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The biological crisis of existence in which the species finds itself is clearly demonstrated in geography. The spread of mankind and machinekind explain the spread of speciecide. Geobiological revolutions are ones in which profound changes in spatial domain occur and are typically misunderstood as mere national, racial, political, or cultural events. These events must be given their proper geobiological interpretation. The geography of the future must create spaces in which mankind is preferred to machinekind. Specifically, geographers must help to construct regions in which children prosper, since the protection of the specie's young is the protections of the species itself. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines sociologist Karl Marx's thoughts on the notion of human essence and history. Whoever would resolve the question of human essence must elaborate traits that will establish the unity of the human species, on the one hand, and demonstrate its distinction from all the other species of the living world, on the other. One of the distinguishing features of Marxian thought is precisely that it does not consider this task accomplished with the setting forth of those constant traits, which independent of actual historical process, are characteristic of every man and characterize only man. The idea of the inner unity of the historical process follows from the fundamental Marxian conceptions of man and society. Man is not some sort of pure self-consciousness whose determinations arise as the results of a "pure self-activity" totally independent of the material world. The individual is an objective, material being determined by his environment, his needs and capacities, by the social objects of the realization of his life that exist independently from him.

The article presents a review of the Northeastern archaeology. This literature is limited to synthesizing the trends and results of investigations since the Andover conference opened new directions for research and to developing one of these ecology, as a framework for future investigations. Limitations are particularly stated because evoking ecological theory and testing sacred old ideas and newly generated hypotheses with the plethora of research techniques now available, future summaries will be radically different. However, with recognition that the human population is a significant variable in ecology, archeological discoveries in the Northeast will have growing importance for anthropology, general ecology, and all disciplines concerned with man's adjustments to a forest environment.

The article focuses on the critical view on Southwestern ethnology in Tucson, Arizona. Anthropologists have been investigating indigenous cultures of the southwestern U.S. and northern Mexico. Anthropological contributions to the study of Southwestern culture history continue to appear at a steadily increasing rate. The growing numbers of Southwestern Indians have been drawn to Anglo towns and cities in search of employment. These trends are clearly reflected in the work of anthropologists who have become increasingly concerned with the analysis of native political processes.

The International Planned Parenthood Federation was founded in 1952. In that year the Republic of Ireland hinted at resignation from the World Health Organization if WHO were to involve itself in family planning activities (Symonds & Carder, 1973). In 1973, as the IPPF marks its 21st Anniversary, a ban on the import of contraceptives has been upheld by the Irish courts after a mother of four appealed for help to prevent another pregnancy for health reasons. In October this year the Family Planning Association of Ireland will probably become the 80th member of the International Planned Parenthood Federation. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The recent exchanges of opinion on Daniel De Leon that have been appearing in the pages of the journal, "Labor History" indicate a growing awareness that De Leon was a significant figure who has been given but slight notice by too many historians in the past. A number of those historians who have written on American labor and socialism have bypassed De Leon, or, when they have dealt with him at all, have done little or no primary research and have instead copied opinions on De Leon from each other. With a rather strained effort at objectivity, a number of historians of American socialist and labor history have also ignored or belittled Socialist Labor Party histories and character studies of De Leon as being much `too favorable to take seriously, despite the fact that these publications contain material on De Leon that can be found nowhere else. These SLP histories all written by people who knew and worked with De Leon-are valuable documents which admittedly give a favorable picture of De Leon by his dedicated followers (why consider only his opponents to be "objective"?), but also provide the researcher with insights into the reasons De Leon as a leader excited such dedication from his proponents and such animosity from his enemies.

The article focuses on the labour movement in New York, supporting the minimum-wage legislation, during the years 1933 to 1937. Minimum-wage legislation failed to gain widespread acceptance until the New Deal in the U.S. When the depression hit, workers had little or no protection against the vicious wage cutting which swept the country. New York not only became the first state to adopt a wage law during this period, but it also initiated a test of the measure's constitutionality. For decades the National Consumers' League (NCL) led the campaign for minimum wages throughout the country. In 1923, a ruling by the Supreme Court halted the initial campaign for this reform. NCL efforts in the preceding decade had brought passage of minimum-wage laws in fifteen states and the District of Columbia. The depression revived interest in minimum wages, since massive unemployment gave businessmen the opportunity to exploit helpless workers by drastically reducing wages. Although the cost of living fell

Almost two decades ago, the author published an article sketching the schisms in the radical movement of the United States from its inception in the wake of the Civil War until more or less the date of the article itself. These schisms, together with their corollary-the merging of various radical groups- have continued. The present article attempts to bring the story upto date, to trace it from 1953 until roughly the end of 1970. The role of the far Left in this country has almost always been that of a catalyst and forerunner in national politics. The issues over which it quarreled seem to have had little connection with major political controversies, but its ideas sooner or later seem to be taken up by the major parties. One Old Left, relatively influential sect in the early 1950s, the Shachtmanites of the Independent Socialist League, had disappeared; but the breakaways from the Socialist Labor Party, Socialist Party, Communist Party, and Socialist Workers Party resulted in smaller and less influential groups than those from which they split. Finally, no split or reunification during the period brought into existence any group which in the foreseeable future seems likely to be a serious contestant for power in the United States.

The article focuses on the history of Latin-American earthquakes with the perspective of religious fervor and international aid. The history of Latin America's earthquakes is a great body of scientifically and historically fascinating material. There is the scientific fascination of the earthquakes themselves: the form they took, their size and severity, the length of time they lasted, and several other factors. Then, there is the human pattern: the typical reaction of man faced with catastrophe and his behavior at times of incredible stress, along with the history of a growing sense of responsibility among people in far-flung places, not directly affected by the earthquake, to the sufferers. Also, there are the political manifestations: the reactions of the people to the aid that was given to them, and the effect that this and the quake itself had on political relationships in the area of interest to international relations. Ultimately, faced with this inescapable evidence of nature's indifference to him, man tends to read by seeking help and intervention from God. In nearly all accounts of all earthquakes, one point is reiterated: The people rush from their homes as the tremors begin, and many go directly to the churches. Mingling with the din of the earth's upheaval, the screams of the injured and dying, the wailing of terrified people, and the howling of dogs, can be heard the steady rising of prayers.

The article focuses on the history of crusades against the Turks, especially that of Pope Pius II, which he declared as the prime objective of his pontificate. All popes from Nicholas V to Leo X proclaimed crusades against the Turks. The crusade of Pope Pius II, however, is outstanding in that it was the only one that nearly got started. The Pope was at Ancona in Italy at the head of his cardinals, had gathered together some forces, and was ready to lead the expedition in person when his precarious health finally failed. His death meant the abandonment of the crusade. In the perspective of the Late Crusading Movement, the crusade of Pope II may be dated from the coming of an Ottoman menace into the Balkans in the fourteenth century. To get the support of European powers for his crusade, Pius II highlighted the atrocities of the Turks on the Fall of Constantinople. There came to be a standard list of atrocities allegedly committed by the Turks on the Fall of Constantinople. The farms were burned; the fields laid waste, towns destroyed. Very many bloody and cruel baffles were fought. There was wholesale slaughter. Many were taken prisoner, maids and matrons were ravished, and no mercy was shown to age or youth. No churches, no monasteries were spared. It is a safe conclusion that even at the first recital of the Turkish atrocities at Constantinople Pius II was by no means as shaken as would have been an idealist living in England or Scandinavia before the outbreak of the First World War. Nevertheless, in order to further the Crusade so close to his heart he was willing to make the maximum propaganda use of these atrocities.

This article focuses on writer John Dewey's conception of history. Neither Dewey nor experimentalists in general permit what they feel are transcendent irrelevancies to impede an understanding of the function of history. A particularly interesting aspect of Dewey's perspective of history is found not only in his general rejection of absolutes within the historical process but in his equally vigorous suggestion that history based upon, or directed toward, an absolute is in fact speculative and is thereby beyond history. Out of the unique configuration of American civilization can come a philosophy of history adequate to our present and future needs as well as one that is adequate in a sociological and in a psychological sense. Although Dewey is clearly no economic determinist, a few passages in the book "Democracy and Education," suggest he considers the economic aspects of history as paramount. If history is to be vital, if it is to permeate and enrich experience, it must never lose its socio-economic focus.

This article reports that students of English history have shown so little interest in England's "first modern historian, Polydore Vergil. Vergil's English contemporaries and near contemporaries were not so kind in their criticism, however. In fact, few writers of history have met with such harsh treatment. He was accused not only of perverting the sources but also of destroying them. In a sense, Polydore Vergil has exerted great influence, albeit indirectly and anonymously, upon the history of the reign of Henry VII. Although Francis Bacon no longer holds the position he once held in the estimation of historians, his history of the reign of the first Tudor was for long the accepted authority. Vergil wrote in Latin in order to make knowledge of English history available to readers outside of England. For the sixteenth century he was undoubtedly successful, as may be deduced from the number of editions of his history that appeared. Regardless of one's judgment in this dispute, one can only conclude that Vergil was no harsher in his criticism of Cardinal Wolsey than were Englishmen.

The article discusses about the cause and effect of Viennese Revolution of 1848. The 1848 revolution, in Vienna as elsewhere, was a middle-class "liberal" revolutionary movement, that is, liberal in the nineteenth-century sense of the term. The main emphasis was on the freedom of the individual citizen. The dominant idea was that the welfare of a whole nation lay in the well being of every person. To assure the greatest possible freedom of the individual and the progress of mankind, the liberals in central Europe insisted, there must be a constitution which guaranteed to the middle classes the right to co-operate in making laws and approving taxes, and which re- strained the sovereign from abusing the rights of individual citizens. By early 1848 the Viennese and other Austrian workers were thus inclined to be sullen and bitter and ready to find a scapegoat for their woes. The middle classes were exasperated because they were excluded from the political and social privileges, which they felt, were due them. The Viennese revolution is in essence mainly the story of a "liberal" ideal that failed.

The article presents some thoughts on the mutual joint-stock world and the presents war. A well-known political scientist recently declared that at the end of the Napoleonic wars (1814) business and government were two distinct institutions but that a hundred years later it was impossible to distinguish one from the other. Why and how this change came about is not only an interesting story but one that has a strong bearing on the present international conflict. As the politicos came to realize that only a wealthy state could be great and strong, and as the business interests realized that their success was to a large degree dependent upon their ability to make a satisfactory arrangement with the state, they began to work along mutually helpful lines. The greater part of this expansion, came after 1848. Following the revolutions of that year many European countries had the choice of establishing a unitary or a federal system of government. In almost all cases, the politicos, feeling that a strongly unitary state would enable them effectively to play the game of real politics, chose the unitary system.

This article focuses on the Anglo-German rivalry. The main factor in the international situation during the first decade of the twentieth century was Anglo-German rivalry. On the part of England it was a search for security, and this meant, as it had meant since the days of Cardinal Woolsey, a control of the balance of power described by Bishop Stubbs as the principle which gives unity to the political plot of modern European history. Naturally this growing controversy affected nearly every country on the face of the globe. It acted as a powerful ligature between England on the one side and the enemies of Germany on the other. It enabled certain Great Powers to exploit the situation to their own advantage. Furthermore, one of the oldest principles of French foreign policy was to prevent a unified state from growing up in Central Europe. The Franco-Prussian War was therefore an inevitable step in the unification of Germany. Prussia had done what Austria had failed to do, but French foreign policy was too deeply rooted to change with the achievement.

The article focuses on Europe's efforts at peacemaking during the Turco-Italian war. An alleged danger of a native uprising was the pretext used by Italy to justify her demand to Turkey, September 28, 1911, for the right to occupy Tripoli. Interested as they were in winning the friendship of Italy, none of the powers raised a restraining hand, although Germany and Austria had worked for more than a year to iron out difficulties between their Italian ally and their Turkish friend. Thus Europe was faced with a new risk, the seriousness of which no one could predict. The reaction of opinion in England, Germany, and Austria was in general unfavorable, since it was believed that the war might upset the Balkan cauldron, inflame the Mohammedan world, and lead to even more serious consequences. French opinion, influenced, no doubt, by the cordiality of relations with the Latin sister since the beginning of the century, was more favorable to Italy. The immediate interest of the powers was to restrain the Balkans.

Presents the continuation to the article which is offered but as a slight and fragmentary comment upon the writings of the legal historian, John Selden. Selden's aim of the discovery of the historical truth embodied in truth-containing and truth-revealing sources; Efforts by Selden to determine whether a source is authentic or a forgery; Use of inductive processes in arriving at historical fact.

Focuses on the contributions of John Selden as a legal historian in the United States. Beginnings of Selden's literary activity; Significance of his works on oriental subjects; Variety of subjects covered by Selden's discourses.

The article focuses on the history of the hearsay rule. Under the name of the Hearsay Rule is here understood that rule which prohibits the use of a person's assertion, as equivalent to testimony to the fact asserted, unless the assertor is brought to testify in court on the stand, where he may be probed and cross-examined as to the grounds of his assertion and of his qualifications to make it. The history of the Hearsay Rule, as a distinct and living idea, begins only in the 1500's, and it does not gain a complete development and final precision until the early 1700's.

The article presents information on the history of trover. The trespasser, like a disseisor, acquired a tortious property. Trespass, therefore, would not lie for a wrongful distress; for the distrainor did not claim nor acquire any property in the distress. This is shown by the fact that he could not maintain trespass or trover if the distress was taken from him on the way to the pound, or taken out of the pound, but must resort to a writ of rescous in the one case, and a writ of deparco fracto in the other case.

Comments on the influence of the common-law doctrine in the legal history of Massachusetts. Analysis of the Public Statutes of Massachusetts; Common-law grounds of witness exclusion; Instances in the court records of the province in the 18th century where Indian testimony was introduced; Cases where religious grounds played significant roles in the doctrine.

Provides information on the origin of the word use. Derivation of the word use from the Latin word opus; Details on the history of the phrase ad opus; Conception of ownership.

Traces the history of the notion of Responsibility for Tortious Acts in Anglo-American law. Primitive notion which instinctively visits liability on the visible offending source; Harm connected with a personal deed; Harm connected with animals; Harm connected with inanimate things; Harm connected with a servant.

Focuses on the history of the Register of Original Writs. Description of the Writ of Right Group; Occurrence of the Assize of Novel Disseisin, a section devoted to Possession; Description of a scheme of a Register which attribute to the reign of Richard II.

Focuses on the history of the Registers of Original Writs. Description of the Register that was sent to Ireland by order in 1227; Formation of the inference that the official Register in the Chancery had not yet crystallized and that possibly different officers in the Chancery had copies which differed from each other; Description of the writs for the arrest or attachment of appellees.

Presents a historical background of the law of business corporations before 1800. Classification of corporations into sole and aggregate; Nature on the operation of societates, a business enterprise carried on in common and under the form of legal persons; Realization of the advantages of corporations at the end of the seventeenth century; Authority of the king to grant charters to business associations; Right and necessity of having a corporate seal.

Italian policymakers conceived of vast, empty, ‘cultivable.’ steppe lands in northern Tripolitania which were available for colonization, although Libyans were using them for cereal cultivation and pastoralism. The Italians adapted the principle of state land grants from Islamic law to their colonial land codes, and proceeded to build a colonial domain reserved for Italians. Dispossession of the Libyans was considered in the public interest. They were excluded from even larger areas as Italian settlement expanded. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The historical development of Wilmington, North Carolina, is examined as an example of how sensitive one American city has been to a changing geographical situation. Beginning early in the Colonial Period, three distinct functional period are identified for the city. The first and longest, when Wilmington functioned as a regional port, lasted through the nineteenth century. The second, ending about 1950, saw the city function chiefly as a regional trade and service center while use of the port declined. The period since 1950 has been characterized by manufacturing development, revival of the port and related activity, and relative decline in regional trade. The three periods have been separated by times of critical transition as reorganization lagged behind changes in the pattern and significance of transportation forms and the character and requirements of the city-region.

It is argued in this paper that regionalization is a similar process to classification. The terminology and procedures of the two are compared and it is concluded that there is a close similarity except that there is no direct analogy in regionalization with the individual of classification, it is suggested that operationally defined individuals partially overcome this problem. The histories of ideas about the nature and purpose of regional systems and classification systems are briefly compared and again found to be similar. Ten principles of classification derived from the work of logicians and taxonomists are then stated and the methods of constructing regional systems are examined in the light of these principles. It is shown that most of the points revealed by such an examination have been previously discussed by geographers, although they are arguing from different premises. Some of the principles, however, do raise problems which have hitherto received little attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examines the development of the walls of several cities in the U.S. Consideration of the lack of influence of the wall as a characteristic feature of cities; Assessment of the effect of historic walls on the growth and structure of the present cities; Comparison of the American city walls to their European counterparts.

Presents an excerpt of the paper on geographical and historical concepts in American history read at Plenary Session 56th Annual Meeting of the Association of American Geographers in Dallas, Texas.

Provides information on the physical features of the delta of the Atrato River in northwestern Colombia. Factors causing the change of various landforms; Details on the history of the delta; Awareness on the climate of the area.

Explores the history of the concept of geography from its earliest origins to its exposition by Alfred Hettner in 1895 and 1905. J.M. Franz's comparison of geography and history in 1747; Immanuel Kant's ideas about geography; Status of geography among the sciences in the second half of the nineteenth century; Rediscovery of the concepts of Kant and Alexander von Humboldt in 1905-1939.

Focuses on the education and professionalism among the geographers in the U.S. Contribution to the growth of geographic knowledge; Implication of the different temperaments and diverse interests for geographical society and their studies; Historical background of the works of geographers.

When the scheme of morphological subdivision propounded is applied to Western Europe, the Central Massif of France appears as a physiographic province with a unity of major relief type and structural evolution. The geographical regions within this province have two other important features in common: they have a similar history and the majority are characterized by a "mountainous centrality" with regard to the rest of France. It is the purpose of this paper to examine the emergence of the general patterns of road and rail communications in these regions.

Delves into the historical geography of cheese manufactures in the U.S. Early settlers of the American East Coast that introduced dairy cattle of European origin to the colonies; History of the introduction of the cheese factory; Additional changes in cheese production with the passing of time.