukrepi za izboljšanje potresne odpornosti stavbe in primerjani rezultati dobljeni z različnimi metodami. In the master thesis the assessment of seismic resistance of masonry buildings is discussed. The use of different methods of assessment is presented on an existing multiapartment masonry building. In the first part, typical behavior of masonry buildings during earthquake is presented and demands of Eurocode 8-3, regarding existing buildings, are given. Several methods developed for assessment of seismic resistance of masonry buildings are presented. In the second part the existing building is described and its seismic resistance assessed using different methods. Seismic resistance of the analysed building was calculated with the programme SREMB, with the simplified method taking into account critical shear failure, with methods RAN-Z and PO-ZID and by rough assessment using a web application POTROG. The possibility of overturning of the gable wall, as the most likely out-of-plane failure mechanism, was also considered. Possible measures for the improvement of seismic resistance of the building are given and results obtained using different methods are discussed.

Pomanjkanje novih zazidalnih površin, visoki stroški novogradenj ter razvoj novih lahkih sistemov gradnje so glavni razlogi, ki ljudi usmerjajo k nadgradnji objektov. Moderne lesene gradnje, kot sta sistem križno lepljenih plošč ter lesen okviren sistem, odlikujejo majhna masa, visoka stopnja prefabrikacije, hitra in razmeroma nemoteča montaža ter linijski prenos obremenitev, kar jih uvršča med najprimernejše materiale za nadgradnje. V disertaciji je problem nadgradenj obdelan z vidika potresne odpornosti konstrukcij in vpliva nadgradenj na obstoječe konstrukcije, ki je preučen z obsežno parametrično študijo vpliva spreminjanja togosti in etažnosti nadgradenj na seizmične obremenitve. Prikazane so možnosti enostavnega spreminjanja togosti lesenih stenskih panelov, ki so za lesen okviren sistem izračunane na podlagi priporočil, za križno lepljen sistem pa je predstavljen nov postopek izračuna. Rezultati študije prikazujejo, da ima lahko togost nadgradnje velik vpliv na seizmične obremenitve in da je v določenih primeri, kljub manjšemu povečanju mase zaradi nadgradnje možen ugoden vpliv nadgradnje, na potresno odpornost objekta. Lack of new building area, high costs of new construction and developement of new lightweigh construction systems are the reasons people decide to add additional stories to existing buildings. Modern timber systems, like cross laminated timber and light timber frame system, are very light, they can be assembled quickly due to high level of prefabrication and have a possibility of distributed load transfer, which makes them the most suited materials for vertical expansions. In thesis the problem of vertical expansions is treated in terms of seismic resistance of structures with added stories. An extensive parametric study is performed showing the impact of changing number of added stories and variation of their stiffness to seismic response of structures. Examples how stiffness in light timber frame and CLT structures can be easily changed just by changing the type and distribution of fasteners are shown. For light timber frame system stiffness of wall elements is calculated based on known procedures and for determining the stiffness of CLT wall elements a new procedure is given. Parametric study shows how changing stiffness of the vertical expansion can have a significant effect on seismic forces and that in some cases vertical expansion can have a favorable effect on seismic resistance despite minor increase of mass of the structure.

In the last three decades, causes of inadequate seismic behavior of heritage masonry buildings in urban and rural settlements have been investigated. On the basis of the observed mechanisms, technical measures for the improvement of seismic resistance have been developed. Besides traditional techniques, contemporary strengthening measures, based on the use of modern materials are available, including methods in accordance with the requirements of restoration and preservation of architectural cultural heritage. In-situ and laboratory non-destructive and semidestructive methods for structural assessment have been developed and mathematical models for structural evaluation proposed. European standard for structural assessment and retrofit of buildings has been recently implemented, where procedures are recommended and values of parameters needed in redesign are specified. However, the standard includes inconsistences and unnacceptable requirements regarding the architectural heritage buildings, which are discussed in this paper. If the requirements of the new standard are taken into consideration literally, inevitable heavy damage or collapse of the strengthened buildings should have been expected. However, as indicated by the recent strong earthquakes which for the second time in just a few decades affected historic towns and villages, relatively simple strengthening measures prevent excessive damage and collapse of such buildings, if adequately applied. V zadnjih treh desetletjih so bili raziskani vzroki za neustrezno obnašanje zidanih stavb arhitekturne kulturne dediščine v mestih in na podeželju med potresi, na podlagi ugotovljenih pomanjkljivosti pa razviti ukrepi za izboljšanje potresne odpornosti. Poleg klasičnih so na razpolago tehnološke rešitve, ki uporabljajo najsodobnejše materiale, med njimi tudi ukrepi, ki so v skladu z zahtevami varstva kulturne dediščine. Razvite so bile nove terenskein laboratorijske metode za ugotavljanja stanja konstrukcije in mehanskih lastnosti zidovja ter izdelani različni računski modeli za oceno potresne ranljivosti in vrednotenje potresne odpornosti. Izdelan je bil tudi evropski standard za oceno in prenovo stavb, ki predpisuje postopke in podaja vrednosti parametrov za preprojektiranje. V standardu so žal določene nedoslednosti in za stavbe arhitekturne kulturne dediščine nedosegljive zahteve, o katerih na podlagi dolgoletnih izkušenj, raziskav in analiz obnašanja teh stavb med potresi razpravljamo v prispevku. Čeprav bi morali na podlagi računskih analiz, dosledno izdelanih po zahtevah novega standarda, pričakovati porušitev oziroma vsaj hujše poškodbe, so potresi, ki so v zadnjemčasu že drugič v nekaj desetletjih prizadeli stara mestna in podeželskajedra, pokazali, da so že razmeroma enostavni ukrepi za izboljšanje potresne odpornosti uspešno preprečili prehude poškodbe in porušitve, če so lebili dosledno izvedeni.

Področje raziskovanja doktorske disertacije je potresna odpornost zidanih stavb, ojačenih s FRP (fibre reinforced polymer - z vlakni armirani polimer) in FRM (fibre reinforced mortar - z vlakni armirana malta). V sklopu preiskav smo načrtovali in in-situ preskušali več sistemov ojačevanja starih opečnih zidov ter novih kamnitih zidovih v laboratoriju. Učinkovitost povezave zidovja in kompozitnih oblog pri strižni obremenitvi smo za vse sisteme dodatno preiskovali na manjših opečnih vzorcih v laboratoriju. Rezultati strižnih preiskav v ravnini zidov so pokazali, da je ojačevanje s horizontalnimi karbonskimi trakovi na epoksidnem lepilu ter stekleno mrežico v modificirani cementni malti, učinkovito, ojačitev z diagonalnimi karbonskimi trakovi pa manj. Preiskave strižnega stika so pripeljale do spoznanja, da je nujna kvalitetna priprava podlage in izvedba dobrega sidranja koncev trakov. Cilj izvedbe lastnih eksperimentalnih preiskav ter poglobljene študije tega znanstvenega področja je bil ovrednotenje obstoječih računskih modelov, izpeljava izboljšanega modela ter integracija tega v računalniški program za računanje potresne odpornosti zidanih stavb. Nelinearna potresna analiza stavbe z etažnim mehanizmom s programom SREMB, izvedena na osnovi novorazvitega računskega modela, kaže, da lahko za neojačano stavbo dobro določimo potresno odpornost, ki je v primerjavi z okvirnim mehanizmom TREMURI ravno za toliko višja, kot je izboljšan nov računski model. Dodatno lahko z novim računskim modelom s programom SREMB preračunamo tudi zgradbe, katerih zidovi so ojačeni s poljubnimi ojačitvami s FRP/FRM materiali - horizontalnimi, vertikalnimi, diagonalnimi in vsemi možnimi kombinacijami. The scope of doctoral dissertation is research of the seismic resistance of masonry buildings, reinforced with FRP (fiber reinforced polymer) and FRM (fiber reinforced mortar). Several systems for strengthening of old brick walls were tested in-situ and new stone walls in the laboratory. The efficiency of the bond of the brickwork and composite coverings at shear forces for all systems were further investigated in small clay samples in the laboratory. The results of in-plane shear tests have shown good performance of strengthening by horizontal reinforcing carbon strips and glass mesh in a modified cement mortar, however reinforcement with diagonal carbon strips was less effective. Investigations of shear contact on small brick samples with FRP/FRM cover led to the conclusion that for the efficient strengthening the good basis preparation and sound anchoring of the ends of the strips are necessary. The objective of the own experimental investigations and in-depth study of this scientific field was the evaluation of the existing calculation models and the integration of improved model in the software for computation of seismic resistance of masonry buildings. Nonlinear seismic analysis of the building performed based on newly developed computational model, shows that for the unreinforced building the earthquake resistance can be determined well, just as high as the TREMURI framework mechanism because the new calculation model has been improved. In addition, the new calculating model in SREMB can also be used to calculate buildings strengthened with FRP / FRM materials, horizontal, vertical, diagonal and all possible combinations.

V diplomski nalogi je predstavljena ocena potresne odpornosti zidane hiše v Grosuplju. Potresno analizo smo izvedli z metodo horizontalnih sil na podlagi zahtev, ki jih podajata standarda Evrokod 6 in Evrokod 8. Diploma je razdeljena na teoretični in praktični del. V teoretičnem delu so predstavljeni postopki za določitev potresne obtežbe, račun nosilnosti posameznih zidov ter oceno odpornosti celotne konstrukcije. Povečanje obremenitve zaradi vpliva slučajne ekscentričnosti smo upoštevali na poenostavljen način s faktorjem . Nosilnosti smo računali za nearmirano zidovje, vpliva horizontalnih in vertikalnih vezi pa v računu nismo upoštevali. V praktičnem delu naloge smo uporabo teoretičnega postopka prikazali s primerom enoetažne zidane hiše. Predpostavili smo, da je pritličje kritični del objekta. Potresno odpornost smo preverili neodvisno za smer X in Y. Potresno silo smo v razmerju togosti razdelili na posamezne zidove ter izračunali nosilnosti zidov za tri tipe porušnih mehanizmov: porušitve zaradi zdrsa, porušitve zaradi nastanka diagonalnih razpok in upogibne porušitve. Nosilnosti smo izračunali na podlagi srednjih materialnih karakteristik, ki smo jih v prvem primeru zmanjšali za materialni varnostni faktor, ki upošteva vpliv stopnje zaupanja in osnovnega materialnega varnostnega faktorja, ki ga določa standard Evrokod. Predpostavili smo tudi, da se mehanizem zdrsa v našem primeru ne bo pojavil, zato prevladuje upogibni mehanizem porušitve. V skladu s standardom Evrokod konstrukcija ni odporna na projektno obtežbo. Do prekoračitve nosilnosti pride v vseh zidovih v smeri X in v polovici vseh zidov v smeri Y. The thesis addresses assessment of seismic resistance of single-family masonry building in Grosuplje. The verification of seismic performance was made on the basis of Eurocode 6 and Eurocode 8. The thesis is divided in the theoretical and practical part. Theoretical part presents procedures for determining seismic loads, seismic demands, the strength of masonry walls and building's structural resistances. The horizontal force method was used for estimating seismic demand. The increase in seismic demand due to impact of accidental eccentricity and torsional effects was based on simplified method by using factor. Strength was calculated for unreinforced masonry, effects of horizontal and vertical ties on the strength of masonry were not taken into account. In the second part of the thesis we estimate the seismic resistance of a masonry house. It was assumed that the ground floor is the most critical. The seismic resistance was therefore verified only fort the ground floor, but independently in X and Y principal direction of the building. Seismic force was redistributed on the walls by using stiffness ration. The sliding shear failure, shear failure with diagonal cracks and flexural failure were considered in the evaluation of the strength of walls. Strength was evaluated on the basis of medium material characteristics which were reduced by the material safety factor, as prescribed by the Eurocodes. We also assumed that the slide shear failure will not occur in our case, that is why the flexural failure was most commonly observed. The results indicated that the construction does not meet the verification criteria according to Eurocode. The failure in all walls in X and almost half the walls in Y axis was observed in the case of design seismic action.

(AB) konstrukcij s postopki na različnih nivojih zahtevnosti. Najnižji nivo predstavlja preliminarna metoda za hitro oceno, ki predstavlja modifikacijo osnovne ameriške metode. Njej sledijo postopki na petih nivojih računa. Ti vsebujejo enostavna postopka, ki sta bila originalno razvita na Japonskem (nivo 1 in 2), N2 metodo z dvema variantama matematičnih modelov konstrukcije (nivo 3 in 4) in nelinearno dinamično analizo (nivo 5). Ločeno poglavje je namenjeno predstavitvi različnih modelov za ocenjevanje kapacitete posameznih elementov nosilne konstrukcije, ki jo je potrebno oceniti pri računih na različnih nivojih. Predstavljeni so modeli za oceno upogibnega in strižnega obnašanja, pri tem pa so rezultati posameznih modelov primerjani z eksperimentalnimi rezultati za preizkušance stebrov in sten, ki so bili povzeti iz baze podatkov SERIES. Za oceno upogibnega obnašanja so predstavljeni različni postopki določitve upogibne nosilnosti, efektivne rotacije na meji elastičnosti in mejne rotacije elementov. Ob upoštevanju baze podatkov SERIES so izbrane predpostavljene vrednosti mejnih napetosti stebrov, ki predstavljajo strižno in upogibno nosilnost stebrov pri računu na prvem nivoju zahtevnosti. Na najvišjih treh nivojih zahtevnosti je analiza potresne odpornosti izvedena na podlagi matematičnega modela konstrukcije. Pri tem je na tretjem nivoju uporabljen poenostavljen matematični model, potisna analiza pa je izvedena z nekoliko spremenjeno verzijo programa NEAVEK. Matematični model temelji tu na razširitvi pseudo-tri-dimenzionalnega modela v nelinearno območje. Standardno modeliranje konstrukcij je uporabljeno na četrtem in petem nivoju računa. Pri tem so vse nelinearne analize konstrukcij izvedene s programom OpenSees, ki pri uporabi v tej doktorski disertaciji deluje v povezavi s programskim paketom PBEE-toolbox. Ocenjevanje potresne odpornosti je izvedeno na dvanajstih variantah okvirnih konstrukcij, štirih variantah (konzolno) stenastih konstrukcij in petih variantah mešanih konstrukcij. Rezultati ocene potresne odpornosti obravnavanih konstrukcij kažejo majhno razliko med rezultati N2 metode in rezultati nelinearnih dinamičnih analiz, medtem ko so rezultati postopkov na prvih dveh nivojih manj natančni in veliko bolj konservativni. Po drugi strani se količina vhodnih podatkov in računski čas povečujeta s povečevanjem stopnje zahtevnosti izbrane metode. Razlogi za konservativnost postopkov na najnižjih dveh in na tretjem nivoju zahtevnosti so opisani s pomočjo ovrednotenja posameznih predpostavk. Rezultati vseh raziskav so pokazali, da bi bilo potrebno opraviti nadaljne raziskave, ki bi bile povezane predvsem z določanjem kapacitete, zlasti glede strižne nosilnosti konstrukcijskih elementov in glede kapacitete celotne konstrukcije. Ugotovljeno je bilo tudi, da so ocene potresnih zahtev močno odvisne od ocene začetne efektivne togosti konstrukcije, zato je izbira ustrezne efektivne togosti na nivoju elementa izredno pomembna. Enakomerno zmanjšanje togosti na polovično vrednost togosti nerazpokanih prerezov, ki jo predpisuje EC8, lahko zelo podceni potresne zahteve. Izbira začetne togosti ima lahko na potresno odpornost večji vpliv kot izbira postopka analize. The doctoral dissertation describes the methodology for the assessment of the seismic resistance of reinforced concrete (RC) structures at different levels of complexity. The methodolgy starts with a preliminary rapid visual screening method which is based on the American method. This is followed by procedures which operate at five different levels of complexity, including simple procedures which are based on methods that were originally developed in Japan (levels 1 and 2), the N2 method with two variants of the mathematical model (levels 3 and 4), and the non-linear dynamic analysis (level 5). A separate chapter deals with the assessment of the load-carrying capacity of structural members, which is assessed differently at the different level of complexity. Models for the assessment of flexural and shear behaviour are presented, and the results obtained when using the different models are compared with experimental results for column and wall specimens from the SERIES database. In the case of flexural behaviour, the assessment of flexural strength of the structural members is presented, together with the effective yield rotation and the ultimate rotation. Based on data given in the SERIES database, assumed values for the ultimate stresses are selected in the case of columns at the 1st level. In the case of the three highest levels of complexity the assessments of the seisimc resistance of the structures are performed by using a mathematical model of the structure. A simplified model is used at the 3rd level, where the pushover analyses are performed using a slightly modified version of the original NEAVEK program. Here the mathematical model is based on an extension of the pseudo-threedimensional mathematical model into the non-linear range. In contrast to the 3rd level, at the 4th and 5th levels standard mathematical modelling is applied. In this case the non-linear analyses are performed using the OpenSees software, together with the PBEE-toolbox. Seismic resistance assessment was performed on twelve variants of several frame structures, four variants of (cantilever) wall structures, and five variants of dual structures. The results of the performed seismic resistance assessments for all the investigated buildings indicate a small difference between the N2 method and the non-linear dynamic analysis, whereas the results of the procedures at the first two levels were less reliable, and are much more conservative. On the other hand, the amount of input data and the scope of computational work increases with the increasing level of complexity. The reasons for the observed conservatism of the lower two levels, and also of the 3rd level, are explained by an evaluation of the individual assumptions made. Research into the definition of load-carrying capacity is needed, especially with respect to the shear capacity of structural members and the capacity of the whole structure. It was found that the seismic demand depends strongly on the initial effective stiffness of the structure. For this reason the choice of an adequate initial stiffness at the element level is very important. A uniformly reduced stiffness to one half of that corresponding to the uncracked gross-sections, as allowed by EC8, may grossly underestimate the seismic demand. The choice of initial stiffness may have a larger influence on the seismic resistance than the choice of the analysis procedure.

V diplomski nalogi je bila narejena parametrična nelinearna seizmična analiza kamnite zidane stavbe v Čezsoči. V prvem delu naloge je opravljen pregled metod preskušanja, ki so osnova za projektiranje obstoječih stavb, saj je od njih odvisna raven poznavanja konstrukcije. Poudarek je na neporušnih metodah, ki so izmed vseh metod najbolj zaželene in obenem zaradi nenehnega razvoja tehnike predstavljajo hitro razvijajoče se in obetavno področje. V nadaljevanju je opisan postopek preverjanja potresne odpornosti obstoječih zidanih stavb v skladu s sodobnimi standardi. Razloženi so različni mehanizmi porušitve strižno obremenjenih nearmiranih zidanih elementov. Po korakih je opisana poenostavljena N2 metoda. V praktičnem delu je predstavljena obravnavana stavba in rezultati opravljenih in-situ preiskav. Parametrično analizo smo naredili z dvema programskima paketoma (Sremb in 3Muri) za nelinearno seizmično analizo zidanih konstrukcij. Pri tem smo določali potresno odpornost v odvisnosti od parametra poznavanja konstrukcije, izbire ustreznega porušnega mehanizma, upoštevanja varnostnih faktorjev ter utrditve stavbe s postopkom injektiranja. Pokaže se, da s sistematičnim injektiranjem lahko dosežemo zahteve sodobnih standardov. Zaradi različnih predpostavk v obnašanju stavbe med potresom se rezultata potresne odpornosti, dobljena z različnima programskima paketoma, lahko močno razlikujeta. Razlike nastopijo tudi zaradi predpostavljenega porušnega mehanizma. Pokaže se, da je investiranje v predhodne preiskave smiselno, saj se lahko ob upoštevanju dejanskih materialnih karakteristik bistveno bolj približamo razpoložljivi potresni odpornosti konstrukcije. IV In the diploma, a parametric analysis of seismic resistance of a stone masonry building in Čezsoča was performed. The first part presents an overview of the testing methods being the basis for redesign of existing buildings since they define the depth of knowledge of the construction. The emphasis is on non-destructive testing, which is preferred due to its characteristics and continuous development in technology, presenting a quickly developing and promising area. Next, we described the process of assessment of seismic resistance of existing masonry buildings in accordance with contemporary standards. Different mechanisms of shear failure for unreinforced masonry walls are explained. The simplified N2 method is presented step by step. In the practical part of the thesis, the analyzed building and the results of in-situ testing are presented. The parametrical analysis was carried out using two programs (Sremb and 3Muri) for non-linear seismic analysis of masonry structures. We defined the seismic resistance in dependence of the parameter of knowledge of the construction, the choice of an appropriate failure mechanism, consideration of safety factors and strengthening the building with grout technique. The results of the analysis show that the requirements of contemporary standards can be fulfilled by systematic grouting. Due to different suppositions for the behaviour of the building under seismic loading, the results of seismic resistance achieved using the two programs differ significantly. The differences appear also due to the presumed failure mechanism. Investment in preliminary in-situ testing is valuable since it is possible to come much closer to the available seismic resistance while considering the actual material characteristics.

V magistrski nalogi obravnavamo štiri nadstropni jekleni okvir z zamaknjenimi etažami pri potresni obremenitvi. Okviri so dimenzionirani z različnimi pristopi. Dva okvira sta dimenzionirana po načinu DCM z manjšimi odmikom od pravil, ki jih določa SIST EN 1998-1. Trije okviri so dimenzionirani po načinu DCH. Za okvire so izdelani matematični modeli v programskem okolju Abaqus. Okviri so modelirani s kombinacijo lupinastih in linijskih končnih elementov. Upoštevana je materialna in geometrijska nelinearnost. Na vsakem modelu je izvedena potisna N2 analiza in dinamična nelinearna analiza s tremi akcelogrami. N2 metoda je bila uporabljena za oceno pričakovanega plastičnega mehanizma, distribucijo poškodb in za potrditev vrednosti faktorja obnašanja q. Z rezultati dinamičnih analiz primerjamo velikost akumuliranih plastičnih deformacij, maksimalne pomike tekom potresa in količino sipane energije v plastičnih deformacijah. Vidna so mesta plastičnih členkov. The master’s thesis deals with four story steel frames with staggered floor construction designed for seismic action. Steel frames are designed according to different approaches. Two frames are designed according for DCM with smaller modifications to rules given in SIST EN 1998-1. Three frames are designed according for DCH. All frames are modeled in the SIMULIA Abaqus FEA program. The models are combination of linear beam and shell finite elements. The geometric and material nonlinearity were taken into consideration. The models are subjected to pushover N2 analysis and dynamic nonlinear analysis with three different ground motions. The N2 method was used to estimate the expected plastic mechanisms and the distribution of damage and to revise the behaviour factor. The results of dynamic analysis were used to compare equivalent plastic strain, maximum displacements of frames, plastic dissipation energy, and the distribution of damage.

V diplomskem delu je predstavljena renesančna palača Longo, ki se nahaja v mestnem jedru Kopra ter opisano njeno obstoječe stanje. Navedene so različne metode in pristopi s katerimi lahko utrdimo konstrukcijo. Predstavljena je tudi problematika prisotnosti vlage v objektih. Navedeni so predlagani ukrepi za sanacijo in utrditev objekta ter načrti predlaganih rešitev. Za izvedbo ukrepov so ocenjeni okvirni stroški. V računskem delu diplomskega dela so podani izračuni za obstoječ strop, sovprežni strop iz lesa in betona, ki je predviden kot metoda za utrditev konstrukcije in aproksimativna ocena potresne odpornosti. The thesis presents the Renaissance Longo palace, situated in the town centre of Koper, and provides the description of its current state. It mentions different methods and approaches which may be used to strengthen the construction. Moreover, it presents the issue of dampness in buildings. It proposes some measures for the rehabilitation and strengthening of the building as well as the plans for the proposed solutions. The indicative costs of carrying out the measures have been estimated. The computational part of the thesis includes the calculations for the existing ceiling, the timber-concrete composite structure intended as the method for strengthening the construction, and the approximate estimate of seismic resistance.

Osnovno izhodišče doktorske disertacije je definirati okvire trajnostne obnove stavbne dediščine, predvsem njenega ovoja kot najbolj izpostavljenega stavbnega sklopa. V okviru raziskav smo se osredotočili na poškodbe, ki bi jih lahko na ovoju povzročile podnebne spremembe in potresna obremenitev. V sklopu laboratorijskih preiskav smo načrtovali in preskušali več sestav malt in injekcijskih mešanic na osnovi apnenega veziva z ali brez mineralnih dodatkov, primernih za obnovo in/ali utrjevanje stavbnega ovoja. Rezultati kažejo ugoden vpliv mineralnih dodatkov, kot so apnenčeva moka, žlindra in tuf na lastnosti malt in injekcijskih mešanic. Na opečnih zidkih, grajenih iz dveh malt razvitih v okviru lastnih raziskav, smo ocenili vpliv izmenjujočih se ciklov zmrzovanja/tajanja na trajnost in nosilnost opečnega ovoja. Zidki iz običajne apnene malte in zidki, zgrajeni iz apnene malte z dodano žlindro, so ne glede na poškodbe, brez posledic na mehanske lastnosti sposobni prenesti vsaj 50 ciklov zmrzovanja/tajanja. Po 150-ih ciklih zmrzovanja/tajanja pa se poškodbe odrazijo na zmanjšanju modulov elastičnosti. V okviru in situ preiskav smo ovrednotili kakovost in učinkovitost izbranega utrditvenega trajnostnega posega – sistematičnega injektiranja ovoja kamnite stavbe s cementnimi in cementno-apnenimi injekcijskimi mešanicami. Nelinearna potresna analiza kamnite stavbe, izvedena na osnovi rezultatov in situ preiskav, kaže, da lahko za analizirano vrsto zidov tudi s cementno-apnenimi injekcijskimi mešanicami, ki so za utrjevanje stavbne dediščine primernejše, dosežemo zadostno stopnjo potresne odpornosti. The aim of the doctoral dissertation was to define the framework for sustainable renovation of heritage buildings, particularly of the building envelope as the most exposed part. The research was focused on the damage that could be caused by climate change or seismic loads. As a part of the laboratory tests, several mortar and injection grout compositions based on calcium binders with or without mineral additives, suitable for renovation and/or strengthening of the building envelope were designed and tested. It was found that mineral additives such as limestone powder, slag and tuff have a beneficial effect of on the properties of mortars and injection grouts. In continuation, the brick wallets were built with developed mortars and the influence of freeze/thaw cycles on their mechanical properties and durability was evaluated. The wallets built with lime or lime-slag mortar were able to withstand at least 50 freeze/thaw cycles without any effect on their mechanical properties, while after 150 freeze/thaw cycles, the damage was reflected in the reduction of modulus of elasticity. In situ test performed on a stone masonry building enabled us to evaluate the quality and effectiveness of grout injection (using cement or cement-lime grouts) as the chosen sustainable strengthening procedure. The results of the performed seismic analysis based on the experimentally obtained mechanical properties of masonry showed, that in the case of the type of walls under consideration, an adequate level of seismic resistance can be achieved also by using combined cement-lime grouts, which are more suitable for strengthening of heritage buildings.

Pri projektiranju jeklenih okvirov je potrebno velik del pozornosti nameniti potresnemu projektiranju, saj so v preteklosti hudi potresi povzročili veliko škode na takšnih sistemih. Skozi čas so bili zato razviti različni disipativni sistemi, s katerimi bi se izognili hujšim poškodbam nosilne konstrukcije v primeru potresa. Uvod diplomske naloge predstavi osnovne tipe disipativnih elementov, v nadaljevanju pa so podrobneje opisane lastnosti, obnašanje in smernice za projektiranje treh izmed najefektivnejših sistemov. In design of steel frames a huge focus is on seismic design since earthquakes caused a lot of damage on such systems. Through time different dissipative devices were developed to avoid fatal injuries. This graduation thesis presents some of them and more specifically discusses behaviour and design guidelines for three of the most effective systems.

V diplomski nalogi smo dimenzionirali leseno brv, ki smo si jo v celoti sami zamislili. Lesena brv naj bi bila zgrajena na mestu že obstoječe lesene viseče brvi v bližini Kobarida. Lesena brv je sestavljena iz dveh glavnih ravnih lameliranih nosilcev in dveh ločnih lameliranih nosilcev, ki sledijo kvadratni funkciji. Nosilca sta med seboj povezana s stebri iz masivnega lesa, v horizontalni smeri pa se elementi povezujejo s pomočjo lesenih prečnikov. Zavarovalna konstrukcija je sestavljena iz prečnikov in jeklenega povezja, ki nosi le v nategu. Vsi leseni elementi se med seboj stikujejo s pomočjo jeklenih spojev, katere smo si ravno tako sami zamislili in jih zato tudi sami dimenzionirali. Sledili smo načelu poudariti lesene elemente in prikriti jeklene dele konstrukcije, kar nam je z malo iznajdljivosti tudi uspelo. V večini so vsi jekleni deli skriti v leseno konstrukcijo in tako niso vidni. Na koncu smo vse dimenzije elementov prenesli na delavniške načrte, s pomočjo katerih bi bilo možno vse dele konstrukcije tudi izdelati in nato sestaviti v leseno brv. In this thesis we have designed timber footbridge which architecture is completelly made out of our immagination . Timber footbridge is meant to be built on the site of the existing wooden hanging footbridge near Kobarid. Timber footbridge consists of two main straight laminated beams and two arc- laminated beams that follow the square function. The beams are connected with pillars made of solid wood. In the horisontal direction elements are connected with wooden sleepers. Insurance construction is composed of sleepers and the steel truss , which carries only in tension. All wooden elements are mutually connected with steel joints, which we have also imagined themselves and are therefore designed by us too. We followed the principle to emphasize the wooden parts and conceal the steel parts of the structure, in which we have succeeded with help of a little indegnuity. In most all steel parts hidden in the wooden structure and thus not visible. In the very end we transferred all dimensions of elements to the workshop plans to help make it possible to create all parts of the structure and then assemble them in a timber footbridge.

V diplomski nalogi je obravnavana poenostavljena nelinearna analiza izbranih družinskih hiš na območju Krškega. Osnovo za modeliranje in analizo obravnavanih objektov sta predstavljala standarda Evrokod 6, ki obravnava zidane konstrukcije in Evrokod 8, ki obravnava potresnoodporno projektiranje konstrukcij. Teoretične osnove in zaporedje postopka računa so predstavljene v prvem delu naloge. Na hitro se naloga dotakne nastanka potresov in njihovega vpliva na okolje, opisane so materialne karakteristike opečnih zidov in podane enačbe za račun nosilnosti zidovja. V nadaljevanju so predstavljene teoretične osnove za oceno potresne odpornosti zidanih objektov. V drugem delu naloge je podan primer potresne analize enega izmed objektov, nato pa je predlagan še model normirane potisne krivulje glede na rezultate potisnih analiz štirih značilnih zidanih hiš na območju Krškega. Predlagamo, da nosilnost značilnega zidanega objekta iz opečnih votlakov za šibko os znaša približno 27 % teže objekta, pomik etaže na meji porušitve pa približno 0.42 % višine etaže. Približno potisno krivuljo za izbran objekt lahko določimo enostavno tako, da normirane prečne sile s predlaganega modela potisne krivulje pomnožimo s težo objekta, normirane pomike pa z višino pritlične etaže, ki se za zidane objekte malo spreminja. Potrebno je poudariti, da so rezultati take ocene vsekakor precej negotovi tako zaradi uporabe precej poenostavljenih nelinearnih modelov, kot tudi zaradi majhnega števila objektov, ki smo jih upoštevali pri določitvi normirane potisne krivulje značilnih zidanih objektov. Zato je uporaba predlaganega modela primerna le za hitre ocene potresne odpornosti večjega števila objektov. The diploma thesis addresses a simplified nonlinear seismic (»pushover«) analysis of selected family houses in the Krško region. Standards Eurocode 6 and 8, which, respectively, deals with masonry buildings and earthquake-resistant design of buildings, were used as a basis for modelling and seismic analysis of the examined houses. The theoretical background and sequences of seismic analysis are presented in the first part of the thesis, where the occurrence of earthquakes and their impact on environment are also briefly addressed. In addition, the mechanical characteristics and the models of resistance of the masonry walls are described. Follow an overview of the theoretical background for seismic performance assessment of masonry buildings. The second part of the thesis presents results of simplified seismic analysis of a family house. At the end of the thesis, the model for normalized pushover curve of masonry buildings in the Krško region is proposed by taking into account the results of seismic evaluation of four examined buildings. It is suggested that an average shear resistance in the weak direction of a building from Krško region, which is constructed by hollow bricks, is around 27 % of its weight, whereas the ultimate storey drifts is around 0.42 % of the storey height. The proposed model makes it possible to assess the pushover curve of the examined building simply by multiplying the normalized shear forces from the model by the weight of the examined building and by multiplying the normalized storey drifts by the storey height. It should be noted that the results of such an assessment is quite uncertain, not only due to the simplified models used for the pushover analysis, but also due to the fact that only a small number of buildings were used in the parametric study. Therefore, the use of the proposed normalized pushover curve is limited and may be suitable only for rapid seismic performance assessment of large number of buildings.

V magistrskem delu so predstavljene spremembe pri potresnoodpornem projektiranju konstrukcij, ki jih uvaja predlog novega standarda Evrokod 8. Novosti smo analizirali na praktičnem primeru 5-etažnega jeklenega objekta iz momentih okvirov in okvirov z ekscentričnimi povezji. Preučili smo nove definicije razredov duktilnosti, faktorjev obnašanja, faktorja občutljivosti za stavbe in kontrolo vplivov teorije drugega reda, kontrole etažnih pomikov v novih mejnih stanjih ter pravila za projektiranje jeklenih konstrukcij. Pravila iz trenutnega standarda Evrokod 8 za razred duktilnosti DCH smo primerjali s predlaganimi pravili za nova razreda duktilnosti DC2 in DC3. Potresnoodporno analizo smo izvedli za ravninske modele momentnih okvirov in okvirov z ekscentričnimi povezji z metodo z vodoravnimi silami. Za momente okvire smo izvedli tudi poenostavljeno nelinearno statično analizo. Ugotovili smo, da projektiranje momentnih okvirov po predlogu novega standarda Evrokod 8 dovoljuje nekoliko lažje in vitkejše konstrukcije z manjšimi dimenzijami elementov. Pri tem za dimenzioniranje niso več merodajni vplivi teorije drugega reda, temveč omejitve etažnih pomikov. Nasprotno, upoštevanje pravil predloga novega standarda Evrokod 8 povečuje zahteve nosilnosti in stabilnosti elementov ekscentričnega povezja. Sam postopek projektiranja ekscentričnega povezja se ne razlikuje od obstoječega. Zahteve poostruje povečanje potresnega dela obtežbe potresnega projektnega stanja. Obremenitve elementov ekscentričnih povezij v DC3 in DC2 so bile večje do te mere, da je bilo najbolj smiselno povečati število povezij in ohraniti primerljive dimenzije elementov. The master thesis deals with the changes in the seismic resistance design of structures introduced by the proposal of the new standard Eurocode 8. The novelties were analysed on a practical example of a 5-storey steel building stabilised with moment resisting frames and frames with eccentric bracings. The new definitions of ductility classes, behaviour factors, the interstorey drift sensitivity coefficient and the control of second order effects, the limitations of interstorey drifts in the new limit states and the specific rules for steel buildings were examined. The code requirements from the current Eurocode 8 for ductility class DCH were compared to the proposed rules for the new ductility classes DC2 and DC3. Seismic analysis was performed for planar models of moment resisting frames and frames with eccentric bracings using the lateral force method. A nonlinear static analysis (pushover) for the moment resisting frames was also performed. It was found that the design of moment resisting frames according to the proposal of the new Eurocode 8 allows somewhat lighter and slimmer structures. In this case, the influences of the second order effects are no longer governing, but rather by the limitations of interstorey drifts. On the contrary, following the changes of the new Eurocode 8 means higher resistance and stability requirements for frames with eccentric bracings. Seismic resistance design of frames with eccentric bracings does not differ from current process. The resistance and stability requirements are intensified by the increase of the seismic part of the seismic design state. The internal forces in the frame with eccentric bracings designed for DC2 and DC3 were greater to the point that it was more reasonable to increase the number of eccentric bracings and maintain comparable element dimensions.

V okviru magistrskega dela je obravnavano protipotresno utrjevanje nosilne konstrukcije OŠ Riharda Jakopiča v Ljubljani. V prvem delu naloge je prikazan krajši pregled razvoja prvih predpisov za protipotresno gradnjo vse do danes veljavnih Evrokodov. Opisan je splošen postopek načrtovanja rekonstrukcije objekta od ocene obstoječega stanja na podlagi terenskih oz. laboratorijskih preiskav, potresne analize obstoječega stanja v skladu z veljavnimi predpisi ter načrtovanjem utrditvenih ukrepov. Pomemben del magistrskega dela je ocena potresne odpornosti obstoječe nosilne konstrukcije objekta na podlagi nelinearne statične potisne analize v programu 3Muri. Vhodni podatki za numerični model so bili pridobljeni na podlagi dostopne tehnične dokumentacije, poročil o izvedenih preiskavah ter lastnih neporušnih preiskavah. Na podlagi rezultatov potisnih krivulj ter največjih možnih pomikov in pospeškov, ki jih dobimo s programom 3Muri, je bilo ugotovljeno, da obstoječi objekt ne zadosti zahtevam potresne odpornosti glede na zahteve veljavnega protipotresnega standarda. V zadnjem delu je analiziran postopek utrjevanja nosilne konstrukcije z opisom nabora možnih utrditvenih ukrepov. Analizirali smo več različnih možnih ukrepov za povečanje potresne odpornosti z uporabo dodatnih jeklenih okenskih okvirjev, povečanjem deleža sten, armiranobetonskih ometov in FRCM (kompozitne tkanine v cementni matriki) utrditev ter preverili njihov vpliv na protipotresno odpornost stavbe. V zaključnem delu naloge sta bolj podrobno prikazani dve najbolj uspešni varianti za utrditev nosilne konstrukcije, s katerima objekt zadosti trenutno veljavnim predpisom o potresni gradnji v Sloveniji. The master thesis deals with the seismic strengthening of the load-bearing structure of the public primary school of Rihard Jakopič in Ljubljana. In the first part of the thesis, we made a brief overview of the regulation development for the seismic design in Slovenia. The thesis describes the procedure for the design of mitigation actions for the building from the assessment of the existing condition on the basis of the results of different testing methods, seismic analysis of the building in current state and design of restrengthening measures. An important part of the master thesis is the assessment of seismic resistance of the existing load-bearing structure of the building through non-linear seismic analysis provided by the software 3Muri. The input data for the numerical model were obtained on the basis of available technical documentation, investigation reports and our own non-destructive tests. Based on the results of the pushover capacity curves and the maximum displacements and accelerations obtained with the 3Muri program, it was determined that the existing facility does not meet current requirements for the seismic resistance. In the last part of this thesis, mitigation actions were analysed with a set of possible strengthening measures. For this purpose we analysed different measures such as using steel window frames, adding load-bearing walls, applying reinforced concrete plasters and FRCM (fibre reinforced cement matrix) and assess their impact on the seismic performance of the building. In the final part of the thesis two the most successful solutions for the strengthening that satisfies the currently valid seismic requirements in Slovenia are presented in more details.

V disertaciji so predstavljene obsežne eksperimentalne, analitične in numerične raziskave obnašanja večetažnih zidanih strižnih sten z odprtinami pri potresni obtežbi. Izvedena je ciklična strižna preiskava 3-etažnega preizkušanca, s katero smo preučevali odziv tipične 5-etažne zidane stavbe, grajene na območju Slovenije in njene širše okolice v času pred letom 1964, ko so bili pri nas sprejeti prvi potresni predpisi, na simulirano potresno obtežbo. Rezultati preiskave so potrdili predpostavke in pojasnili mehanizme potresnega obnašanja zidu kot osnovnega elementa, vpetega v celotno strižno steno dejanske zidane konstrukcije. Z analizo rezultatov obsežnih meritev sil in deformacij ter optičnih meritev pomikov na površini strižnih sten med preiskavo večetažnega preizkušanca je bil ugotovljen dejanski sovpliv vertikalnih in horizontalnih elementov celotne strižne stene med potresom, kar je omogočilo realnejšo simulacijo vpetostnih in obtežbenih pogojev med preiskavo posameznega zidu. Z namenom, da bi učinke sodobnih tehnoloških rešitev za protipotresno utrjevanje, ki v praksi še niso v celoti potrjene, tudi eksperimentalno raziskali, je bila preiskava večetažnega preizkušanca prekinjena ob pojavu še popravljivih poškodb. Poškodovan večetažni model je bil utrjen s kompozitnimi oblogami iz malte, armirane s steklenimi vlakni, ter mrež in sider iz steklenih vlaken ter bil nato ponovno preiskan, tokrat do porušitve. Eksperimentalni rezultati kažejo, da je možno z ustreznim načinom utrjevanja zidovja doseči občutno izboljšanje potresnega obnašanja (povečana začetna togost, 50 % višja potresna odpornost, izboljšana deformabilnost). V sklopu disertacije je bil razvit in verificiran makro element, ki omogoča modeliranje cikličnega odziva zidovja ter je sposoben upoštevati tako upogibno kot tudi strižno obnašanje in njuno interakcijo. V zaključnem poglavju je predstavljena tudi validacija učinkovitega inženirskega računskega modela potresne odpornosti osnovnega in utrjenega modela, ki temelji na tvorbi etažnega mehanizma in uporabi referenčne natezne trdnosti zidovja. Extensive experimental, analytical and numerical research on seismic behaviour of multistorey shear walls with openings has been presented in the dissertation. Cyclic shear test of the multistorey specimen to simulate seismic response of the 5-storey high unreinforced masonry building, commonly built in Slovenia and broader region before 1964, when the first earthquake regulations were adopted in Slovenia, has been performed. The results of experimental research, carried out within the framework of this project, confirmed some basic assumptions regarding the mechanism of seismic behaviour of a single wall pier as a structural member of an entire masonry shear wall. The analysis of results of extensive measurements of forces and deformations as well as optical measurements of displacements over the surface of the entire shear walls subjected to seismic loading, made possible a realistic simulation of boundary and loading conditions when testing single wall elements. In order to verify actual efficiency of modern techniques for an aseismic strengthening of existing masonry buildings, which have not been fully confirmed in practice yet, the cyclic shear test of multistorey shear walls has been terminated while major, but still repairable damage developed in the walls. Then, the damaged model was strengthened with fiber reinforced cement mortar based coating and re-tested up to near collapse limit state. The results of the experiment proved that the strengthening of masonry buildings using such technologies is efficient, as significant improvement in seismic behaviour (increased initial stiffness, 50 % higher seismic resistance and improved deformability) has been achieved. Within the framework of the dissertation, a macro element for the modelling of the cyclic response of the masonry has been developed and validated. It is capable of taking into account bending and shear behaviour as well as their interaction. In the final section, the validation of an efficient practical model for the evaluation of seismic resistance of the reference and strengthened building model, based on the formation of storey mechanism and on the application of the referential tensile strength of masonry, is demonstrated.

Vsebina pričujoče magistrske naloge je povezana z realnim problemom iz inženirske prakse. Predmet analize je ocena potresne odpornosti nosilne konstrukcije stavbe za izobraževanje v Ljubljani. Nosilna konstrukcija je pretežno iz opeke in je bila grajena v petdesetih letih prejšnjega stoletja. Geometrijske in materialne karakteristike nosilne konstrukcije so bile pridobljene s pomočjo tehnične dokumentacije in z izvajanjem preiskav na objektu. Pri tem je bilo uporabljenih več vrst destruktivnih, delno destruktivnih in nedestruktivnih preiskovalnih metod. Nato je predstavljeno teoretično ozadje seizmične analize objektov iz nearmiranega zidovja. Na podlagi pridobljenih informacij o stavbi je bil izdelan idealiziran računski model nosilne konstrukcije s programskim orodjem 3Muri. Omenjen program omogoča nelinearno statično analizo konstrukcije s pomočjo makroelementov. Kot rezultat analize program poda potisne krivulje in največje možne pomike ter pospeške, ki jih je konstrukcija še sposobna prenesti. Ugotovljeno je bilo, da nosilna konstrukcija obravnavane stavbe ne nudi ustrezne potresne odpornosti glede na zahteve veljavnega standarda. V nadaljevanju je analiziranih več različnih smiselno izbranih možnosti za povečanje potresne odpornosti obravnavane stavbe. Pri snovanju utrditvenih ukrepov je upoštevano dejstvo, da se bo v bližnji prihodnosti gradil prizidek k obstoječi stavbi. Najustreznejšo varianto utrditve predstavljajo dodatne nosilne armiranobetonske stene in bodoči prizidek objekta. In the master thesis, we deal with an engineering practice problem. The subject matter is to assess seismic resistance of an educational facility in Ljubljana. Bearing system of the facility, which was built in the fifties, is mainly made of bricks. Geometric and mechanical features of the existent bearing system were examined by technical documentation and by executing research at the facility. Many destructive, partially destructive and non-destructive research methods were used. Later on a theoretical background is presented, which refers to the seismic analysis of objects made of unreinforced masonry. In the program 3Muri an idealized computational model is presented based on obtained information of the facility. The program is based on the macro elements principle and the non-linear method for seismic performance assessment. Pushover curves, the maximum displacement and acceleration of the bearing system are given as the result of analysis of the structure. According to conditions of the valid standard, the bearing system of the discussed building does not reach the seismic resistance. Later on there are analysed different options for improvement of the seismic resistance of the facility. While designing the strengthening measures it has been taken into account that an extension of the building will be built in the near future. Additional reinforced concrete walls and the future extension of the building are presenting final strengthening measures.

Doktorsko delo obravnava protipotresno utrjevanje obstoječih konstrukcij s sistemom obložnih križno lepljenih lesenih (CLT) plošč. Izvedena je bila serija monotonih preiskav upogiba križno lepljenih plošč v ravnini, kvazistatičnih cikličnih preiskav neutrjenih in utrjenih zidov iz nearmirane opečne zidovine ter dinamične preiskave neutrjenega in utrjenega dvoetažnega armiranobetonskega (AB) okvirja z ali brez opečnih polnil na potresni mizi. Slednji je bil dimenzioniran v skladu s pravilnikom o protipotresnem projektiranju iz leta 1981 in je bil v osnovi že potresno odporen. Testi opečnih zidov so pokazali, da je možno z mehanskim pritrjevanjem CLT plošč na konstrukcijo povečati nosilnost do 34 %, mejni pomik pa za 165 %. Testi AB okvirja z opečnimi polnili so pokazali, da so CLT ojačitve povrnile nihajne dobe poškodovane konstrukcije v prvotno stanje, zmanjšale so tudi torzijsko podajnost objekta. Delež utrditve je bil sicer dokaj velik v primerjavi z osnovnim objektom. Izdelani so bili numerični modeli ter izračunana potresna odpornost testiranih vzorčnih primerov. Ugotovljeno je bilo, da je s predlaganim sistemom obložnih CLT plošč možno zmanjšati obseg poškodb na testiranih AB okvirju in AB okvirju z opečnim polnilom. Na numeričnem 2D modelu večje stene iz nearmirane opečne zidovine (del fiktivnega dvoetažnega objekta), ki ni izpolnjevala kriterijev za mejna stanja omejevanja poškodb in stanja na meji porušitve, smo po namestitvi ojačilnih plošč, sidranih v medetažno konstrukcijo, povečali njeno potresno odpornost. Obenem je bila izvedena parametrična študija vpliva robnih pogojev na obnašanje konstrukcij iz križno lepljenih plošč z različnimi metodami % modalno analizo s spektri odziva, potisno analizo z N2 metodo ter nelinearno dinamično analizo. Prikazali smo, kako različna togost, nosilnost in duktilnost spojev vpliva na potresno odpornost konstrukcij iz CLT plošč, pomembnost upoštevanja vertikalne obtežbe na stene ter vpliv trenja. Analizirali smo tudi vpliv geometrije sten, ki so lahko sestavljene iz enega večjega ali več manjših kosov. Predlagali smo še postopek za izračun nadomestnih horizontalnih togosti in nosilnosti v ravnini križno lepljenih sten, v kombinaciji z upoštevanjem vertikalne obtežbe, trenja in spojev med lesenimi stenami in medetažami, ki je primeren za inženirsko prakso in omogoča definiranje togosti konstrukcije za modalno analizo s spektri odziva. The doctoral thesis deals with the seismic strengthening of existing structures with a cladding system of cross laminated timber (CLT) plates. An experimental series of monotonic in-plane bending tests of cross laminated timber plates was performed, a quasi-static cyclic testing series of unstrengthened and strengthened unreinforced masonry walls and a series of dynamic tests on a shaking table where a two-story unstrengthened and strengthened reinforced concrete frame with and without masonry infill was analysed. The later was designed according to the demands of the 1981 seismic guidelines and was basically already seismic resistant. The masonry wall tests showed that by using a mechanically connected CLT plate the load bearing capacity can be increased by 34 % and ultimate displacement by 165 %. The RC frame tests with masonry infill showed that the CLT strengthening plates caused the vibration periods of an already damaged structure to return back to their initial state, the building%s torsional flexibility was also decreased. However, the proportion of the strengthening was quite large compared to the basic structure. Numerical models of the tested structures were made, their seismic resistance was calculated. It was found that the proposed CLT cladding strengthening system can reduce the extent of damage on the tested RC frame and frame with masonry infill. A 2D numerical model of a larger unreinforced masonry wall (part of a fictional case study building) that didn%t meet the damage limitation and near collapse limit states, showed that after the instalment of the CLT plates anchored into the floor structure the wall%s seismic resistance was increased. In addition, a parametric study of the influence of boundary conditions on the seismic behaviour of cross laminated timber buildings is performed with different analysis types % a modal analysis with elastic spectrum response, a pushover analysis with the N2 method and a nonlinear dynamic analysis. We have demonstrated how different stiffness, strength and ductility of connections influences on the seismic resistance of CLT structures, the importance of taking the vertical load acting on walls into account as well as the influence of friction. We have also analysed the influence of wall geometry that can be built from either one larger or several smaller pieces. Also, a procedure for the calculation of a wall%s in plane substitute stiffness and strength considering the influence of the vertical load, friction and connections among timber walls and floors is proposed, which is suitable for the engineering practice and allows the definition of a structure%s stiffness for the modal analysis with the response spectra.

V magistrski nalogi je bila izvedena parametrična komparativna analiza potresne odpornosti objekta kulturne dediščine. Obravnavali smo objekt Gorenjske banke v Radovljici na naslovu Gorenjska cesta 16. Vhodne podatke za izvedbo analiz smo pridobili na podlagi terenskih materialno-tehničnih preiskav objekta. Za določanje ocene potresne odpornosti sta bila uporabljena program 3Muri, ki upošteva globalni odziv konstrukcije, in program SREMB, ki upošteva etažni odziv konstrukcije. Z namenom pridobitve čimbolj realnih rezultatov potresnega odziva objekta smo numerični model objekta v programu 3Muri definirali s podajnimi stropovi, pri čemer smo upoštevali dejanske sestave medetažnih konstrukcij, ki smo jih predhodno pridobili iz terenskih preiskav. Izvedene so bile tri skupine analiz. V prvem sklopu analiz smo preučevali vpliv različnih trdnostnih parametrov materialov na potresno odpornost objekta. V drugem sklopu smo, poleg vpliva različnih trdnostnih parametrov, dodatno preučevali še vpliv različnih parametrov mejnih stanj na odziv objekta. V Tretjem sklopu pa smo izvedli kontrole predpostavljenih lokalnih porušnih mehanizmov zahodne fasade objekta. Na podlagi rezultatov prvega sklopa je bilo ugotovljeno, da uporaba materialov z višjimi trdnostnimi karakteristikami posledično poveča tudi potresno odpornost zidanega objekta. Razlike med dobljenimi potresnimi odpornostmi iz obeh programov so se gibale v rangu 30-50 %. V nadaljevanju smo dodatno preučevali še vpliv različnih vrednosti mejnih pomikov na dobljeno potresno odpornost. Ugotovili smo, da je način izračuna programa SREMB za tovrstne analize neprimeren. Na podlagi rezultatov programa 3Muri smo prišli do zaključka, da je povečanje mejnih vrednosti pomikov povečalo potresno odpornost objekta le za ca. 5 % napram prvemu sklopu rezultatov, kar pomeni, da pri zidanih konstrukcijah večanje mehanskih parametrov neprimerno bolj vpliva na dobljeno potresno odpornost v primerjavi z večanjem mejnih pomikov. V zadnjem, tretjem sklopu analiz so rezultati pokazali, da je porušna odpornost fasade odvisna od predpostavljenega porušnega mehanizma, lastne teže materiala in povezanosti fasade s konstrukcijo. Na podlagi vseh izvedenih analiz smo zaključili, da je potresna odpornost objekta v sedanjem stanju nezadostna. Zaradi tega je potrebno v primeru sanacije oz. utrditve konstrukcije izvesti ukrepe, s katerimi se zagotovi tako globalna, kot tudi lokalna odpornost objekta. In the master thesis, the parametric comparative analysis of the seismic performance of cultural heritage building was investigated. For this purpose the building of Gorenjska bank in Radovljica on Gorenjska 16 street was assessed. Input data for the analysis were obtained through in-situ investigation of built materials and by probing. To determine the assessment of the earthquake resistance, we have used software 3Muri which takes into account global resistance of the structure and software SREMB which takes into account the storey response of the structure. In order to obtain more realistic results, the numerical model in 3Muri was modelled with flexible floors, keeping in mind the actual composition of the floors, which were previously obtained from the field investigations. In present work we have performed three types of analysis. In the first set of analysis, the influence of the different strength parameters of materials on earthquake resistance was evaluated. In the second set of analysis, in addition to the study of impact of the different strength parameters of material, we evaluated the influence of various limit drift values parameters on the earthquake resistance of the building. In final set of analysis we have performed seismic assessment of the assumed local failure mechanisms of the western facade of the buidling. Based on the results of the first set of analysis, we have found out that the materials with higher strength characteristics consequently increase the seismic resistance of the masonry building. Results of seismic resistance varied in the range of 30-50 % between the two softwares. In addition we have further evaluated the influence of the various limit drift values on the seismic resistance. It was found that the program SREMB is not appropriate for this type of analysis. Nevertheless, on base of the results from program 3Muri we have concluded that the increase of the limit drift values increased seismic resistance for about 5 % relative to the first set of analysis, which shows that increasing of the mechanical characteristics has greater influence on the seismic resistance in comparison to the incrase of the limit drift values. In third and final part, results showed that the local resistance of the facade depends on the assumed local failure mechanism, weight of the material and connection of the facade to the rest of the structure. On basis of all evaluated analysis we concluded that the seismic resistance of masonry building in current state is insufficient. For this reason, in case of rehabilitation and/or retrofitting of the building, it is necessary to implement measures, both, for global seismic resistance as well as local resistance of the buidling.

Diplomska naloga obsega analizo potresne odpornosti novo zgrajene enodružinske zidane hiše na Dolenjskem. Pri analizi smo upoštevali zahteve standardov Evrokoda 6 in Evrokoda 8. Analizirali smo le spodnjo etažo objekta. Potresno analizo smo izvedli po metodi s horizontalnimi silami. Nosilnosti posameznih zidnih elementov smo določili na osnovi upogibnega mehanizma porušitve, strižnega mehanizma z upoštevanjem zdrsa ter strižnega mehanizma s pojavom diagonalnih razpok, ki ni predviden v omenjenih standardih. Vpliv armiranobetonskih vezi na nosilnost sten smo v računu zanemarili. Za določitev potresnih sil, ki delujejo na posamezni element objekta, smo uporabili programsko orodje SAP2000, v katerem smo hišo modelirali. Naredili smo ploskovni in linijski model in ugotovili, da se dobljene vrednosti potresnih sil v posameznem elementu med seboj dobro ujemajo. Pri oceni potresne odpornosti smo izvedli dve različici, kjer smo nosilnost sten računali z in brez upoštevanja strižnega porušnega mehanizma z zdrsom, saj je takšen mehanizem poškodovanosti le redko zaznati v spodnji etaži zidanih objektov. Če smo pri računu nosilnosti upoštevali strižni porušni mehanizem z zdrsom, se izkaže, da potresna odpornost objekta ni dosežena v prečni kot tudi ne v vzdolžni smeri. V nasprotnem primeru pa se izkaže, da je obravnavana stavba potresno odporna. Glede na to, da standard zahteva račun nosilnosti na osnovi strižnega mehanizma z zdrsom, moramo zaključiti, da potresna odpornost objekta ni zadostna. The thesis deals with the analysis of seismic resistance of a new, single family masonry house in the Dolenjska region. We analysed only the lower storey of the building, considering all necessary standard requirements of the Eurocode 6 and Eurocode 8. The seismic analysis was done by the method of horizontal forces. The strength capacities of individual masonry wall elements were determined on the basis of flexural mechanism of the collaps, the sliding shear mechanism and the shear mechanism characterized with the formation of diagonal cracks, what is not determined in the above mentioned standards. The calculation neglects the impact of reinforced concrete on the capacity of walls. The program SAP2000 was used to model the house as well as to determine the seismic forces on individual building elements. According to the shell and line models we made, we found the values of seismic forces fit quite well. To evaluate the seismic resistance we took two versions where the wall capacities were calculated with and without considering the sliding shear mechanism, since such failure mechanisms can rarely be observed in lower storeys. However, our calculation following the sliding shear collapse mechanism, proves that seismic resistance in horizontal and vertical directions was not obtained. On the other hand, without considering this method, the building seems to be seismic resistant. Although the standard requires the calculation of capacity, based on the method of the sliding shear mechanism, we can conclude that the seismic resistance of the building is not sufficient.

V nalogi obravnavamo oceno potresne odpornosti poslovne stavbe v Kranju. Za določitev projektnih notranjih sil konstrukcijskih elementov smo izbrali q-faktor metodo, ki predstavlja eno izmed možnih metod za oceno potresne odpornosti obstoječih stavb po Standardu Evrokod 8-3. Kontrola elementov se izvede tako, da se za vsak element s pomočjo analize določijo učinki vpliva in primerjajo z nosilnostjo. Nosilnost elementov se določi z uporabo srednjih vrednosti materialnih karakteristik. V četrtem poglavju je opisana obravnavana konstrukcija. Izračunane so tudi projektne obremenitve izbranih konstrukcijskih elementov. Konstrukcija je modelirana v programu Tower 7. Z namenom preučevanja vpliva opečnih polnil smo izdelali dva modela. Projektno potresno obremenitev posameznih elementov, smo primerjali z njihovo upogibno in strižno nosilnostjo. Tak način kontrole elementov je osnova za določitev potresne odpornosti z uporabo q-faktor metode. Izkazalo se je, da konstrukcija ni sposobna prevzeti projektnega potresnega vpliva. Informacije, ki jih dobimo z uporabo q-faktor metode, so precej skope, saj metoda temelji na linearno elastični analizi in kontroli posameznih elementov s čimer pa je onemogočena informiranost o poškodovanosti konstrukcije, kar je ključna informacija v procesu sanacije stavbe. Zaradi tega je bolj smiselno, da se za oceno potresne odpornosti obstoječih objektov uporabi nelinearno metodo analize, kar pa je v praksi težko izvedljivo, predvsem zaradi nezadostnih virov za izvedbo takšne analize. The thesis deals with the seismic performance assessment of an office building in Kranj. The design seismic forces of structural elements were estimated on the basis of the q-factor method, which is one of the possible methods to assess seismic resistance of the structure according to Eurocode 8-3. The design check was made so that all structural elements were verified by checking that seismic demands due to the reduced seismic action do not exceed the corresponding capacities. For calculation of the capacities, mean value properties of materials were used. In the fourth chapter the office building is described and the seismic demand is estimated for the selected structural elements. The structure was modelled by program Tower 7. Two structural models were made in order to investigate the effects of masonry infills. The seismic demand on the structural elements was compared to the design values of load carrying capacity. Such a comparison represents a basis for the evaluation of the seismic resistance using q-factor method. It is shown that the structure is not able to undertake the design seismic loads. However, the q-factor method provides very limited information, since it is based on the linear elastic analysis and verification of performance of each structural element without consideration of redistribution of seismic action due to structural damage. Thus the q-factor method cannot be used to provide information about the damage of the structure, which is a key information in the process of rehabilitation of a building. For this reason, it is more appropriate to assess seismic performance of existing buildings by using nonlinear analysis. Due to the lack of resources it is still difficult to perform such analysis by engineering practitioners.

Magistrsko delo prikazuje tehnologijo izvedbe nove metode rekonstrukcije stare potresno neodporne zidane stavbe. V notranjost zidane stavbe smo vstavili novo sekundarno leseno konstrukcijo iz križno lepljenih lesenih masivnih plošč (kot notranje jedro stavbe) in jo ustrezno spojili s staro primarno zidano konstrukcijo. Na tak način smo utrdili prvotno potresno neodporno zidano konstrukcijo z novo leseno konstrukcijo, ki prevzame celotno potresno obremenitev. V delu je na vzorčnem primeru tipične potresno neodporne zidane stavbe predstavljena tehnologija izvedbe konstrukcijskih in sanacijskih ukrepov. Prikazani so detajli izvedbe ter ukrepi, ki so tudi računsko analizirani. Z izračuni smo dokazali možnost utrditve zidane stavbe z ustreznim spajanjem z novim notranjim lesenim jedrom in doprinos izvedenega posega z gradbeno – fizikalnega vidika. Na koncu naloge sledi še ocena stroškov predstavljene metode rekonstrukcije ter primerjava z ocenjenimi stroški ostalih tradicionalnih metod utrditev. In my master's thesis technology of performing a new reconstruction method of an old masonry building with inferior seismic resistance is presented. In the interior of the masonry building new secondary timber construction made of cross laminated solid timber panels (as the inner core of the building) is embedded and adequately connected to the old primary masonry construction. In such a way the primary masonry construction with inferior seismic resistance is retrofitted with the new timber construction which assumes the entire seismic load. In the thesis technology of performing construction and corrective measures on the model of a typical masonry building with inferior seismic resistance is presented. Details of the performance are described and also measures which are analyzed with calculation. The feasibility of strenghtening the masonry building with a suitable conjunction to the new timber inner core and contribution of the performed procedure in the light of construction and physical aspect were substantiated with calculations. In the end of the thesis there is a cost estimate of the presented reconstruction method and a comparison with the estimated costs of other traditional methods of strenghtening.

The paper presents an experimental study of seismic resistance of reinforced concrete columns for the purpose of analysing the influence of uncertainty of material characteristics and uncertainty in manufacture. In order to cover all of the considered sources of uncertainty, 12 columns were manufactured in three different companies. The same plan and nominally the same materials were used in the production of the columns. In addition to the material characteristics, the influence of lapping of longitudinal reinforcement on the seismic response of columns was analysed as well. The columns were tested with cyclic horizontal load, which was increased until collapse. The research has shown that there are big differences in the manufacture of the columns, which is observed in the seismic response after reaching the maximum capacity. The biggest influence on the ductility can be attributed to the detailing of the stirrups. The research has also confirmed some already well-known dependences and demonstrated that one of important parameters of the seismic resistance of columns might be the location of the first stirrup above the foundation. V članku so prikazane eksperimentalne preiskave potresne odpornosti armiranobetonskih stebrov, ki so bile opravljene na Zavodu za gradbeništvo Slovenije (ZAG) z namenom, da se določi vpliv negotovosti oz. razpršenosti materialnih karakteristik in izvedbe na potresni odziv stebrov. Da bi zajeli kar se da veliko virov negotovosti, smo naročili izdelavo 12 stebrov, ki so jih izdelala tri različna podjetja na podlagi istega načrta in nominalno enakih materialov. Poleg materialnih karakteristik smo analizirali vpliv preklopa vzdolžne armature na potresni odziv stebrov. Stebre smo preizkusili s ciklično horizontalno obtežbo, ki smo jo povečevali do porušitve. Raziskave so pokazale, da so med proizvajalci v resnici velike razlike, ki pa so opazne predvsem pri odzivu stebrov po doseženi največji nosilnosti. Največji vpliv na duktilnost ima izvedba armaturnega detajla stremen. Z raziskavo smo potrdili tudi nekatere že znane odvisnosti in opazili, da bi lahko bil pomemben parameter potresne odpornosti tudi lokacija prvega stremena nad temeljem.

Namen magistrskega dela je bila določitev potrebnih ukrepov v sklopu energetske sanacije stavbe na Tomšičevi ulici 7 v Kranju, s katerimi zadovoljimo trenutne zahteve standardov o toplotni prehodnosti ter s tem učinkovito zmanjšamo toplotne izgube. Obenem smo v času energetske sanacije na objektu želeli aplicirati tudi ukrepe na konstrukciji, s katerimi z minimalnimi stroški povečamo potresno odpornost zunanjih zidov (fasad) objekta. Za izdelavo analize potresne odpornosti fasad smo uporabili metodo FaMIVE, s katero smo preverjali možnost nastanka ravninskih in izven ravninskih porušitev fasad. Podatke za analizo smo pridobili po ogledu objekta in na osnovi posredovane dokumentacije objekta. Z izvedbo vgradnje sider smo fasadam primerno povečali lokalno potresno odpornost, saj smo na ta način obstoječi ESC faktor povečali za več kot dvakrat. V drugem delu magistrske naloge smo naredili analizo energetske učinkovitosti objekta, kjer smo pridobili podatke o obstoječem stanju zunanjih konstrukcijskih sklopov z uporabo termografije. Sestavo in površino elementov smo vstavili v program Gradbena fizika URSA 4.0, s katerim smo analizirali energetsko učinkovitost objekta. Izkazalo se je, da bi z vgradnjo toplotne izolacije na fasade, v stropne konstrukcije in z zamenjavo dotrajanih oken znatno zmanjšali toplotne izgube, z vgradnjo kotla na lesno biomaso pa povečali učinkovitost sistemov za ogrevanje. Primerjava stroškov posameznega dela sanacije je pokazala, da kar 88 % skupne investicije predstavljajo ukrepi energetske sanacije, predvsem na račun stroška novih oken, izvedbe toplotne izolacije na fasadi in vgradnje novega kotla. Z izvedbo ukrepov na ovoju stavbe smo zadostili pogojem o največji dovoljeni toplotni prehodnosti skozi konstrukcijski sklop, ki so opisane v pravilniku PURES 2010. The purpose of the thesis was to determine the necessary measures for energy rehabilitation of the building located at Tomšičeva ulica 7 in Kranj in order to reach current requirements of standards for thermal efficiency of buildings. At the same time during energy rehabilitation of the building we also wanted to apply strengthening measures with minimal interventions to increase its seismic resistance. For the analysis of seismic resistance of peripheral walls (facades) we used the FaMIVE method which allowed us to calculate the possibility of formation of the in plane collapses and out of plane collapses of the facades. The data used for the analysis was collected from in-site inspection of the building and from available documentation of the building. By mounting anchors the value of ESC factor which allow us to determine seismic resistance of facades was successfully increased for more than a double. In the second part of the thesis analysis of building’s energy efficiency was made. The data about current status of the building envelope was obtained by using thermography. We performed an energy efficiency analysis of the building with the software Gradbena fizika URSA 4.0. Results show that installation of thermal insulation onto façade, onto ceilings and replacement of old windows significantly reduces heat losses. Efficiency of heating system can be further increased by installing wood biomass boiler. The comparison of costs showed that 88 % of the whole investment represent the costs of energy rehabilitation, particularly because of the costs of the new windows, installation of thermal insulation on the facades and installation of new boiler. By implementation of measures on the building envelope we have successfully met conditions about maximum thermal transmittance trough external elements of the building, which are described in regulation PURES 2010.

V diplomski nalogi je obravnavana potresna analizi enodružinske zidane stavbe, zgrajene leta 1993, na obrobju Ljubljane. V prvem delu diplomske naloge je predstavljeno teoretično ozadje določitve potresne obtežbe in nosilnosti tako posameznih zidov kot tudi celotne konstrukcije. Pri določitvi nosilnosti so upoštevani trije značilni porušni mehanizmi, ki nastanejo v zidanih stavbah, pri kombinaciji vodoravne in navpične obtežbe: upogibni mehanizem in oba strižna mehanizma. V drugem delu je izračunana potresna odpornost obravnavanega objekta. Za trdnost materiala so upoštevane srednje vrednosti, ki so zmanjšane za faktor zaupanja. Potrebno je določiti lastne teže posameznih konstrukcijskih sklopov in mase celotne konstrukcije. Potresna sila je določena z metodo z vodoravnimi silami, pri čemer je bil upoštevan največji spektralni pospešek ter faktor obnašanja 1,5. V analizi je bila obravnavana le spodnja etaža, saj so tam največje potresne obremenitve. Najprej je bila ocenjena nosilnost celotne konstrukcije po elastični analizi, pri čemer je upoštevana popolna prerazporeditev sil iz preobremenjenih zidov na zidove, ki imajo še rezerve. Naredili smo tudi poenostavljeno nelinearno analizo pri čemer je bila tako dobljena nosilnost za y smer 797 kN, kar je le za približno 10% manjša vrednost od nosilnosti, ki smo jo ocenili na osnovi rezultatov linearno elastične analize (880 kN). Ugotovljeno je bilo, da projektna potresna obremenitev presega projektno nosilnost zidov iz česar sklepamo, da objekt v celoti ne zadosti zahtevam standarda Evrokod 8. The thesis addresses assessment of seismic resistance of a single-family masonry building, built in 1993, in the suburb of Ljubljana. The theoretical background for determination of design seismic loads and capacity of both masonry walls as well as the whole structure is presented in the first part of the thesis. The determination of the strength of masonry walls is also described with consideration of three failure mechanisms that occur in masonry wall: sliding shear failure, shear failure with diagonal cracks, flexural failure. In the second part follows practical example where we calculate seismic resistance of the building. For the strength of materials we take into account the mean values reduced by a confidence factor. It is necessary to determine the weight of individual structural assemblies and the mass of the whole structure. Seismic force is determined by the method of horizontal forces, where is taken into account the maximum spectral acceleration, and behaviour factor 1,5. Seismic resistance is then checked only for the ground floor since there the greatest storey shear force occurs. Firstly the base shear was calculated on the basis of elastic analysis by taking into account the full redistribution of seismic forces to those walls which still had reserves. The simplified nonlinear analysis was also performed. Sodetermined base shear in y direction amounted to 797 kN, which is only about 10% less than the base shear estimated from linear elastic analysis (880 kN). It was found that design seismic load exceeded the estimated design value of base shear strength, which indicated that the investigated building does not comply the safety requirements of the Eurocodes 8.

V magistrskem delu smo obravnavali celovito sanacijo objekta Tobačne tovarne v Ljubljani. Najprej smo pridobili potrebne podatke o trenutnem stanju objekta. Pri tem smo uporabili tudi termokamero in merilnik toplotnega toka. Posnetke in meritve, pridobljene z neporušnimi preiskavami, smo uporabili kot del vhodnih podatkov za analizo energetske učinkovitosti objekta. Energetsko izkaznico smo izdelali s programom ArchiMAID in pokazali, da energetske lastnosti stavbe niso zadovoljive glede na sedanje zahteve standardov. Nato smo preverili učinek posameznih ukrepov energetske sanacije in ob upoštevanju zahtev spomeniškega varstva izbrali najprimernejše. Za objekte kulturne dediščine velja, da lahko odstopajo od minimalnih zahtev glede učinkovite rabe energije, zato smo energetsko učinkovitost stavbe nadgradili v okviru danih robnih pogojev. Merodajne lokalne porušne mehanizme zaradi potresne obtežbe smo določili z analizo FaMIVE, s programom SREMB pa smo preverili etažni odziv konstrukcije. S primernimi utrditvenimi ukrepi smo zvišali potresno odpornost objekta. Le-ta je še vedno manjša od predpisane potresne odpornosti, saj obravnavana stavba stoji na zelo neugodnih tleh. Pripravili smo grobo oceno in primerjavo stroškov posameznih sanacijskih in utrditvenih ukrepov. Odločili smo se za najprimernejšo izvedbo ter izdelali optimalni predlog sanacije objekta, ki temelji na hkratni izvedbi gradbenih del. V nalogi smo pokazali, da pri hkratni izvedbi lahko prihranimo približno 9 % celotne investicije v prenovo. The thesis presents design of energy renovation and structural retrofitting of the building of Tobačna Ljubljana factory. First, we have obtained the necessary information about the current state of object. For this purpose, we have also used infrared thermography and the heat flow meter. Images and measurements, obtained by non-destructive techniques, were used as a part of input data for the analysis of building energy efficiency. In ArchiMAID program we created energy performance certificate for our case study. It showed that energy efficiency of building is not adequate according to current code requirements. Further, we have analyzed different measures of energy renovation and have chosen the most optimal combination of measures by considering the protection of cultural heritage. Building that have historical values do not necessarily need to achieve all requirements for energy efficiency. Therefore we upgraded the energy performance of building within the limits provided by protection requirements. For the seismic assessment we have used FaMIVE analysis for determination of relevant local failure mechanisms and with SREMB we verified storey response of the structure. With appropriate measures we have increased seismic resistance of the building in significant amount. Because the building is located on poor clay soft soils its seismic resistance can not match current code requirements. A rough cost estimation of various retrofitting measures has been done and the most optimal solution of retrofitting measures has been chosen. With cost benefit analysis, an optimal proposal was created for the retrofitting of the building that is based on the simultaneous execution of both works. We have showed that is possible to save around 9 % of the total investment in the complete retrofitting.

V diplomskem delu je narejena seizmična analiza gradu Golnik in primerjalna študija ojačitvenih ukrepov, s katerimi povečujemo potresno odpornost obravnavane konstrukcije. Po začetnem kronološkem opisu stavbe sledi opis zasnove objekta in opis stanja poškodovanosti nosilnih elementov, ki temelji zgolj na vizualnem pregledu konstrukcije. V teoretičnem delu naloge je sprva na kratko predstavljeno obnašanje zidanih stavb med delovanjem potresa in opis različnih porušnih mehanizmov zidovja. Sledi opis postopka preverjanja potresne odpornosti, kot ga navaja standard Evrokod 8-3 za obstoječe zidane stavbe. Predstavljena in razloţena je mnoţica sanacijskih in ojačitvenih ukrepov, s katerimi lahko zidanim stavbam izboljšamo obnašanje med delovanjem potresnega vpliva. Računska analiza je bila opravljena s programom za nelinearno seizmično analizo obstoječih in novih zidanih konstrukcij 3Muri. V ta namen je podan kratek opis programskega orodja in poenostavljene nelinearne N2 metode. V praktičnem delu diplomske naloge je sprva opravljena potresna analiza osnovnega – izhodiščnega modela konstrukcije, ki sluţi kot osnova za kasnejšo primerjalno analizo. V nadaljevanju so analizirani modeli z različnimi ojačitvenimi ukrepi, kot so vgradnja zidnih vezi, zamenjava podajnih lesenih stropov s togimi, utrditev zidovja z armiranim ometom, injektiranjem in polimernimi FRP trakovi ter vgradnja armiranobetonskih okvirjev. Vsak ukrep je bil izbran na podlagi študije različnih rezultatov predhodnih analiz in predvidevanja o morebitnem odzivu konstrukcije. Izkaţe se, da glavno teţavo predstavlja nepravilna zasnova konstrukcije, saj je odziv stavbe na potresni vpliv zaradi neenakomerne razporeditve sten po tlorisu izrazito neugoden (torzijski zasuk). Rezultati kaţejo, da več ojačitvenih ukrepov pripomore k izpolnjevanju zahtev sodobnih standardov o potresni varnosti, a le z vgradnjo armiranobetonskih okvirjev na JZ delu doseţemo primeren odziv konstrukcije. This thesis contains the seismic analysis of the Golnik castle and the comparative study of strengthening measures to increase the seismic resistance of the investigated structure. In the introduction chronological description of the development of the building is presented, followed by description of the building design and the condition of the structural elements based solely on visual inspection. In the theoretical part, the performance of the masonry buildings during the seismic action and characteristic masonry failure modes are briefly introduced. The assessment of the seismic resistance according to the Eurocode 8-3 standard for the existing masonry buildings follows. A comprehensive set of retrofitting and strengthening measures for the improvement of the seismic performance is presented and explained. The seismic analysis was made by 3Muri programme – a software for non-linear seismic analysis of existing and new masonry buildings. The thesis also contains a brief description of the programme and brief explanation of the simplified N2 method. In the empirical part, the seismic analysis of the structure in existing state was made and it served as a reference for the comparative study later on. Models with different strengthening measures were analysed, as for example incorporation of the tie rods, substitution of the flexible wooden floors with the rigid ones, strengthening of masonry with jacketting, grout injections and FRP stripes as well as strengthening of the building with introduction of reinforced concrete frames. Each measure was chosen on the basis of the preliminary analysis study and according to the anticipation of the possible structure response. According to the results of the analysis, main problem is irregular layout of the structure, since the irregular wall distribution in the ground plan causes an explicitly harmful response on the seismic load (torsion twist). The results also indicate that contemporary standard demands for seismic safety can be achieved with various strengthening measures however, the appropriate building response can only be attained by introducing the reinforced concrete frames in the SW part of the castle.

V magistrskem delu je zasnovana in na potresno obtežbo računsko preverjena 12 nadstropna stavba iz križno lepljenega lesa. Gre za preliminarno analizo potencialnih nadomestnih gradenj v Ljubljani, kjer bi se obstoječe tipske več nadstropne stanovanjske stavbe z nezadostno potresno odpornostjo nadomestilo s sodobno zasnovanimi vendar arhitekturno sorodnimi stavbami iz trajnostnih materialov. V nalogi je na osnovi preučene arhivske dokumentacije ene izmed obstoječih tipskih stavb ter z upoštevanjem materialnih in tehnoloških omejitev zasnovana nova stavba iz križno lepljenega lesa. Na osnovi podatkov iz literature in že izvedenih eksperimentov o potresnem odzivu posameznih stenskih elementov in veznih sredstev je bil modeliran njihov odziv. Razvit je bil nelinearen računski model veznih sredstev, ki je bil v nadaljevanju tudi validiran. Na podlagi validiranega odziva posamezne stene se je pristopilo k izdelavi računskega nelinearnega modela načrtovane stavbe. Na osnovi notranjih statičnih veličin linearnega modela so bile ocenjene dimenzije nosilnih elementov (križno lepljenega lesa in spojev), nadalje je bila izvedena nelinearna potisna analiza. Le-ta je predstavljala osnovo za analizo po N2 metodi in metodi načrtovanja pomikov - za oceno ustreznosti odziva in odpornosti zasnovane stavbe na potresno obtežbo. In the thesis, a 12-storey building made of cross-laminated timber is designed and numerically tested for seismic loading. It is a preliminary analysis of potential replacement buildings in Ljubljana, where existing typical multi-storey residential buildings with insufficient seismic resistance would be replaced with modern but architecturally similar buildings made of sustainable materials. With the help of the studied archival documentation of one of the existing buildings and further - considering the material and technological constraints - a new cross-laminated timber building was designed. The response of the individual walls and the connections has been simulated on the basis of literature data and experiments already carried out on the seismic response of individual walls and connection elements. A non-linear computational model of the connection elements was developed and further validated. The validated single wall model was implemented into the development of a numerical non-linear model of the designed building. Based on the internal static quantities determined from the linear model, the dimensions of the load-bearing elements (cross-laminated timber and connections) were estimated and finally a non-linear pushover analysis was performed. This formed the basis for the implementation of the N2 method and the DBD - to further assess the adequacy of the response and resistance of the designed building to various seismic loading.

V sodobni arhitekturi in gradbeništvu je vedno večji poudarek na energetsko učinkoviti gradnji z uporabo naravnih materialov in izkoriščanja obnovljivih virov. Sončno energijo lahko izkoriščamo z uporabo stekla, ki v stavbo prepušča ne le svetlobo temveč deloma tudi toploto. Tako je gradnja lesenih hiš z veliko količino zasteklitve vedno bolj pogost pojav, vendar pa ima lahko takšna gradnja negativne učinke na potresno zmogljivost stavb. V trenutni standardizaciji se steklo v lesenih hišah ne predvideva kot nosilni material, čeprav nekateri proizvajalci leseno-steklene panele oglašujejo kot elemente nosilne konstrukcije. Da bi bolje razumeli prispevek leseno-steklenih panelov k potresni odpornosti lesenih stavb smo v sklopu diplomske naloge preučili in predstavili izsledke obstoječih raziskav s tega področja. Nato smo izvedli poenostavljeno potresno analizo tipske montažne hiše z vgrajenimi leseno-steklenimi stenskimi elementi ter preučevali prispevek leseno-steklenih stenskih elementov k potresni odpornosti analizirane stavbe. Kontrolirali smo tudi pomike leseno-steklenih stenskih elementov in primerjali ocenjene neelastične pomike na osnovi določil Evrokoda 8 z deformacijsko kapaciteto leseno-steklenih elementov, ki je bila eksperimentalno določena v predhodnih raziskavah. Kontrola je izvedena za mejno stanje omejitve poškodb, mejno stanje velikih poškodb in mejno stanje blizu porušitve. Rezultati kažejo na ustrezen odziv leseno-steklenih stenskih elementov, ki so v obravnavani stavbi uporabljeni le na eni ravnini stavbe. Poleg tega zaključek temelji na predpostavkah, da se deformacije zaradi potresa enakomerno porazdelijo po višini stavbe in da stiki med lesenimi elementi ne predstavljajo šibkih delov konstrukcije. Za potrditev teh predpostavk bi bilo treba izvesti nelinearno potresno analizo in analizo tveganja, kar pa presega okvire te diplomske naloge. In modern architecture and civil engineering, there is an increasing emphasis on energy efficient construction using natural materials and the exploitation of renewable resources. Solar energy can be partially captured through the glass, which transmits not only light but also heats the building. Thus, the construction of timber houses with a significant amount of glazing is becoming increasingly common. Conversely, such construction can have adverse effects on earthquake resistance of houses. In current standardisation, however, glass is not considered as a load-bearing material, although some manufacturers advertise timber-glass panels as elements of load-bearing construction. To better understand the contribution of timber-glass panels to the seismic resistance of timber buildings, we examined the existing research from the field of timber-glass panels and present the findings in the first part of the thesis. This is followed by a simplified seismic analysis of a typical prefabricated house with timber-glass wall elements, aimed at estimating the contribution of timber-glass wall elements to the earthquake resistance of the building. In addition, the displacements of the timber-glass wall elements are verified by comparing the inelastic displacement determined according to the Eurocode 8 provisions and the experimentally-based displacement capacity of timber-wood panels obtained from previous studies. The verification was performed for the limit state of damage limitation, significant damage and the near-collapse limit state. The results indicated an appropriate seismic performance of timber-glass wall elements, which are used only in one plane of the analysed building. In addition, the conclusion is based on assuming uniformly distributed seismic demand in terms of deformations along the building height and that the connections between the structural elements are not the critical parts of the structure. These assumptions can be verified by a nonlinear seismic analysis and risk analysis, which, is beyond the scope of this thesis.

V magistrskem delu analiziramo vpliv delovne različice novega standarda Evrokod 8 na potresnoodpornost reprezentativne armiranobetonske stavbe, ki je že bila sprojektirana v skladu z obstoječo različico Evrokoda 8. Učinke standardov ovrednotimo tako, da konstrukcijo obravnavane stavbe ponovno sprojektiramo z upoštevanjem zahtev delovne različice novega standarda in ocenimo njeno potresno odpornost. V prvem delu predstavimo nosilno konstrukcijo obravnavane stavbe, geometrijo, material, modeliranje vplivov in konstrukcije ter prikažemo armaturne načrte konstrukcije, sprojektirane po obstoječi različici standarda. V drugem delu opišemo novosti pri dimenzioniranju, ki jih prinaša delovna različica novega standarda. Nato nosilno konstrukcijo ponovno sprojektiramo na projektni potresni vpliv in rezultate projektiranja predstavimo v obliki armaturnih načrtov. V zadnjem delu primerjamo potresno odpornost obravnavanih stavb. Za obe konstrukciji stavbe definiramo nelinearen model, izvedemo potisno analizo in s pomočjo metode N2 določimo vrednost pospeška tal, ki povzroči mejno stanje blizu porušitve. Vpliv potresne obtežbe modeliramo na dva različna načina, z upoštevanjem Evrokodovega elastičnega spektra in z uporabo spletne aplikacije za napovedovanje IDA krivulj. Ker smo novo konstrukcijo projektirali za razred duktilnosti DC2, so projektne potresne obremenitve večje, kar je posledica nižjega faktorja obnašanja. Posledično je večja tudi količina računsko potrebne armature. Nosilnost nove konstrukcije je zato večja, deformacijska kapaciteta pa se ne spremeni bistveno. Zato je potresna odpornost obravnavanih različič stavbe v smislu mejnega pospeška tal približno enaka. Na osnovi rezultatov potresnih analiz lahko sklenemo, da delovna različica novega standarda Evrokod 8 ne prinaša bistvenih razlik na potresno odpornost obravnavane stavbe, pri pogoju, da se nova karta projektnega pospeška tal v prihodnosti ne bo bistveno spremenila. In the master thesis, we analyse the impact of the working version of the new Eurocode 8 standard on the earthquake-resistance of a representative reinforced concrete building, which has already been designed according to Eurocode 8 standard. The effects of standards are evaluated by redesigning the building structures requirements of the working version of the new standard. In the first part, we present the load-bearing structure of the analysed building, geometry, materials and the modelling of the building and loads. Drawings of the reinforcement designed according to the existing version of Eurocode 8 standard are also shown. In the second part, we describe novelties in the design that are introduced in the working version of the new standard. The structure is then redesigned for the seismic design loads, and the design results are presented by reinforcement drawings. In the last part of the thesis, the earthquake resistance of both buildings is compared. For each building structure, a non-linear model is defined, pushover analysis is performed, and the peak ground acceleration that causes the near-collapse limit state is estimated with the N2 method. The effect of seismic action is modelled in two ways, by considering the Eurocode elastic acceleration spectrum and by using the web-based methodology for the prediction of approximate IDA curves. Because we designed the new structure for the ductility class DC2, the seismic design loads were increased due to the lower behaviour factor. As a result, the amount of calculated reinforcement is also increased. The load-bearing capacity of the new structure is, therefore, higher, but the deformation capacity does not change significantly. Thus, the earthquake resistance of the new building, if expressed in terms of ultimate peak ground acceleration, is approximately equal to that designed according to Eurocode 8. Based on the results of seismic analyses, we can conclude that the working version of the new Eurocode 8 standard does not affect the seismic resistance of the analysed building significantly, provided that the seismic design maps will not change considerably in the future.

Pomembnost vgrajevanja povečanega deleža steklenih površin v lesene konstrukcije je zaradi izboljšave fizikalnih lastnosti tega transparentnega materiala v zadnjem času močno narasla. S pravilno integracijo obeh materialov, lesa in stekla, lahko namreč dosegamo številne pozitivne učinke, vezane na bivalno ugodje in energijsko učinkovitost stavb. S konstrukcijskega vidika pa povečan delež zasteklitve prinaša problem ohranjanja stabilnosti konstrukcije, saj ostaja le malo strižnih sten, ki prispevajo k horizontalni nosilnosti. Slednje predstavlja enega od poglavitnih razlogov za izvedbo predstavljenih raziskav. Predstavljene so eksperimentalne preiskave in numerična analiza horizontalne nosilnosti in togosti lesenih okvirnih stenskih elementov s steklenimi obložnimi ploščami. Leseni okvir, na katerega je pritrjena steklena obloga s pomočjo adhezivov, predstavlja sovprežni stenski element, ki s svojo nosilnostjo prispeva k stabilnosti celotne lesene konstrukcije. Uporabljeni so bili različni tipi adhezivov s specifičnimi lastnostmi in posledično vplivi na samo obnašanje stenskega elementa. Razvili smo različne koncepte leseno-steklenih stenskih elementov, ki se razlikujejo glede na tip in postavitev stekla ter način spajanja. Predstavljena je tudi eksperimentalna analiza potresne odpornosti eno- in dvoetažnih lesenih montažnih objektov, ki so sestavljeni iz leseno-steklenih stenskih elementov. Na primeru izračuna potresne odpornosti leseno-steklenega montažnega objekta je dokazan prispevek nosilnosti in togosti leseno-steklenih stenskih elementov. Due to improved physical properties of glass the importance of incorporating an increased proportion of glass surfaces in timber structures has recently grown significantly. With proper integration of glass and timber, a number of positive effects related to occupant's comfort and energy efficiency of a building can be reached. From a structural point of view the increased proportion of glazing presents a problem of maintaining the stability of a structure as there is lack of load-bearing wall elements that contribute to the horizontal load-carrying capacity. The latter problem presents the main reason for executing the presented research. In this work the experimental investigations and numerical analysis of horizontal load-bearing capacity and stiffness of timber-glass wall elements are presented. Timber frame with an adhesively bonded glass panel represents a composite structural member. With its load-carrying capacity a timber-glass wall can contribute to the stability of a timber structure. Different types of adhesives are used to study their effect on the behaviour of the wall element. A variety of concepts are presented which differ depending on the type of joint, position of glass and method of assembling. An experimental investigation into seismic resistance of single- and two-storey prefabricated timber structures made of timber-glass wall elements is also presented and briefly discussed. A case-study of a timber-glass house is analitically analised. The integration of timber-glass walls has proved to be a good solution with a significant influence on the horizontal load-carrying capacity and stiffness of the whole structure.

V diplomski nalogi sta izdelana dva modela za oceno potresne odpornosti povprečne zidane hiše na širšem območju Škofje Loke. V začetnem poglavju obravnavamo obnašanje zidanih konstrukcij in možne porušne mehanizme njihovih elementov. V nadaljevanju je predstavljeno teoretično ozadje metode N2, ki je vključena v Evrokod 8 in s katero smo določili potresno odpornost obravnavanih zidanih objektov. Analizirali in interpretirali smo rezultate analiz za 11 hiš, ki se nahajajo v širšem območju Škofje Loke in so bile zgrajene v letih od 1970 do 1990. Na osnovi načrtov Projektov za pridobitev gradbenega dovoljenja smo vrednotili srednje vrednosti in koeficient variacije za izbrane geometrijske lastnosti stavb, ki imajo pomemben vpliv na njihovo obnašanje. Pričakovani delež tlorisnih površin sten glede na neto površino etaže znaša 11–12 %, delež efektivnih tlorisnih površin sten pa se giblje v območju 60-90 % bruto površine sten, pri čemer je odvisen od smeri objekta. Povprečen zid je širok 2,4 m, njegova efektivna višina pa znaša 80 % etažne višine objekta. V primerjavi izbranih lastnosti hiš s sorodnimi podatki, ki so dostopni na spletnem portalu e-Prostor, smo ugotovili večja odstopanja v vrednostih le teh. Nelinearno statično (potisno) analizo smo izvedli s programom 3Muri. Rezultati so pokazali, da so najbolj ranljivi medokenski slopi zidu, delno pa tudi prekladni deli. Običajno pri mejnem stanju blizu porušitve nastopa kombinacija upogibnih in strižnih poškodb. Glede na mejni pospešek smo izbrali merodajne potisne krivulje in jih normirali glede na težo objekta in njegovo višino oziroma glede na povprečno efektivno tlorisno etažno površino sten v obravnavani smeri in višino objekta. S tem smo dobili dva modela normiranih potisnih krivulj. Pričakovana maksimalna dosežena nosilnost v šibki smeri objekta znaša 15 % celotne teže stavbe oziroma dobrih 60 kN na kvadratni meter efektivne tlorisne površine sten. Prikazana je uporaba modelov na primeru dveh objektov in dodana ocena potresne odpornosti za mejno stanje močnih poškodb, ki kaže na to, da večina obravnavanih objektov ne izpolnjuje zahtev Evrokoda 8-3. Two models for seismic performance assessment of masonry houses in Škofja Loka region are developed. In first chapters the behaviour of masonry buildings under seismic actions with an emphasis on failure mechanisms of structural components are discussed. Follows an overview of the theoretical background of N2 method, which is included in the Eurocode 8 and which was used for determination of the seismic resistance of examined masonry structures. The results of numerical investigation of 11 masonry houses, built in the years from 1970 to 1990, are then presented and discussed. The project design for building permit was used to obtain input data of the buildings. The mean values and the coefficient of variation were assessed for those geometrical features of the buildings, which have great impact on the seismic performance assessment of the buildings. Expected percentage of the floor surface area of the walls in relation to the net surface of the floor varied from 11 to 12 % with respect to the direction of building. The proportion of the effective floor area of the walls is in the range from 60 to 90% of the gross surface area of the walls depending on the direction of the building. Average wall is 2,4 m wide and its effective height amounts to 80 % of the building`s floor height. It was found that the selected characteristics of houses with the corresponding data which are available on the web portal e-Prostor, are significantly different. Nonlinear static (pushover) analysis was performed by using computer software 3Muri. The results show that the combination of bending and shear damage occurred in piers and also spandrels in the region of deformation close to the ultimate limit state. Two models of the normalized expected pushover curves were obtained by taking into account the pushover curves which had a decisive impact on the seismic limit-state peak ground acceleration. The base shear was normalized by the weight of the building or with respect to the average effective floor area of the walls in the given direction and whereas the top displacement was normalized only by the building’s height. Maximum expected capacity in weak direction amounted 15 % of the total weight of the building and more than 60 kN per square meter of effective floor area of the walls. In the last chapter the normalized pushover curves were used for seismic performance assessment of two houses for which it was found that do not fulfil requirements of standard Eurocode 8-3.

V diplomski nalogi je izdelana ocena potresne odpornosti stare upravne stavbe Rudnika živega srebra Idrija. V prvem delu naloge je predstavljeno obnašanje zidanih stavb med delovanjem potresa in opis tipičnih porušnih mehanizmov zidov. Sledi kratek opis določil standarda Evrokod 8-3, ki obravnava področje ocenjevanja obnašanja obstoječih stavb med potresi. Po korakih je opisana poenostavljena metoda N2, ki temelji na nelinearni statični analizi. Na koncu sledi še predstavitev programa 3Muri, ki smo ga uporabili za račun potisnih krivulj. V drugem delu naloge je sprva opisana upravna stavba, ki je zgrajena iz nepovezanih kamnitih in opečnih zidov. Zaradi nepoznavanja dejanske kvalitete obstoječih materialov smo za obe vrsti zidovja iz literature privzeli po tri nabore mehanskih lastnosti. Pripravili smo pet modelov z različnimi kombinacijami vrednosti mehanskih lastnosti opečnega in kamnitega zidovja, na podlagi katerih smo ocenili potresno odpornost konstrukcije. Na osnovi deterministične analize smo ugotovili, da stavba ni sposobna prenesti pričakovanega projektnega pospeška temeljnih tal ag = 0,23 g in tako ne izpolnjuje zahtev standarda Evrokod 8. Velika ranljivost konstrukcije je bila posledica zelo nizkih vrednosti strižnih trdnosti privzetih materialov, ki smo jih skladno s standardom Evrokodom 8-3 delili še s faktorjem zaupanja CF = 1,35. Različne kombinacije mehanskih lastnosti zidovja so povzročale različne oblike porušnih mehanizmov konstrukcije. Zaradi majhnih razlik med strižnimi trdnostmi privzetih materialov se potresne odpornosti posameznih modelov niso bistveno razlikovale. Vrednosti koeficientov potresne odpornosti SRCu so variirali med 0,09 in 0,12, kar se je dobro ujemalo z vrednostjo, ki je bila ocenjena v projektu POTROG (2013). Ocenjujemo, da so mejni pospeški tal za obravnavan objekt verjetno podcenjeni, kar je posledica varnostnih faktorjev, ki jih je potrebno upoštevati v primeru nepopolnega poznavanja konstrukcije. In this thesis, the seismic performance assessment of the former administration building of RŽS Idrija is investigated. The first part of the thesis presents the behaviour of masonry buildings under seismic actions, and typical failure mechanisms of masonry walls, followed by the provisions of the Eurocode 8-3 standard, which deal with seismic assessment of existing buildings. Further on, the simplified N2 method based on non-linear static (pushover) analysis is introduced, followed by the presentation of 3Muri software. The second part of the thesis begins with a description of the administration building, which was build out of stone and brick masonry walls without adequate floor-to-wall connections. Not knowing the exact quality of the existing materials, three sets of mechanical properties for both types of masonry were obtained from the literature. The seismic performance assessment was based on five models of the structure each with different combination of mechanical properties of stone and brick masonry. The results of the deterministic analysis have shown that the building is incapable of withstanding the expected design ground acceleration ag = 0,23 g and does not meet the requirements of the Eurocode 8 standard. The great vulnerability of the structure is a consequence of very low shear strength values of the masonry, which were assessed from previous studies and, in accordance with Eurocode 8-3, divided by the confidence factor CF = 1,35. Different combinations of mechanical properties of masonry have lead to different types of failure mechanisms of the structure. Due to small differences between shear strength values of the materials the seismic resistance of our models did not differ significantly. The seismic shear coefficient SRCu was between 0,09 and 0,12 which complied with the coefficient estimated in the POTROG (2013) project. It is estimated that the limit-state peak ground acceleration is most likely underestimated, which is the consequence of safety factors that need to be considered in the case of incomplete knowledge of the structure.

V diplomski nalogi analiziramo primerjave treh različnih programskih orodij za nelinearno seizmično analizo zidanih konstrukcij, kjer se omejimo na sodobne zgradbe. Obravnavane so tako prototipne konstrukcije, t.j. konstrukcije v naravni velikosti kot modelne, t.j. pomanjšane konstrukcije. Primerjava z modelnimi konstrukcijami je bila nujna za analizo učinkovitosti posameznega programa pri napovedi obnašanja zidanih konstrukcij, narejenih v modelnem merilu in preskušanih na potresni mizi. Pri dimenzioniranju modelnih konstrukcij je bila upoštevana popolna modelna podobnost. Diplomska naloga je sestavljena iz teoretičnega dela, v katerem so predstavljeni deli standardov, po katerih je določena odpornost novih zidanih konstrukcij na potresno obtežbo in na osnovi katerih delujejo obravnavana računalniška orodja Sremb, 3Muri ter AmQuake. Podan je opis poenostavljene metode N2, razlaga modelne podobnosti ter kratek opis delovanja programskih orodij. Sledi računski del, kjer so analizirane obravnavane konstrukcije ter na osnovi rezultatov izvedene primerjave med programi. Numerično dobljene rezultate na koncu primerjamo še z eksperimentalnimi rezultati s potresne mize. V zaključku na podlagi dobljenih rezultatov lahko rečemo, da s sodobnimi računalniškimi programi dobimo konservativne rezultate. Zaradi številnih poenostavitev izračuna in različnih stopenj upoštevanja standardov, dobljene numerične rešitve v večini primerov ne morejo v vseh vidikih zajeti eksperimentalno dobljenega odziva stavb na potresno obtežbo. Kljub temu se dejanskemu odzivu lahko že veliko bolje približamo s poenostavljenimi numeričnimi modeli, ki upoštevajo globalno obnašanje stavbe in ne le etažnega mehanizma. The diploma contains a comparative analysis of three different computer programs for nonlinear seismic analysis of masonry buildings, restricted to modern buildings. Prototypes or full scale buildings, as well as models or scaled buildings were subjected to the analysis. The assessment of model structures was necessary for the analysis of effectiveness of each software in the response estimation of model masonry buildings, tested on the shaking table. For the purpose of design of model buildings, complete model similitude was taken into account. The diploma consists of a theoretical part, with an explanation of parts of standards that are used for the calculation of the seismic resistance of new masonry buildings and on which discussed programs are based (Sremb, 3Muri and AmQuake). A description of the simplified method N2 is given as well as a short description of operation for all three programs. In the computation phase, the particular buildings are analyzed. On the basis of the acquired results, a comparison is made between the outputs of different programs. Finally, the numerical results are compared to those gained from the experiment on the shaking table. In the conclusion, based on acquired results, we can state that computer programs give conservative results. Due to various applied simplifications, different levels of compliance of standards and other factors, the numeric results often do not reflect the actual state. Despite all, it is possible to make a good approximation of the actual response with simplified numeric models that take into account the global response mechanism instead of the storey response mechanism.

V diplomskem delu so opisane vse faze življenjskega ciklusa lesenih konstrukcij, od proizvodnje in gradnje lesenih konstrukcij do razgradnje lesenih konstrukcij ob končani življenjski dobi. Faze življenjskega cikla lesenih konstrukcij smo ocenili tudi z vidika obremenjevanja okolja. Cilj diplomskega dela je prikaz minimalnih vplivov lesa na obremenjevanje okolja. Z vidika trajnostnega razvoja in ekoloških konstrukcijskih rešitev ima les pomembno prednost pred drugimi konstrukcijskimi materiali. Zraven pozitivnih vplivov na obremenjevanje okolja imajo lesene konstrukcije tudi druge pozitivne lastnosti, kot so dobra potresna odpornost, požarna odpornost, dobre konstrukcijske lastnosti, gradbeno – fizikalne lastnosti itd. V Sloveniji je gradnja lesenih konstrukcij manjša kot v drugih evropskih državah in ZDA, zato želimo pokazati možnosti za razširitev trga lesenih konstrukcij v Sloveniji. My diploma thesis describes all the stages of the life cycle of wooden structures, namely from production and construction to decomposition. The stages of the wooden structure life cycle have been evaluated in terms of environmental pollution as well. The object of the thesis is to demonstrate the minimum impact of wood on environmental burdening. From the perspective of sustainable development and ecological constructional solutions, wood has a significant advantage over other building materials. In addition to the positive impact on the environment, wooden structures have other positive attributes as well, such as good seismic resistance, fire resistance, good structural properties, constructional and physical properties, etc. In Slovenia, the building of wooden structures is less spread than in other European countries and the U.S., therefore we want to present the possibilities for widening of the wooden structure market in Slovenia.

Shear failure, characterized by the occurrence of diagonally oriented cracks, is a typical failure mode of unreinforced and confined masonry walls subjected to in-plane seismic loads. Although other mechanisms are also possible, seismic resistance of a regular masonry structure depends predominantly on the shear resistance of structural walls. The results of cyclic lateral resistance tests of different types of unreinforced walls with two height/length aspect ratios and tested at different compressive stress/compressive strength ratios, have been used to compare the experimentally obtained resistance values with the results of calculations. Ithas been shown that typical equations used for the calculation of the shear resistance of walls, which are based on either shear friction or diagonal tension failure mechanisms, do not have general validity, because they reflect the type of the shear failure, for which they had been developed. Whereas good correlation between experimental results and calculations has been obtained if the equations based on the diagonal tension failure mechanism have been used, the calculations based on the shear friction failure mechanism overestimated the actual resistance of the tested walls. Strižna porušitev, ki jo označujejo značilne poševno usmerjene razpoke, je tipičen način porušitve nearmiranih in povezanih zidov, na katere v ravnini zidu deluje potresna obtežba. Čeprav so možni tudi drugi mehanizmi, je potresna odpornost pravilno zasnovanih zidanih konstrukcij v pretežni meri odvisna od strižne odpornosti nosilnih zidov. Da bi ocenili primernost različnih metod, s katerimi računamo strižno odpornost, smo rezultate izračunov primerjali z vrednostmi, ki smo jih dobili s cikličnimi preiskavami odpornosti večjega števila nearmiranih zidov. Zidovi z dvema razmerjema med višino in dolžino so bili sezidani z različnimi vrstami opečnih votlakov, preiskani pa so bili pri različnih nivojih navpične obremenitve. Primerjava jepokazala, da tipične enačbe, osnovane bodisi na podlagi prestrižnega mehanizma bodisi na podlagi porušitve zaradi natega v diagonalni smeri, niso splošno veljavne. Medtem ko se rezultati računa z enačbo, osnovano na mehanizmu porušitve zaradi natega v diagonalni smeri, dobro ujemajo z eksperimentalnimi vrednostmi in je ujemanje vprašljivo le pri dolgih zidovih, obremenjenih z zelo nizkimi tlačnimi napetostmi, izračuni z enačbami, osnovanimi na podlagi porušitve strižnega trenja, v večini primerov močno precenijo dejansko strižno odpornost zidov.