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The impact of utilizing chopped computer and bond paper as a litter material on growth performance of broilers reared to market age was evaluated. In the first experiment, broilers were placed in pens at 10 birds per square meter, and four different litter treatments were used; 1) 100% chopped computer and bond paper (CCP); 2) a mix of 75% CCP and 25% wood shavings (WS); 3) 50% CCP and 50% WS; 4) 100% WS. Experiment 2 evaluated the same treatments, but with densities of 14 birds per square meter. Litter treatments had no effect on body weight gain, feed consumption, conversion, or mortality for either of the two experiments. No differences were found for percentage litter moisture among treatments. Chopped computer and bond paper alone or mixed in different percentages with WS can be used as an alternate litter material for rearing broilers as long as there is good waterer management, especially with open watering systems. These systems may have the tendency to increase the incidence of litter caking.

The suitability of recycled paper chips (RPC), formed by completely reprocessing waste newspaper, as litter material for rearing broilers was investigated in two successive trials. In Trial 1, broilers were reared in pens prepared with a 9-cm layer of either unused RPC or pine shavings (PS). In Trial 2, broilers were reared in pens prepared by adding 3 cm of clean RPC or PS to used litter of the same type remaining from Trial 1. Mortality, BW, feed consumption and conversion, carcass yield, and incidences of breast blisters and leg abnormalities were not influenced by litter treatments. Litter moisture was greater in RPC during Week 3 of Trial 1, but did not differ between treatments at other times during either trial. Litter caking was greater in RPC throughout Trial 1, but did not differ between treatments during Trial 2. Populations of aerobic, psychrotrophic, and coliform bacteria, and fungi (yeasts and molds) in the two litter types did not differ during the rearing period of either trial. Populations of aerobic bacteria and fungi were greater in unused PS, and fungi populations were greater in used PS prior to initiation of Trial 2. Populations of psychrotrophic bacteria were greater in used PS 6 days after bird removal in Trial 2. Generally, RPC are comparable to PS and have potential as an alternative litter material for rearing broilers.

The suitability of three types of recycled paper products for use as broiler litter was studied in three trials using a total of 9,600 broilers. Litter, consisting of hardwood sawdust (SD) as a control, shredded newspaper (SN), processed newspaper (PN), or processed cardboard (PC), was placed in each of four replicate pens in the first trial and reused in subsequent trials. Body weights at 28 and 49 days were significantly influenced by treatment with broilers reared on SN weighing more than SD controls. Broilers on PC were the lightest. Statistically, the PN broilers were heavier than SD broilers at 28 days but similar to controls by market age. Feed conversion was improved with SN at 28 days but did not differ by 49 days. Mortality was not significantly affected by litter material. The moisture content of paper litters was numerically higher than that of the SD control with significantly greater litter caking occurring in the paper litters. However, only broilers on PC had a greater incidence of breast blisters. Overall and total disease condemnation were not influenced by litter material. Skin color scores were improved with the PN treatment.

Three experiments were conducted to determine the response of bobwhite quail chicks when reared in pens with and without brooding paper. Half the chicks in each experiment was brooded Days 1 to 7 on brooding paper, which covered the litter within a brooder ring. The other half was brooded on either new or reused litter without paper. Results of all three experiments showed a consistent trend of higher 1-week body weights and lower cumulative 1 to 3 week mortality when birds were reared in pens without paper. Overall, no net performance advantages were found for rearing quail with brooding paper at the termination of the 3-week trials.

Three experiments, which included 4 broiler flocks, were conducted to examine the usefulness of a novel bedding material for rearing broilers. The control bedding was pine shavings. The novel bedding, aGroChips (AC), was a chopped material made from cotton lint waste, gypsum, and old newsprint using a proprietary paper manufacturing process (Novovita, Inc., Raleigh, NC). All birds were fed the same feeding program: starter from 0 to 3 wk, grower from 3 to 5 or 6 wk, and finisher during the last week. Birds were marketed at either 6 or 7 wk of age. Feed consumption by pen and individual bird BW were measured at 3 and 6 or 7 wk. Mean BW and feed conversion, adjusted to include weight of mortality, were calculated. A sample of birds (n = 10) from each pen was evaluated for hock and foot pad condition. Each pen was evaluated at the end of the trial for litter cake index in 3 of the 4 flocks. Litter cake index scores were generally higher for birds reared on AC litters. There were no other differences in bird performance for any of the flocks. In conclusion, broilers reared on AC bedding perform as well as those reared on pine shavings.

IN A previous paper by Baker et al. (1957) the effects of feeding Nicarbazin to laying hens on the yolk quality of their eggs was described. Neither the nature of the damage to the yolk nor the mechanisms involved in causing the damage were known. Experiments were designed to study the possible mechanisms involved. MATERIALS AND METHODS Eggs were obtained from hens fed Nicarbazin. The scoring system used to estimate yolk damage was the same as described previously (Baker et al., 1957). Water uptake of the yolk was determined according to the method of Orru (1939). The intact yolk was dried on filter paper, placed in a tared beaker and covered with the experimental solution. The system was incubated at 37°C. for 3 hours, the fluid drained off and the last traces of solution removed with filter paper by rolling the yolk over the paper. It proved to be practically . . .

Softwood chipping fines, a by-product of the paper manufacturing industry, was evaluated for its efficacy as poultry litter on a total of 1,200 broilers. There were no differences in 49-day body weights or feed conversion between broilers grown on softwood chipping fines and on pine shaving control litter. Broilers grown on chipping fines litter had 58% fewer breast downgrades and 64% more Grade A carcasses than those raised on pine shavings. High moisture level chipping fines litter treatments produced slightly elevated mortality, but overall mortality was low.

One hundred White Leghorn hens in each of two experiments were divided into two groups based on lysozyme content (negative moving fraction at pH 8.5) of the thick egg white. Paper electrophoresis was used to index 260 pullets for experiment 1 and 100 pullets in experiment 2. Fifty birds producing eggs of the highest and 50 with the lowest lysozyme content were used for egg quality studies in each experiment. Data were obtained on an individual hen basis for interior quality of fresh eggs, in Haugh units (H.U.), quality loss during storage, egg weight, shell quality and percent solids of albumen and yolk. Haugh unit values of fresh eggs were similar for high and low lysozyme eggs in both experiments. Differences in shell quality, egg weight and solids content of albumen were not significantly different in either experiment. Quality losses during storage were significantly different in both experiments. Quality losses during storage were significantly (P Differences in solids content of egg yolks were statistically significant (P

A study was conducted to evaluate the protective capability of 10 commonly used 12-egg foam (F) and pulp (P) cartons when packed and shipped in 15-dozen wire or plastic baskets and 30-dozen fiberboard cases. The study included 42 truck shipments in seven states. Eggs were graded for shell damage in 8 large packing plants, 9 central distribution warehouses, and 11 retail supermarkets. Range of damage was greater among foam cartons than among pulp cartons, although damage rate differences between the two groups were generally minimal. Test cartons F1 (foam flattop) and F2 (foam posted) had significantly less total eggshell damage than three other cartons (two F and one P) when the effect of master container was not considered. When cartons were packed in 30-dozen cases, there was no significant difference in total eggshell damage rates between F and P; however, test carton F1 had significantly less total damage than four other cartons (two F and two P). When cartons were packed in 15-dozen baskets, however, eggs in the pulp group had significantly less total damage than eggs in the foam group, and test carton F2 had significantly less total eggshell damage than four other cartons (three F and one P). Throughout the study, cartons F1, F2, P1, and P2 consistently performed at or above average and did not differ significantly from each other.

AS THE industry moves toward a program of non-storage eggs the year around, methods of preserving the quality of shell eggs during marketing becomes paramount. The use of oil treatment, carbon dioxide atmosphere, thermostabilization or plastic treatment has been suggested by various investigators (Evans and Carver, 1942; Sharp and Stewart, 1931; Funk, 1943; and Yushok and Romanoff, 1949, respectively). However, a direct comparison of the relative efficiency of these methods under varying seasonal and storage conditions has not been made. Flavor is one of the most important factors in consumer acceptability of shell eggs. Few preservation studies, however, have included flavor as a method of evaluation. Mallman and Davidson (1944) and Shenstone and Vickery (1957) reported that oil coatings did not retard the onset of stale flavors during storage. Sauter, Harns, Stadelman and McLaren (1954) found no significant differences in the flavor of fresh eggs produced in the different seasons.…

INTRODUCTION CHLORINATION of an entire poultry processing plant water system at 10, 20 and 45 parts per million chlorine was studied by Drewniak et al. (1954). Twenty parts per million chlorine significantly reduced the bacterial load on chicken carcasses prior to chilling. These results were confirmed by Patterson (1958), who sampled frozen birds produced in a plant using different levels of chlorination in the entire water supply. Without special precaution, however, long-term chlorination at this level can corrode steel, stainless steel, and brass currently used in poultry plant plumbing systems (Mercer and Somers, 1957). This factor makes whole-plant chlorination at 20 parts per million impractical in many areas without installing either deionizing systems to remove minerals and/or pH adjustment using sodium hydroxide. Ranken et al. (1965) and Barnes (1965) indicated that chlorination at 200 parts per million in the slush ice chilling of birds extends shelf-life slightly and reduces the…

Location of Salmonella during hatching of broiler chicks was studied in three experiments. Unincubated, fertile hatching eggs heated to 42 C were inoculated by immersion for 15 min in a 16 C physiological saline solution containing approximately 1 x 10(5) cfu/mL of a nalidixic acid-resistant strain of Salmonella typhimurium. All eggs were sanitized externally by wiping with a paper towel wet with 70% ethanol. When incubating eggs were transferred to a hatcher, each was placed in a closed paper bag to minimize cross-contamination. Unhatched eggs were sampled by cutting away the shell over the air cell, sanitizing the inner air cell membrane with 70% ethanol, and removing the contents through the membrane. Shells and membranes were crushed and mixed in 10 mL buffered peptone (BP). Yolks were dissected out, dipped in 70% ethanol, and mixed with 10 mL BP. Embryos or chicks and all surrounding fluid were rinsed in 100 mL BP. A total of 172 eggs was sampled. Shells and membranes were 100% Salmonella-positive 30 min after inoculation, but only 38% were positive after 17 to 21 days of incubation. No chick rinses were positive before pipping, but 15% were positive after pipping. Yolk samples were 2% positive before pipping versus 8% after pipping. A majority of chicks hatching from positive shells and membranes were Salmonella-negative.

Four experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of brooder type and use of brooding paper (during 1st wk of brooding) on performance of Bobwhite quail (BWQ) chicks. In Experiment 1, 1,500 day-old BWQ chicks were equally divided between two treatments: pen brooding by infrared heat lamp (TR-LAMP) and pen brooding by quartz bar radiant heater (Q-BAR). In Experiments 2, 3, and 4, day-old BWQ chicks were assigned to four treatments: IR-LAMP with brooding paper; IR-LAMP without brooding paper; Q-BAR with brooding paper, and Q-BAR without brooding paper. Each treatment consisted of three pens of 215, 225, and 230 birds each for Experiments 2, 3, and 4, respectively. Body weight, feed consumption, and mortality were not significantly different among brooder types in Experiment 1. Neither brooder type nor brooding paper treatments significantly affected mortality in Experiments 2, 3, and 4. With both type brooders, birds reared with brooding paper showed a consistently, significant (P

The paper aimed to study the effects of light regime during the incubation on hatching performance, body development and serum biochemical indexes in Beijing You Chicken (BYC). A total of 1,408 BYC eggs were randomly allocated into 4 groups: 24 h dark as the control (Inc24D); 3 light regimes were 8 h light and 16 h dark group (Inc8L:16D); 12 h light and 12 h dark group (Inc12L:12D); 16 h light and 8 h dark group (Inc16L:8D), respectively. There were 352 eggs in each group, 4 replicates each group and 1 tray each replicate, 88 eggs each tray. Light-emitting diode (LED) strips, white light with temperature of 4,500 to 5,000 K, 150 to 200 lx were set up. The results showed that light regimes had no significant effects on hatching rate of eggs, hatching rate of fertile eggs and healthy rate of chicks (P > 0.05), but the hatching rate of eggs was the lowest in the Inc24D group (87.22%), and the highest in the Inc12L:12D group (93.64%); Lighted incubation significantly affected the incidence of leg problems of 1-day-old chicks (P < 0.05). The incidence rate of leg problems was the highest in the Inc24D group (4.21%), and was decreased in Inc12L:12D and Inc16L:8D groups (P < 0.05). Femur length in the Inc12L:12D group was greater than that in the Inc24D and Inc16L:8D groups (P = 0.011), but there were no differences between Inc8L:16D group and other three groups (P > 0.05). The relative brain weight of 1-day-old chicks was higher in Inc24D and Inc16L:8D groups than in Inc8L:16D group (P = 0.052), but had no difference with Inc12L:12D group. Light regimes during incubation had no effects on serum total protein, albumen, globulin, and urea nitrogen content of 1-day-old chicks (P > 0.05), while the globulin content in Inc12L:12D group was numerically greater than in other three groups (P = 0.063). Lysozyme content in Inc12L:12D group was higher than that in the Inc24D and Inc8L:16D groups (P < 0.05), but had no difference with that in Inc16L:8D group. Light regime had no effect on serum total antioxidant capability (T-AOC) (P > 0.05), but significantly affected the activities of glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD) (P < 0.05). The GSH-Px and T-SOD activities in the Inc12L:12D group were higher than those in the Inc24D and Inc8L:16D groups. The MDA content of Inc24D was the highest (9.67 nmol/mL) compared to the others, which was very close to the significant level (P = 0.056). In conclusion, 12 h light and 12 h dark incubation has the potential to improve the hatching performance of BYC eggs, benefit for the long bone development, improve some serum immune and antioxidant indexes, and reduce the leg problems in 1-day-old chicks.

This paper is the second of a series reported from the Utah Station on the transfer of dietary DDT to eggs and poultry tissues. The first paper was reported by Bryson et al. (1950) on the accumulation of DDT in poultry products. The published literature on this topic has been reviewed and reported by Bryson et al. (1950). EXPERIMENTAL THE alfalfa hay fed in this experiment was from the same field described by Harris et al. (1949). This alfalfa was dusted with 0, 1, 2, and 4 pounds of technical DDT per acre. The harvested hay was ground into meal and 15 percent of this meal was included in the laying mash. DDT was also added to a similar mash made from untreated alfalfa meal at levels of 0, 50, 100, and 200 p.p.m. These diets are reported in Table 1. The design of this experiment is as follows: A . . .

I. Introduction The purpose of this paper, which is one of a series on the various problems of the biology and economics of egg production in the domestic fowl, is a presentation of constants showing the relationship between monthly egg production aud annual egg record in the pullet year in the White Wyandotte breed. From the purely biological side the present paper is a contribution of detail to the quantitative measurement of the interrelationship of the variables which must be considered in any comprehensive study of the broad problem of the physiology of egg production. The specific purposes of the determination of the various coefficients have been fully enough stated in preceding papers,* and will not be reiterated here. A comparative discussion of these correlations for the economically more important breeds of fowl is in preparation; the constants here presented will then be discussed in greater detail. In the meantime, . . .

A SURVEY of the literature on the vitamin A requirements of the growing chick revealed that at least eight papers on this subject have appeared since 1926. (Almquist and Meechi, 1939; Bearse and Miller, 1937; Biely and Chalmers, 1936; Record, et al. 1937; Ringrose and Norris, 1936; Sherwood and Fraps, 1936; Tepper and Durgin, 1938; Wilson, et al. 1936). These papers were examined with the following criteria in mind: (1) Practicality of the ration used, (2) Nutritional adequacy of the ration, except for vitamin A, (3) The number of birds per test group, (4) The attainment of what might be considered normal weight at 8 weeks of age, (5) The presence of a group whose growth response is less than normal, (6) The use of a practical source of vitamin A or carotene, and (7) relatively small differences between levels of vitamin A. None of the experiments noted met all . . .

IN THE first paper of this series (Lorenz and Starr, 1952; referred to hereafter as 1) the results of a study of washing eggs by different methods in the laboratory were discussed and pertinent literature was reviewed. The experiment reported here was intended to obtain more extensive information on some of the variables discussed in that paper and to compare washing in the laboratory with washing on the ranch. MATERIALS AND METHODS Eggs from a single nearby poultry ranch only were used in this trial. Three days each week during 4 consecutive weeks the entire day’s production of this ranch was brought to the laboratory immediately after the final collection for that day. These eggs were then segregated at once according to cleanliness, and eggs that had checked or grossly imperfect shells were removed. The sound shelled eggs were then cleaned at once, except for two instances in which washing . . .

This paper supplements a previous article on the same subject which appeared in P oultry S cience , Vol. 6, No. 3. In the former article the data was secured from fourteen White Leghorn hens. The material in this paper was obtained from thirteen Rhode Island Red hens. The experiment was conducted in the same manner as the one previously reported, except that the period over which the hens were trapnested and eggs were examined was of two month’s duration instead of three. The White Leghorn hens used in the other experiment were obtained from a flock in-which practically no, or at least very slight, losses from bacillary white diarrhea were said to have occurred during the past two or three years. On the other hand, the Rhode Island Red hens employed in this experiment came from a flock in which rather heavy losses occurred during the previous spring. The owner of . . .

THE work described in this paper was undertaken in an attempt to obtain further information on comparative physical, chemical and cooking qualities of eggs stored by five different methods of preservation that could be easily duplicated in the home. Methods chosen for study were waterglass, freezing, application of a commercial creamy emulsion, oiling, and coating with a plastic. The eggs were tested at the end of three and six months’ storage. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS Clean, grade AA eggs from New Hampshire hens were delivered daily from the college poultry farm to the laboratory during a three-week period. All eggs except those to be frozen were dated, numbered, weighed and marked with their individual fresh weights. The eggs treated by means of commercial creamy emulsion, oiling and plastic coating were packed, small end down, in paper egg cartons. All eggs were stored in the dark at 50 to 60°F. and at a . . .

THE preceding papers in this series by Cuckler et al. (1956) and Cuckler and Malanga (1956) showed that nithiazide [1-ethyl-3-(5-nitro-2-thiazolyl) urea] was the most effective antihistomonad (blackhead) agent in a series of closely related compounds. Furthermore, nithiazide was found more potent and less toxic than 2-amino-5-nitrothiazole in experimental enterohepatitis. This paper presents the results of studies on the absorption and excretion of nithiazide by turkeys and chickens and the effect of this compound on their growth, maturation and reproduction. These studies have shown that chickens and turkeys tolerated nithiazide better than 2-amino-5-nitrothiazole or 2-acetylamino-5-nitrothiazole, chemically related compounds. MATERIALS AND METHODS The turkeys and chickens used in these studies were obtained from commercial sources when 1 day of age. Straight run Beltsville White turkeys and White Rock cross chicks were used in the laboratory experiments, and the birds were kept in electrically heated battery brooders. The floor-pen growth trials involved White . . .

INTRODUCTION SELECTION is considered to be the best tool for genetic improvement in a given population. Heritability of a character is an important factor affecting genetic improvement. In a previous paper, Issawi et al. (1963) studied heritability of fertility and hatchability in Fayoumi. The present paper deals with the study of heritability of body weight in Fayoumi. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Many investigators estimated heritability of body weight in chickens. Spector (1956) summarized the different estimates of this character and concluded that it was highly heritable. In Single Comb White Leghorn, Lerner et al. (1949) stated that heritability of body weight at twelve weeks of age was 0.475, and 0.597 and 0.506 on the basis of the contribution of sire, dam, and both, respectively. Fagan (1949), reported similar figures for heritability of body weight at twelve weeks of age, being in the range from 0.35–0.50. El-Ibiary and Shaffner (1951), reported…

This paper is a preliminary report on some results obtained in attempting to estimate the gross maintenance requirement of White Leghorn chickens from data obtained from feeding experiments specially planned for that purpose. The expression, “gross maintenance requirement,” as employed here, is used to designate that weight of feed (in grams) which a chicken requires each day for all purposes, except for increasing its live weight and for producing eggs. The feeding experiments were so planned that a number of pens of chickens were fed at levels of feed intake which differed from one another by a fixed amount, all the levels of feed intake being less than that required for maintaining live weight. The daily allowance of feed for each pen was weighed and placed in small paper bags before the experiment was started, and each morning during the experiment proper one of these bags was emptied into the . . .

IN A previous paper (Shao and Hill, 1968) it was reported that thiouracil as a dietary supplement reduced the concentration of free lysine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine and leucine in the blood plasma of chicks. The present paper gives the results of experiments in which thiouracil and/or iodinated casein were added to a basal diet and extends the observations to several additional amino acids. EXPERIMENTAL The basal diet, essentially a wheat, corn soybean meal mixture, was described in detail by Shao and Hill (1968). White Plymouth Rock pullets were fed this diet from day old to 7 days of age and then divided on the basis of weight into lots of 12 chicks each. The experimental diets were assigned to these lots at random, each diet to 4 lots and the experiments continued for another 14 to 15 days. Blood samples were removed from each chick in two lots per treatment…

THIS paper presents an analysis of a set of feather measurements obtained at the Beltsville Research Center during the course of an experiment designed to determine the effects of certain mineral supplements, particularly inorganic sulphur compounds, on the molt of White Leghorn hens. Since the molt is usually accompanied by a cessation of egg production, the importance of favorably influencing the growth of feathers, if it is possible to do so, is obvious. In view of the fact that feathers contain considerable amounts of sulphur, it was thought that the feeding of sulphur compounds might have some effect on the rate of growth and mature length of the new tail and wing feathers which were grown after the old feathers were dropped during the molt. The general plan of this experiment, including a description of the sulphur compounds fed, has been given in an earlier paper (Hendricks, 1933). Three groups . . .

SEASONAL variation in the rate of egg production is associated with seasonal variation in length of day. The excellent paper of Whetham (1933) summarized a very large amount of data from a wide range of latitudes, all showing correlated changes in day length and rate of egg production. Kennard and Chamberlin (1931) showed that seasonal variation can be modified by use of supplementary artificial light, confirming the work of several earlier laboratory workers and of many poultrymen. Kennard and Chamberlin also showed the close relationship of body weight and rate of egg production. A good review of the earlier literature is contained in the paper of Callenbach, Nicholas and Murphy (1944). Several analyses of egg production data for the purpose of describing the relation of time in production and rate of production have been made. Harris et al. (1921) reported that annual production within a genetically similar flock maintained under . . .

WORK leading to the development of a ration for the uniform production of perosis (slipped tendon) in chicks was presented in the previous paper. In this paper we wish to give the results obtained from studies on factors which prevent the development of this syndrome. Jukes (1937) has recently reviewed the meager work available on the perosis-preventing properties of certain feeds. EXPERIMENTAL Day-old White Leghorn chicks were divided into groups of five chicks each and placed in suitable cages. In the majority of the work ration 604 was used as the basal ration, but results obtained with other closely related rations are also included. The supplements tested were added at the expense of the whole ration. The results are tabulated in Table 1. It is readily evident that the addition of 15 percent of rice bran gave complete protection in all trials. The result checks quite well with the conclusion . . .

THE first of the experiments discussed in this paper was started soon after the discovery that one of the commercial vitamin B12 supplements contained an unknown factor that stimulated the growth of young chickens (Stokstad et al., 1949). After it was found that the factor was an antibiotic (Stokstad and Jukes, 1950), the second experiment was conducted to determine whether the inclusion of an antibiotic in their diet during hot weather would stimulate the growth of young White Leghorn pullets fed a diet containing cottonseed meal as the chief source of protein. Because the stimulation of growth in the second experiment was relatively small in comparison with some of the results that were attributed to the antibiotics, it was considered advisable to conduct other experiments during cool weather. The data from the four experiments at the Southwest Poultry Experiment Station, Glendale, Arizona, are given and discussed in this paper. PROCEDURE . . .

IT IS common experience that chickens and other domesticated birds grow better if hatched at certain seasons than they do if hatched at other seasons of the year. Thus Goodale (1926) found that chicks hatched in the early part of the season grew more rapidly, to 30 days of age, than did those hatched later. Upp and Thompson (1927) likewise observed that there were differences in the rate of growth of chicks hatched at different seasons of the year. They conclude that weather has an influence on the growth of chickens. Somewhat similar results are reported in this paper for turkeys hatched only a few weeks apart. There is also a distinct indication of compensatory growth of the later hatched, initially slower growing birds. The same phenomenon has been demonstrated in the growth of razor clams by McMillin and Weymouth (1935). MATERIALS AND METHODS The data presented in this paper . . .

The existing literature is inconsistent with respect to optimal dietary concentrations of glycine (Gly) and serine (Ser) in broiler feed. Therefore, we conducted a meta-analysis to investigate the response of broilers to dietary levels of Gly using a full quadratic model based on mixed model methodology. Response was measured as ADG (g/d), ADFI (g/d), and G:F (g/g). In addition, the influence of other dietary constituents was evaluated. This meta-analysis was based on a data set comprising a total of 9,626 broilers in 10 peer-reviewed papers that investigated the response of broilers to different dietary concentrations of Gly, achieved by addition of free Gly. The fitted quadratic model, with either Gly+Ser or the calculated glycine equivalent (Glyequi) of both amino acids as the independent variable, revealed that all model terms were significant (P ≤ 0.05), and hence proved a curvilinear relationship between these independent variables and response traits. The R(2) value and root MS error confirmed a strong relationship between observed and predicted traits. A comparison of the influence of Gly+Ser and Glyequi on response traits revealed that both approaches produced similar results. Because Glyequi should meet the physiological values of a diet better than Gly+Ser, models with 2 independent variables were conducted using Glyequi. The second independent variables were methionine (Met):TSAA ratio and the concentrations of cysteine (Cys) and CP. In models with one or 2 independent variables, the impact of dietary Gly on ADFI was low. By contrast, G:F was markedly influenced by dietary Gly; this effect intensified at lower Met:TSAA ratios and higher Cys and CP levels. ADG was also a function of Glyequi and the second independent variables. For ADG, an optimal Met:TSAA ratio of 0.655 and Cys concentration of 0.302% was calculated. Following the nonlinear nature of relationship, generally applicable replacement values could not be calculated. However, it was concluded that consideration of dietary Cys can diminish the requirement for Glyequi, and therefore, enable a reduction in the CP of broiler diets without limiting growth performance.

This paper, the second from a comprehensive study, describes the effects of varying growth rate by feeding at different planes of nutrition with a constant ME:CP ratio on muscle characteristics and meat quality in 2 distinct broiler breeds of male chickens (Arbor Acres, a commercial line; and Beijing-You, a Chinese nonimproved line). Experimental diets, differing on average by 2% CP, were formulated with high-, medium-, or low-nutrient densities for 3 growing phases. Male hatchlings (216 of each breed) were randomly assigned to 6 pens of 12 birds in each treatment. Altered histological characteristics of muscle fibers, early postmortem muscle metabolism, and meat quality were investigated in the pectoralis major and biceps femoris. At their market age, Arbor Acres broilers had significantly higher concentrations of plasma protein and lipid metabolites, ratios of white to red and intermediate fibers, pH, L* and b* values, and lower concentrations of plasma glucose metabolites, muscle-fiber diameter, muscle contents of energy stores, a* value, drip loss, and shear force than the values found for the Beijing-You chickens (P < 0.01). Higher nutrient density increased the size of the muscle fibers, decreased glycogen reserve, and reduced the rate and extent of acidification in the Arbor Acres chickens, while accelerating transformation of red and intermediate-to-white fibers, enhancing energy stores, and hastening the decrease in pH postmortem in the Beijing-You chickens (P < 0.05). In each breed, most meat quality variables (e.g., shear force, drip loss, and color) were consistent with the histological and biochemical changes caused by the feeding strategy. Together, dietary nutrient density can influence meat quality as a result of altered histological and initial energy and metabolic characteristics of the muscle. Many of the responses to diet are breed and tissue dependent in broiler chickens.

This paper summarizes the results from 3 simulated in-house catastrophic mortality composting experiments. Experiment 1 evaluated the impact of water-based foam mass depopulation on in-house composting of the carcasses and litter and showed that water-based foam improved windrow temperatures. Experiment 2 evaluated the impact of freezing samples on virus recovery from windrow compost tissue and the choice of tissue for virus sampling within the bird. Experiment 2 documented that freezing the samples had minimal impact on processing and that virus recovery was more consistent among inoculated breast meat than inoculated tracheas. Experiment 3 evaluated the impact of sawdust, straw, and sawdust-straw base layer litter material on in-house mortality composting. All litter materials were able to reach and maintain temperatures in excess of 60°C for multiple days. No viral hemagglutination activity was observed after d 2 during any of the 3 experiments.

This paper is concerned with the effects of photoperiod on ovarian morphology and carcass traits at sexual maturity in egg-type hens. Two hundred fifty-six commercial egg-type pullets were initially subjected to a photoperiod of 23L:1D, which was reduced to 22L:2D at 1 wk, to 18L:6D at 2 wk, and to 16L:8D at 3 wk. From 4 to 20 wk, the photoperiod was 8L:16D. At 20 wk, 32 pullets were individually caged in individually lit cages, with 8 cages per unit. Two cage units were placed into 4 photoperiods of 17L:7D, 15L:9D, 13L:11D, and 11L:13D, respectively. Each bird was processed when it reached sexual maturity (SM), and carcass and ovarian morphology were assessed. The results showed that photoperiod had an effect on the timing of SM, and the age at first egg was 5.7 d earlier for hens exposed to the 17L:7D photoperiod than the 11L:13D photoperiod. However, photoperiod had no effect on BW at SM. A photoperiod of 11L:13D limited ovarian follicle formation and increased carcass protein and lipid compared with birds on longer photoperiods, whereas the 17L:7D photoperiod restricted ovary and oviduct full development. These results indicated that excessively long and short photoperiods can restrict reproductive development in egg-type hens.

Enteric disorders predispose poultry to malnutrition. The objectives of this paper were 1) to simulate the inanition of poult enteritis mortality syndrome by restricting feed intake and 2) to develop a drinking water supplement that supports the immune functions of poults with inanition. Poults were restricted to 14 g of feed/d for 7 d beginning at 14 d of age then fed ad libitum until 36 d (recovery). The control was fed ad libitum. During the feed-restriction period, duplicate groups of 6 poults received 1 of 5 drinking water treatments: 1) restricted feed, unsupplemented water; 2) restricted feed + electrolytes (RE); 3) RE + glucose + citric acid (REGC); 4) REGC + betaine (REGCB); or 5) REGCB + zinc-methionine (REGCBZ). Immunological functions were assessed by inoculating poults with SRBC and B. abortus (BA) antigen at 15, 22, and 29 d of age. Antibody (Ab) titers were determined 7 d later for primary, secondary, and recovery responses. The primary and secondary total Ab titers to SRBC for restricted feed were 4.71 and 6.16 log3, which where lower (P < 0.05) than for controls (8.00 and 9.66 log3) and the other treatments. The recovery Ab titer for controls was 10.7, significantly higher than restricted feed (8.71) and RE (8.10) groups but not different from other treatments. The primary total Ab responses to BA were significantly lower in the restricted feed and RE groups as compared with the control and other treatments. Although feed restriction of poults to maintenance reduces the humoral immune responses, these responses can be significantly improved by drinking water containing electrolytes and especially sources of energy such as glucose and citric acid.

Rubin, Bird, and Rothchild (1946) reported that hen feces contained a factor essential for maximum growth of chicks fed a cereal grain-soybean oil meal diet containing adequate amounts of the known growth factors. The discussion in the paper by Rubin et al. (1946) indicates that these workers believed the chick growth factor was synthesized in the intestinal tract of the hen. However, it was pointed out that the possibility of synthesis after voiding of the feces could not be ruled out. Since no description of the manner of collecting the feces or the time and temperature of holding before drying was given in the paper by Rubin et al. (1946) it was considered desirable for us to determine whether fecal material reduced to temperatures too low for bacterial growth immediately after voiding would contain chick growth promoting properties. Feces were collected from White Leghorn hens kept in an unheated house . . .

This paper provides an overview of results from a long-term (38 generations) selection experiment. Lines were developed from individual phenotypic selection for high or low body weight at 8 wk of age. Included are data for the selected lines, sublines in which selection was relaxed, crosses of the selected lines, and sublines in which the sex-linked dw gene was introduced. Periodically (and in some cases every generation) data were obtained for unselected traits. These unselected traits included feed consumption and intake behavior, reproduction, allomorphic relationships, and metabolic, immunological, endocrine, and molecular factors. These responses have been integrated into a resource allocation paradigm.

Broiler litter (manure plus bedding) represents the single largest waste by-product generated by the broiler industry. In 1990, 5.86 billion broilers were produced in the United States (National Agricultural Statistic Service, USDA). On a dry-weight basis, using averages cited in the present paper for litter (1.0 metric ton per 1,000 broilers per flock) and nutrient composition (3.88% total N, 4.25% P2 O5, and 2.68% K2 O), the total annual United States broiler nutrient production is estimated at 227,368, 249,050, and 157,048 metric tons of N, P2 O5, and K2 O, respectively. However, there are substantial variations in both litter production rates and composition values among reports that can greatly influence these estimates. Litter rates and values are influenced by amount and type of bedding, frequency of removal, broiler market weights, nutrition and feed utilization efficiency, and numerous management factors. Understanding these sources of variability is helpful in the implementation of strategies for litter enrichment. In the future, a totally integrated approach may be necessary for the production of litter that is designed for specific applications and markets.

Northern fowl mites (NFM) are external parasites that can lower egg production and cause anemia and even death in laying hens. An experiment was conducted with New Hampshire Red and Single Comb White Leghorn laying hens. Hens were individually caged and provided a complete laying diet and water ad libitum. Hens were assigned to groups in a way that assured that treatments, within each breed, would be applied to comparable numbers of birds with light and heavy mite infestations. Each hen was sprayed around the vent with either water or 10% garlic juice in water. Spraying continued each week for 3 wk. During the fourth week, each bird was scored for the presence of NFM on its skin and feathers. A small snippet of feathers was removed from below the vent of each hen and placed in a labeled petri dish with a round, white filter paper insert. The NFM content of each dish was scored by two individuals approximately 1 h after sampling. There was no significant difference in the NFM scores for hens based on breed or future treatment. After the birds were treated for 3 wk, there was no significant difference in external NFM scores based on breed. There were significantly fewer NFM on the birds treated with garlic juice compared with controls, based on external and petri dish scoring (P0.002 and P0.04, respectively). The reduction in external NFM score was also significant (P0.004), with controls declining approximately 0.2 units, whereas garlic-treated hens had a 1.8-unit decrease in external NFM score. Topical application of garlic juice may be an effective way to decrease NFM in laying hens.

Six rooms, identical and environmentally controlled, and each housing 14 caged turkey breeder hens, were exposed to light schedules to provide continuous and intermittent photoperiods of 14, 12, and 10 h as follows: 1) 14 h, continuous; 2) 14 h, intermittent; 3) 12 h, continuous; 4) 12 h, intermittent; 5) 10 h, continuous; and 6) 10 h, intermittent. Observations were made regarding: 1) the number of flies on feeders, in jug traps, on sticky fly tapes for 24 h, and sticky fly tapes for 1 h; 2) fly spots on paper sheets and fly spots on hanging cords. There were significantly (P

Recently, Vazquez-Anon et al. (2006) published a paper in Poultry Science suggesting evidence for DL-2-hydroxy4-(methylthio) butanoic acid (DL-HMTBA) and DL-Met (DL-M) having different dose responses in growing broilers. The authors concluded that the 2 Met sources “have a different dose-response form, DL-HMTBA could outperform DL-M at commercial levels, and DL-M could outperform DL-HMTBA at deficient levels.” Additionally, it is suggested that relevant comparisons between the 2 Met sources should be conducted “at levels of commercial use.” These conclusions and suggestions are incorrect and misleading. When comparing essential nutrients or different sources of the same nutrient (L-Met in the present case), one should always evaluate the complete dose-response curve, starting with a deficient basal diet, followed by several incremental levels of the nutrients to be tested. Depending on the data structure of the respective dose-response trial, slope-ratio (linear response) or nonlinear models should be applied. These models can be used for estimation of comparative bioefficacy or bioavailability of any nutrients, such as P (Potter et al., 1995) or Fe (Boling et al., 1998). A simple example based on broiler weight gain data by Lemme et al. (2002) shall be used to demonstrate the statements above vs. the incorrect methodology and conclusions of Vazquez-Anon et al. (2006). Two Met sources, DL-M and diluted DL-M (65%, a product representing an internal standard with a known “relative efficacy” of 65%), were added at incremental levels to a Met-deficient commercial-type diet (Table 1). Using the proper exponential regression method to analyze the data sets, diluted DL-M (65%) had a calculated relative efficacy of 60% relative to DL-M (Lemme et al., 2002), confirming the validity of the used statistical method. Using a completely different approach to evaluate the data, the relative response rate of the basal diet was 64% of the maximum response (see Table 1). The relative response rates for the 0.06, 0.12, 0.18, and 0.24% supplemented DL-M levels were 84, 94, 99, and 100%, whereas the relative response rates for diluted DLM (65%) were 76, 86, 91, and 98%. Hypothetically, several different “effectiveness figures” were generated in this ex

This paper assesses the effects of substituting aerobically stabilized poultry manure for tap water on the performance of caged White Leghorn laying hens. Three separate feeding trials over a three-year period were conducted. In each feeding trial, aerobically stabilized poultry manure from an undercage oxidation ditch was substituted for tap water. For the three trials, egg production by the hens receiving the aerobically stabilized poultry manure exceeded that of the control group by an average of 2.6 ± 1.7%. No significant differences were observed in final body weights, mortality, or egg weights between the two groups of hens in any of the three feeding trials.

This paper examined the effect of N-correction on the true metabolizable energy (TME) values of mixed diets and single ingredients using mature White Leghorn roosters. The N-corrected TME (TMEn) values were consistently higher than the corresponding TME values, the results being significant (P less than .05) in about one-half of the samples tested. This indicated a net loss in body N in the birds during the experiments. The correlations between N input and N correction were highly (P less than .01) significant. This, however, explained only 46 to 48% of the variation in the TMEn data as being due to differences in the amount of N input. In view of the present results and the abnormal condition (fasted birds) in the TME assay, it is doubtful that birds would retain enough N from a single feeding to revert to a positive body N equilibrium. Therefore, positive N retention in such an assay would be indicative of incomplete feed passage through the birds. This appears to be the only valid reason for applying N correction to TME values. However, the variations associated with N correction of TME data raise some doubt concerning the validity of this assay as compared with the conventional apparent metabolizable energy assay.

Nine groups of 12 Small-type White turkey hens each were used to study dietary vitamin D3 and calcium and their effect on egg production, eggshell quality, and hatchability. The 3 × 3 factorial arrangement of treatments consisted of three levels of calcium (1.16, 2.25, and 3.34%) and three levels of vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) at 900, 6,900, and 12,900 International Units per kg. of diet. Increasing dietary calcium to 2.25% significantly improved body weight, egg production and feed efficiency (feed/kg. eggs). The 3.34% level of calcium stimulated an increase in percentage hatchability of fertile eggs and produced the lowest percentage of 28-day embryonic mortalitites. Dietary vitamin D3 in excess of established requirements had no statistically significant effects on any of the parameters studied. Positive correlations were noted between beta-backscatter counts, shell weight, shell thickness and percentage calcium content of the egg. Percentage hatchability of fertile eggs was negatively associated with percentage moisture loss during the first seven days of incubation. The data presented in this paper show no beneficial action in the turkey hen from vitamin D3 fed in excess of recommendations, but dietary calcium in excess (3.34%) promoted an increase in hatchability and a decrease in embryonic mortality.

TRENDS in egg production and egg weight during the first year of production have been studied by many investigators, but data relating to the trend in hatchability appear to be somewhat scanty. This paper presents data on the average hatchability of eggs, during each month of the first year of production, from pullets receiving low-protein and normal diets, together with data on average egg production and egg weight for the same birds which have been included for purposes of comparison with the hatchability data. The data herein reported were obtained as part of a study of the effects of some nutritional factors on hatchability, conducted by the staffs of the nutrition and physiology laboratories at the U. S. Animal Husbandry Experiment Farm, Beltsville, Maryland. The observations were made over a period of three years, a different group of pullets being used each year. The experimental work was usually begun during . . .

IN A previous paper on wood sugar molasses as a feedstuff for laying hens (Cooney and Parker, 1952) it was pointed out that cane and beet molasses have been accepted and used as an ingredient in livestock and poultry rations for a good many years. The review of literature indicated that these products could be fed up to ten percent of the chicken’s total ration. However, levels of five to seven percent of the total ration seemed to be more generally accepted. McGinnis, MacGregor and Carver (1948) were the first to report on the use of molasses prepared from wood waste in poultry rations. They fed levels of 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20 percent of this product to duplicate lots of one week old New Hampshire chicks over a three-week test period. From this work they concluded that wood sugar molasses could be used in chick rations at any …

Recent studies (Motzok et al., 1967) showed that for maximum growth and bone calcification of chicks fed soft phosphate, it was necessary to supplement the diet with additional calcium (0.15–0.2% as calcium carbonate), even when sufficient soft phosphate was used to raise the level of calcium in the diet to 1.12%. These data suggested that for maximum utilization of the inorganic (available) phosphorus of the basal ingredients, about 0.2% additional calcium, in a readily available form, was required in diets supplemented with soft phosphate. This suggestion was tested in an assay procedure for estimating the relative availability of phosphorus from supplements, and the results are presented in this paper. Sufficient calcium carbonate to provide 0.2% calcium was added to the basal diet (Motzok et al., 1967) to raise the calcium level to 0.46%. Tricalcium phosphate (chemical grade) and soft phosphate were added to the basal diet containing 0.46% calcium . . .

GARDINER (1957) reported that young chickens kept in wire cages and inoculated experimentally with large numbers of sporulated oocysts of Eimeria tenella (1) did not die from cecal coccidiosis when fed growing mash medicated with sulfamethazine at a level of 0.125 percent, and (2) made weight gains equal to or somewhat better than uninfected control birds when aureomycin was added to the sulfamethazine-medicated mash at the rates of 100 and 200 grams per ton. In the above-mentioned investigation, the amount of sulfamethazine included in the feed was kept constant, whereas the amount of aureomycin was varied. The present paper summarizes results of experiments in which birds were fed growing mash fortified with a constant amount of aureomycin, namely, 200 grams perton, and medicated with sulfamethazine at levels of 0.125, 0.075, and 0.050 percent. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The chicks used in these experiments were New Hampshire-Barred Rock crosses. They were obtained from . . .

Previous papers by the author have shown that both ovarian and bodily injury caused certain fowls to lay more eggs. It was true also that other hens in the same experiment had their egg production retarded, hence a greater variability among the operated animals (Steggerda ’28 and ’30). In the present experiment the ovary of six-weeks old pullets was injured to note the effect upon the length of time until the first egg was laid. The results indicate a similar stimulation due to the operation since the operated pullets layed on the average sooner than did the control birds. The experiment was carried on at the Poultry Department of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, with birds owned by the College. The author wishes to express his thanks to Prof. J. C. Graham and Supt. John Vondell for the use of the birds and the keeping of the records, also to his . . .

POULTRY breeders interested in the improvement of egg quality would like to know how many eggs are needed to adequately evaluate the real but unknown inherent breeding worth of a hen. Some breeders feel that observations on two or three eggs per hen are sufficient, while others think that a larger number of eggs should be examined. The key to a problem of this type is based on a knowledge of the repeatability of the quality trait under consideration. Repeatability may be defined for our purposes as the correlation between observations on successive eggs laid by the same hen. The limits of repeatability (R) are between zero and one. If R is large only a few eggs per hen would be required, whereas if R is small several eggs may be required to accurately evaluate the egg quality characteristics of a hen. In a previous paper (Scheinberg et al., 1953) …

BALANCE studies of various dietary factors have been conducted with the chicken as the experimental subject, but scarcely any consideration has been given to the intake and output of fat by this species. Guntherberg (1930) has reported on the digestion of the fat of cereals by hens. The object of the present investigation was the determination of the intake and output of fat by the laying and non-laying hen on normal and low fat rations, to determine the effect of the deprivation of fat on egg production, and the extent to which the chicken can synthesize fat for egg production. EXPERIMENT 1 This experiment was planned to determine the relation between egg production and the fat consumption and output when a normal ration is fed. Throughout the paper the word “fat” is used for convenience instead of the term crude fat or ether extract, which was actually determined. Also the . . .