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The host evolves redundant mechanisms to preserve physiological processing and homeostasis. These functions range from sensing internal and external threats, creating a memory of the insult and generating reflexes, which aim to resolve inflammation. Impairment in such functioning leads to chronic inflammatory diseases. By interacting through a common language of ligands and receptors, the immune and sensory nervous systems work in concert to accomplish such protective functions. Whilst this bidirectional communication helps to protect from danger, it can contribute to disease pathophysiology. Thus, the somatosensory nervous system is anatomically positioned within primary and secondary lymphoid tissues and mucosa to modulate immunity directly. Upstream of this interplay, neurons detect danger, which prompts the release of neuropeptides initiating (i) defensive reflexes (ranging from withdrawal response to coughing) and (ii) chemotaxis, adhesion and local infiltration of immune cells. The resulting outcome of such neuro-immune interplay is still ill-defined, but consensual findings start to emerge and support neuropeptides not only as blockers of TH 1-mediated immunity but also as drivers of TH 2 immune responses. However, the modalities detected by nociceptors revealed broader than mechanical pressure and temperature sensing and include signals as various as cytokines and pathogens to immunoglobulins and even microRNAs. Along these lines, we aggregated various dorsal root ganglion sensory neuron expression profiling datasets supporting such wide-ranging sensing capabilities to help identifying new danger detection modalities of these cells. Thus, revealing unexpected aspects of nociceptor neuron biology might prompt the identification of novel drivers of immunity, means to resolve inflammation and strategies to safeguard homeostasis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports on a decline in incidence rates for female breast cancer in the U.S. over the period 1999-2003. An analysis by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control & Prevention indicated that age-adjusted incidence rates for invasive breast cancer declined each year during the period, with the greatest decrease occurring from 2002-2003. From 2002 to 2003, all racial/ethnic groups other than American Indians/Alaska Natives experienced a significant decrease in incidence rates.

Iron status affects both microbial growth and immune function. Mammalian iron homeostasis is maintained primarily by regulating the absorption of the micronutrient in the proximal small intestine. The iron concentration of the enterocyte can fluctuate widely in response to both dietary and whole body iron status, as well as in response to infections. The possibility that an enterocyte with an elevated iron concentration is more susceptible to invasion by enteric pathogens is not known. Therefore, we examined the impact of enterocyte iron status on the invasion and survival of an enteric pathogen, as well as on the levels of several cytokine and chemokine mRNAs by the host cell. The enterocyte-like Caco-2 human intestinal cell line and Salmonella enteritidis served as the models to examine the effect of iron on the host-parasite interaction. Iron status of Caco-2 cells was altered by incubation in serum-free medium supplemented with varying levels of iron. Elevated iron status of Caco-2 cells increased the efficiency of the invasion and the number of bacteria surviving in the intracellular environment. Caco-2 cells constitutively expressed transforming growth factor-beta1, interleukin-8, monocyte chemotactic protein-1, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1beta, and infection with S. enteritidis increased the relative quantities of all cytokine/chemokine mRNAs except interleukin-1beta. Elevated iron status of Caco-2 cells decreased the levels of cytokine/chemokine mRNAs by 25-45% in uninfected cells. In contrast, bacterial infection was associated with a 21-95% increase in cytokine/chemokine mRNAs levels in Caco-2 cells with higher iron concentration compared with infected cells with lower iron concentration. These data support the hypothesis that elevated enterocyte iron status increases susceptibility to infection and exacerbates the mucosal inflammatory response initiated by microbial invasion by increasing cytokine/chemokine expression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A neutrophil monolayer system was used to study the effects of uric acid on neutrophil-aggregate interactions important in rheumatoid inflammation. No effect on immunoglobulin G aggregate phagocytosis was seen, but hyperuricaemic levels of uric acid were associated with an enhancement of phagocytosis-induced release of the azurophilic granular enzyme beta-glucuronidase. A trinitrophenyl-coupled mononuclear leucocyte rheumatoid factor plaque-forming assay was utilised to study uric acid effects on polyclonal activation of immunocompetent cells. Low levels of uric acid enhanced and high levels suppressed this system. Hyperuricaemia may enhance some aspects of rheumatoid inflammation, while uric acid may modulate an important component of rheumatoid autoimmunity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The special section on analogue behavioral observation (ABO) provided an in-depth review of various ABO assessment procedures. Despite their availability, however, these procedures are rarely used in clinical practice. This may result in part from the traditions on which most ABO assessments are based, from distinctions between clinical and research assessment environments, and from the need for more information about the cost-effectiveness of ABO strategies for meeting specific needs of clinicians in applied settings. Suggestions for bridging the research-clinical gap involve investigating more thoroughly when ABO does and does not provide useful information for various purposes in applied settings and increasing accessibility and cost-effectiveness of ABO procedures for practitioners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this guideline is to provide a series of evidence-based recommendations that allow those new to using MEGA-PRESS to produce high-quality data for the measurement of GABA levels using edited magnetic resonance spectroscopy with the MEGA-PRESS sequence at 3T. GABA is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter of the central nervous system and has been increasingly studied due to its relevance in many clinical disorders of the central nervous system. MEGA-PRESS is the most widely used method for quantification of GABA at 3T, but is technically challenging and operates at a low signal-to-noise ratio. Therefore, the acquisition of high-quality MRS data relies on avoiding numerous pitfalls and observing important caveats. The guideline was developed by a working party that consisted of experts in MRS and experts in guideline development and implementation, together with key stakeholders. Strictly following a translational framework, we first identified evidence using a systematically conducted scoping literature review, then synthesized and graded the quality of evidence that formed recommendations. These recommendations were then sent to a panel of 21 world leaders in MRS for feedback and approval using a modified-Delphi process across two rounds. The final guideline consists of 23 recommendations across six domains essential for GABA MRS acquisition (Parameters, Practicalities, Data acquisition, Confounders, Quality/reporting, Post-processing). Overall, 78% of recommendations were formed from high-quality evidence, and 91% received agreement from over 80% of the expert panel. These 23 expert-reviewed recommendations and accompanying extended documentation form a readily useable guideline to allow those new to using MEGA-PRESS to design appropriate MEGA-PRESS study protocols and generate high-quality data., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest None., (Copyright © 2023. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

The basis for cognitive deficits in Parkinson's disease (PD) is unknown. Hippocampal atrophy has been shown in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and PD. N-Acetyl aspartate (NAA)/creatine (Cr) ratio in the posterior cingulate gyrus (PCG) is decreased in AD, but unknown in PD. Volumetric magnetic resonance (MR) imaging (at 1.5 T) determined corrected HC volume and MR spectroscopy (MRS) PCG metabolites in 12 non-demented mild to moderately affected PD patients (six male, six female) and ten controls (five male, five female). Age (PD=60.6 years, control=62.2; P=0.62), education (PD=14.1 years, controls=13.8; P=0.89) and global cognition (Mini-Mental State Exam score: PD=28.7, controls=29.6; P=0.14) did not differ. Only recall (CVLT-II, P=0.046) and NAA/Cr (PD=1.53, controls=1.78; P=0.03) were decreased in PD. Memory correlated with NAA/Cr (r=0.65, P=0.02) in PD. In conclusion, cingulate metabolic changes occur in PD.

This study tested a model wherein the family conflict, depression, and antisocial behavior of 254 adolescents (mean age = 17 years; 63% female) are prospectively related to functioning within a marital (51%) or dating relationship in young adulthood (mean age = 23 years). Family aversive communication in adolescence and adolescent antisocial behavior predicted couple physical aggression. Family aversive communication predicted dyadic satisfaction and aversive couple communication for married women and dating men. Among those with partners who reported little antisocial behavior, adolescent antisocial behavior inversely predicted couple satisfaction and facilitative behavior. Partner antisocial behavior did not mediate the relation between adolescent characteristics and couple functioning. Findings emphasize the importance of the early family environment and psychopathology of the adolescent in the development of adaptive couple relationships.

Social validity is a term coined by behavior analysts to refer to the social importance and acceptability of treatment goals, procedures, and outcomes. This article discusses dimensions of social validity, methods used to evaluate various aspects of social validity, and the applicability of these concepts and methods in clinical treatment research.

Objective: The purpose of this study is to describe the bony and, to our knowledge, previously unreported associated soft-tissue abnormalities seen on MR imaging of dysplasia epiphysealis hemimelica., Conclusion: MR imaging accurately depicted bony and cartilagenous structural abnormalities in multiple planes and revealed previously undescribed secondary changes in menisci, tendons, ligaments, and muscle. MR imaging is of value in the assessment of patients with this disorder.

Managed care organizations are excellent environments for pharmaceutical care programs to demonstrate their impact on patient care outcomes and to decrease costs. Patient consultation is the cornerstone in implementing pharmaceutical care because it increases patient contact with the pharmacists while improving patient compliance with drug therapy (adherence). Implementation of a patient consultation program that verifies patients' understanding of their disease and therapy gives the pharmacist information necessary to monitor drug therapy. Use of strategic planning to overcome barriers, followed by the development of local standards of practice, will refocus the practice philosophy to one of improving patient outcomes. Pharmacy managers must demonstrate and document the value that patient consultation brings to the patient and the healthcare system. Then, they must integrate their counseling effort with other health education efforts of the managed care system. Pharmacists will gain the support of other disciplines by reinforcing their efforts. Together they can work to decrease the problems that are inherent with drug therapy. These goals can be accomplished with minimal expense and have the potential to produce significant savings in healthcare costs.

This article reviews current strategies for assessing social skills with peers in childhood, highlighting contemporary unresolved issues in identifying children who need intervention, selecting target behaviors, and assessing treatment outcome. Sociometric measures of peer acceptance are also considered. Although many current measures of social skills have adequate evidence of reliability and convergent validity, assessment could benefit from (a) increased documentation that the content of measures assesses important skills in relating to peers, (b) improved methods for assessing social behavior in specific interpersonal situations, and (c) more empirical evidence that indirect assessment methods (self-report, peer assessment, and teacher report) and analogue observations reflect in vivo behavior.

The convergent validity of the two most frequently used methods for assessing violent offending in juveniles (i.e., self-reports and arrests) was evaluated. Participants were 87 serious juvenile offenders and their maternal figures, primarily from disadvantaged families. Validation measures tapped established behavioral, family, and peer correlates of delinquency. Results failed to support the ability of either arrests for violent crimes or self-reported violent offenses to index violent criminal behavior accurately. Several methodological features of the study support our hypothesis that the findings were not spurious. Procedural and conceptual implications of the findings are discussed.

This study examined the impact of social problem-solving training on the behavior of five aggressive boys. Acquisition of problem-solving skills and changes in classroom behavior were evaluated using multiple-baseline designs within and across subjects. A generalization-programming procedure to promote the use of problem-solving skills in the natural environment was introduced across children in multiple-baseline fashion. Direct observation and behavior ratings were used to evaluate the treatment. Results indicated that each subject acquired the problem-solving skills at levels comparable to well-adjusted peers. Only one child showed behavioral improvement coincident with problem-solving skill acquisition. Three others showed moderate behavior change after the generalization-programming procedure was introduced. Only one child's gains on teacher ratings were maintained at the 6-month followup. The results suggest that cognitive-behavioral treatment of childrens' aggressive behavior may produce changes of limited magnitude and durability.

The hypothesis is experimentally examined that a positive behavioral repertoire can ameliorate the negative social impact of aggressive behavior. Sixty-six fourth- through sixth-grade girls viewed and rated a series of videotaped interactions between two female confederates. The proportion of positive to aggressive behavior viewed by each subject was manipulated across six experimental conditions by varying the number of positive behaviors exhibited by one of the confederates (target) while the number of aggressive behaviors displayed by her remained constant (i.e., 0%, 20%, 43%, 60%, 80%, and 100% positive). Each subject provided sociometric ratings of the target and selected trait descriptors that best described her from a checklist. The results indicated that positive behavior exhibited in high rates (80% or more, compared to aggressive behavior) offset the negative effects of aggression on both sociometric ratings and positive and negative descriptors.

Mastery of medical and surgical asepsis principles is mandatory for nurses in today's health care environment. The authors report on the development, implementation, and evaluation of a multimedia asepsis module incorporating universal precautions. Practical application of the content, using graphics, medical supplies, and video, occurs in the four-station participatory learning module. Student evaluations of this learning module are positive.

A sudden absence of leadership due to unexpected illness, death, or resignation can seriously weaken an organization. Orderly administrative transition was believed to be necessary by those confronting a sudden leadership void. A team management administrative approach was proposed in response to an urgent and complex problem. Results of an evaluation of the team at the end of 1 year of leadership are presented. Team management is documented as a viable alternative to a one person acting director in an academic setting.

Sociometric and attribution (internality and responsibility) ratings of boys performing different kinds of aggression (hostile and instrumental hitting and pushing) and of neutral behavior occurring in two contexts (provoked and unprovoked) were investigated in an analogue fashion. Thirty fifth- and sixth-grade boys viewed and rated 12 brief videotaped scenes of two unfamiliar male peers interacting, presented in one of six random orders. Provoked aggression resulted in less dislike, less worthiness of punishment, and greater attribution to external causes than unprovoked aggression. Instrumental and hostile aggression produced lower liking ratings and were viewed as more deserving of punishment than neutral behavior but did not differ from each other. Results support distinctions between provoked and unprovoked aggression but not between hostile and instrumental aggression, at least in terms of their functional impact on peer judgements.

The coculture of normal human peripheral blood mononuclear leukocytes (PBL) and autologous mononuclear leukocytes coupled to the trinitrophenyl (TNP) hapten (TNP-PBL) was found to induce a polyclonal activation of antibody-producing cells. The polyclonal activation of antibody-producing cells was demonstrated by detecting the induction of cells producing antibody to sheep red blood cells using a complement-dependent, direct, hemolytic plaque-forming cell (PFC) assay. A ratio of four normal to one haptenated mononuclear leukocyte was found to be optimal for inducing the polyclonal activation of antibody-producing cell in these cultures. The plaque-forming cells assay in these experiments utilized monolayers of indicator red cells. Further evidence for the polyclonal induction of antibody-producing cells by TNP-PBL was provided by demonstrating PFC on monolayers of not only sheep red blood cells, but also autologous human red cells, bromelain-treated autologous red cells, TNP-coupled human and sheep red cells, and human autologous red cells coupled to human heat-aggregated IgG with chromic chloride. Thus cells secreting antibody to TNP, human red cells, and human IgG were induced. Anti-IgG and anti-human red cell-producing cells were first detected on Day 2 of culture and were still present on Day 9. Mononuclear leukocytes altered by chemical haptenation polyclonally stimulate normal mononuclear leukocytes to become antibody-producing cells. This polyclonal stimulation of antibody-producing cells includes cells producing antibodies to human IgG and human autologous red blood cells suggesting that autoantibody-producing cells are induced.

Recent interest in children's social competence has been prompted by findings of correlational and retrospective studies that indicate a positive relationship between early social adjustment problems of children and their adjustment later in life. To date, the assessment methodology in the area has pursued two directions: (1) sociometric measures (peer nomination and peer rating scales), which have provided the major means of identifying the socially competent child, and (2) direct observation, principally employed in the specification of socially competent behaviors. The current uses and the inherent assets and limitations of both strategies are discussed along with suggestions for enhancing current data collection methods. Issues concerning the definition of social competence, generalizability of current findings, and social norms are also examined.

Suppressive-B-cell factor (SBF) is an autoregulatory B-cell lymphokine produced by heat-aggregated-IgG stimulated B-lymphocytes which suppresses polyclonal immunoglobulin production. SBF production by rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients' peripheral blood B-lymphocytes inversely correlates with disease activity and in vitro rheumatoid factor production. To further define the role of SBF in the pathogenesis of RA, the present study measured SBF production by surgically-obtained synovial membrane mononuclear leukocytes. SBF production by RA synovial leukocytes was similar to the levels previously described for RA peripheral blood leukocytes. Both RA and osteoarthritis (OA) synovial leukocytes produced significantly less SBF than leukocytes obtained from otherwise healthy patients with plica. OA patients produced less SBF than RA patients, but the difference was not statistically significant. SBF values for combined RA patients and controls with OA or plica correlated with the degree of histological plasma cell infiltration providing further evidence for SBF production by cells of the B-lymphocyte lineage. Depletion studies also demonstrated that synovial SBF was produced by B-lymphocytes. The molecular weight (34,000) of synovial SBF was similar to the molecular weight of peripheral blood SBF. Decreased SBF production by RA synovial B-lymphocytes is a functional abnormality in RA which may contribute to the perpetuation of synovial rheumatoid factor production and chronic synovial inflammation.

Hyaluronic acid at a concentration found in normal joints (4 mg/ml) inhibited the uptake of aggregated IgG by human peripheral blood polymorphonuclear leukocytes, but concentrations of hyaluronic acid found in inflammatory joints (1 mg/ml) did not. Similarly, hyaluronic acid at 4 mg/ml, but not 1 mg/ml, inhibited the release of lysozyme from aggregated IgG stimulated polymorphonuclear leukocytes. beta-Glucuronidase release was inhibited by both concentrations of hyaluronic acid. Physiological concentrations of hyaluronic acid inhibit this model system for the fluid phase of rheumatoid arthritis and hyaluronic acid may be an important immunomodulating substance in the rheumatoid joint.

The mechanisms whereby formed immune complexes (IC) or immunoglobulin aggregates can suppress further antibody production were explored by culturing normal human peripheral blood mononuclear leukocytes (PBL) with heat-aggregated IgG (HAIgG) and collecting the culture supernatants at 24 hr. These supernatants were found to suppress a pokeweed mitogen (PWM)-induced rheumatoid factor plaque-forming cell (RF-PFC) response in normal individuals. PWM-induced anti-trinitrophenylated sheep red blood cell (TNP-SRBC) PFC were also inhibited by suppressor supernatants from HAIgG-stimulated PBL, suggesting that the polyclonal PFC response was inhibited by a suppressor factor. The suppressor factor inhibited PWM stimulated RF-PFC throughout the culture period, but suppression was maximal at the peak of the RF-PFC response. Suppressor factor was only effective at the initiation of cultures, suggesting that it inhibited early events in the PWM-stimulated RF-PFC response. Molecular weight determination of the suppressor factor by differential membrane fractionation suggested a m.w. range of 30,000 to 50,000, and chromatography on Sephadex G-100 showed a peak activity at an approximate m.w. of 32,000. Studies suggested the factor was not an interferon. Depletion of T lymphocytes by E rosetting and macrophages/monocytes by G-10 adherence did not affect the generation of suppressor factor. Depletion of T lymphocytes (OKT4, OKT8) and NK cells (Leu-11b) by antibody-dependent, complement-mediated cytotoxicity also did not affect the generation of suppressor factor. Depletion of B lymphocytes with OKB7 resulted in the generation of significantly less suppressor factor. Suppression produced by unstimulated purified B lymphocytes was approximately one-half that seen when B lymphocytes were stimulated with HAIgG. Differential membrane fractionation studies suggested that only HAIgG-stimulated B cell cultures contained peak activity in the 30,000 to 50,000 m.w. fraction. Supernatants from unstimulated purified T cells also generated suppression, which was approximately one-half of that seen with HAIgG-stimulated B cells, but no increase in suppressor activity was seen in T cell cultures after incubation with HAIgG. These studies demonstrate that HAIgG is capable of stimulating B lymphocytes to produce a lymphokine, suppressive B cell factor (SBF), which is capable of suppressing a polyclonal PFC response. SBF may be important in feedback control of human immunoglobulin production.

A product, Osto-Zyme, was clinically tested at our Institute for the elimination of odor. Thirteen clients were chosen by enterostomal therapists to be tested. The product was sprayed directly into pouch, peristomal skin, and into night drainage units. This product proved very effective in the elimination of odor. The manufacturer of Osto-Zyme is the Richard C. Shelton Co., Wright Brothers Branch, Dayton, Ohio.

Ninety-nine teachers participated in a survey designed to assess teacher attitudes toward and experience with a variety of strategies for dealing with conduct problem children in regular classes. Results indicated that (a) a majority of teachers favored placing conduct problem children in regular rather than special classes; (b) current sources of assistance (school psychologists, clinical psychologists, principals, parents, and other teachers) were uniformly perceived as only slightly affective in helping teachers handle problem children; and (c) of 14 alternative educational and psychological assistance delivery strategies, teachers most frequently preferred smaller classes, teacher aides, increased counseling staff, and resource classrooms.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a disorder characterized by defective immunoregulation. Hypergammaglobulinemia, circulating immune complexes (IC), and autoantibodies such as rheumatoid factor (RF) are common serum abnormalities. To assess IC-mediated feedback suppression in RA, we evaluated the ability of a suppressive B cell factor (SBF) generated by culturing heat-aggregated IgG (HAIgG) with peripheral blood mononuclear leukocytes (PBL) from patients with RA and normal controls to suppress the pokeweed mitogen (PWM)-induced RF plaque-forming cell (PFC) response of normal PBL. RA patients generated less SBF than age-matched controls. Background suppression (supernatants obtained from PBL cultured without HAIgG) was similar in the RA patients and age-matched controls. To determine the effects of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug (NSAID) therapy on suppression, RA patients and age-matched controls were studied before and after NSAID therapy. NSAID therapy significantly reduced background suppression in RA patients who were not on immunosuppressive drugs and in age-matched controls, but there was no effect on SBF in RA patients or controls. There was a small increase in background suppression when NSAID were administered to RA patients on immunosuppressives, suggesting an ameliorative effect of NSAID in this group of patients, which tended to increase their level of suppression when compared with RA patients only on NSAID. Spontaneous RF-PFC were measured in normal controls and RA patients and were compared with suppressor activity. There were increased numbers of spontaneous RF-PFC in RA patients. Total suppressor activity was greatest in young adult controls, who also had the least RF-PFC. The percentage of suppression correlated inversely with the number of RF-PFC in patients and controls. Additionally, disease activity in RA as measured by total joint count and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) was shown to correlate inversely with total suppressor activity. We conclude that the PBL from patients with RA produce decreased SBF after HAIgG stimulation and that loss of suppression is also associated with aging. This study suggests a defect in IC-stimulated B cell suppressor activity in RA leading to decreased ability to suppress antibody and further IC formation. The combination of increased RF-PFC and decreased SBF suggests that there is defective B cell autoregulation in RA, which may be involved in the pathogenesis and chronicity of this disease.

Pet medical insurance has appreciable advantages and the existing policies appear to provide a beneficial service. But administrative costs of the small premiums involved make it of doubtful commercial attraction or benefit to the client. However, practice contract service schemes reduce administrative costs and can provide many of the advantages of insurance. Such a scheme is described. A coordinating agency outside the practice to produce promotional material, contracts, formulae for setting premiums and exclusions and to act as an arbitration agency for disputes could be established given the demand.

The clinical records of randomly selected patients receiving both the sheep cell agglutination test (SCAT) and the latex agglutination test (RA latex) for rheumatoid factor (RF) were analyzed for the presence of American Rheumatism Association (ARA) criteria for rheumatoid arthritis (RA). When both tests were positive there was a 3-fold increase compared to only one test positive in the relative risk that a patient met ARA criteria for RA, and there was a 2-fold increase in the probability that a patient with 2 positive tests had classical RA compared to only a positive RA latex. The occurrence of RF reactive with both human and rabbit IgG identifies a population of patients likely to have more ARA criteria for RA and classical disease.

Two-mercaptoethanol (2-ME), a simple 2 carbon thiol compound with a wide variety of in vitro and in vivo immunomodulating effects, was evaluated for its usefulness as a molecular probe of human antibody producing cell activation by adding 2-ME to cultures of peripheral blood mononuclear leukocytes from normal human volunteers. Culturing normal human leukocytes with 2-ME induced a significant number of cells producing rheumatoid factor as measured by a hemolytic plaque forming cell (PFC) assay. Dose response studies revealed 5 X 10(-5)M to be the optimum concentration of 2-ME for the induction of rheumatoid factor plaque forming cells (RF-PFC). This concentration of 2-ME also maximally induced PFC making antibodies to sheep red cells coupled to the trinitrophenyl (TNP) hapten demonstrating that 2-ME is a polyclonal inducer of human PFC. The addition of 5 X 10(-5) M 2-ME to cultures containing maximal concentrations of the polyclonal stimulators, pokeweed mitogen and human heat-aggregrated IgG, increased the number of RF-PFC detected in these cultures by approximately 50%, although both lower and higher concentrations of 2-ME suppressed the RF-PFC response. We conclude that 2-ME induces normal human leukocytes to produce rheumatoid factor as part of a polyclonal activation of antibody producing cells. 2-ME also has immunomodulating effects when added to other polyclonal stimulators of antibody producing cells.