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The article focuses on various publications of research institutes and educational societies in Durham and Newcastle in England. The publication of educational writing at all levels is regarded by the Durham Institute of Education as an important aspect of its work. Three periodicals are edited by members of the Institute staff. Research Review, an annual publication started in 1950, is the only one that aspires to be a national journal. It is intended to supplement the inadequate number devoted to educational research. From the Education Society of King's College, Newcastle, came the "Education Papers," an annual miscellany of mature reflection on educational topics, statements on method of teaching subjects or age groups by the Institute staff and descriptive articles by local teachers giving a picture of some facet of their work. The standard of most of these contributions is high enough to make them generally relevant although their setting is mainly regional. The Journal of the Institute of Education is a domestic affair. Appearing five times a year, it clearly provides a point of exchange for all concerned with local education. Here Institute staff teachers, examiners, administrators and youth workers exchange views in the vernacular as it were.

The article presents the author's response to the comments made on his paper "A.F. Leach on the Reformation." According to the author, his own approach was that of one interested in sixteenth and seventeenth century schooling who found that Leach's interpretation of events at the Reformation did not tally with the later evidence. This led to a detailed examination of the case argued in English Schools at the Reformation; then, since this case depended directly on a reading of earlier ecclesiastical and educational history, it was necessary to look further back. According to the author, it was the main object of his paper to suggest a reassessment of developments at the Reformation, in the interests of clarifying the course of educational history. According to the author, he suggested that there was a prima facie case for questioning Leach's assessment of the Chantries Act because it is at variance with the general views of medieval historians and with the later evidence, dealing mainly with the latter.

This article focuses on the new proposed changes in the conditions of awarding the Scottish Leaving Certificate in the filed of education. According to the author, the proposed changes in the conditions of award of the Scottish Leaving Certificate would at once bring it more closely into line with the recommendations of the Advisory Council on Education in Scotland and with the General Certificate of Education in England. The changes, reportedly, involve the issue of a certificate to pupils who leave school around the age of sixteen after completing four years of secondary education, by the institution of papers at a lower level than those taken usually in the fifth year. Scotland, like England, is faced with the problem of early leaving. Recent figures published by the Secretary of State show that 56% of pupils leaving five-year courses of senior secondary education do so before reaching the age of sixteen, without completing even four years of the course. It is proposed to institute advanced level papers designed for pupils who have completed the university requirements in their fifth year, and who remain for a sixth year at school. The effect of the new proposals would, supposedly, be to encourage the extension of Sixth Form work, which has never flowered so freely in Scotland and England.

This article discusses the sociology of knowledge and curriculum planning. People interested in problems of the curriculum of schools can be divided into two groups. The first group, by far the largest, is mainly interested in the practical problems of the curriculum, of which bringing about some desirable change in the curriculum might be one. The theoretical basis for much of the work in this particular volume is to be found in a sub-discipline of sociology known as the sociology of knowledge. The purpose of this paper is to provide some account of the sociology of knowledge and to explore the implications for the study of the curriculum of this particular viewpoint. The author proposes to do this first by looking at the sociology of knowledge as it was formulated by researcher Karl Mannheim. Although Mannheim was by no means the first to put forward a set of ideas as the sociology of knowledge, he is the thinker who made these notions through his writings accessible to the English speaking world. Mannheim drew attention to two other features of political and social theories.

The article presents information on a paper presented by journalist Walter James on educational research during the Standing Conference on Studies in Education which was held in London, England, on December 12, 1970. Over the years many educational researches, in short summary as news items, have announced themselves to James in the page proofs. Educational researchers and their critics have wrestled in the correspondence columns. There have been many articles recording the results of some kind or another of educational research. But if the nature of research in the two fields is so different, it does not seem to James to follow that in the natural sciences there should be so wide a field of agreement and in educational science. There are long-standing controversies and unsettled questions in the natural sciences. The steady state and big bang theories of the origins of the universe are a case in point. But if one looks at any one of the natural sciences he can see a broad area of knowledge and theory over which the great majority of scientists are agreed.

This article presents information on sociologist Benjamin Franklin. Sociologist Julian Boyd once observed that authors during the next century approached Franklin, a figure of universal dimensions, with a preconceived view that reduced him to a symbol of thrift, which he never practiced, of frugality which he never enjoyed, and of prim virtues, which he transcended. Similarly, educational historians have narrowly conceived of him as a pedagogical theorist who rejected the false claims of tradition and custom. This approach has not only ignored the variety of Franklin's educational endeavors, including his efforts to establish German charity schools, but it leaves the student at a loss to understand the reactions of Franklin's contemporaries. Rather than belaboring his reputation as a forward looking educational thinker, it is much more helpful to see him as a doer as well as a planner, working within the limitations of his own times. According to this approach, Franklin, the educator, emerges as a Janus-faced man who peered in two directions.

The article provides on the planning of the Education Bill of 1902 in Great Britain. The three people who were mainly responsible for planning the Bill, during the eight months before it was introduced to Parliament in March, 1902, were Sir John Gorst, A.J. Balfour and Sir Robert Morant. One of Gorst's main objects had been to help the voluntary schools and he did bring them some assistance by the Voluntary Schools Act, 1897. In December 1900, however, the way for a real revolution in education seemed to be open. The so-called Cockerton Judgment of that month showed that there was no legal foundation for some of the higher education given by the great school boards. Morant might not check the evidence for his prejudices; but he did not make the mistake of making positive proposals without carefully ascertaining the facts which supported them. By March 1901, one finds him drawing Gorst's attention to the implications of the figures for secondary education. The immediate problem was still whether the Bill was to be for secondary education only, or for both secondary and elementary. Moreover, argued Morant, the varying nature of the different types of institutions for secondary education suggested a complex pattern of organization.

This article briefly reports on some research papers and other resources revealing the history of scientific education in Great Britain. The contribution of studies in the history of science teaching towards contemporary problems in science education, reportedly, is suggested by professor H. Butterfield in his book "Man on His Past." According to the author, one of the most useful single study is Dorothy M. Turner's article "History of Science Teaching in England" which in the early part considers the beginnings of science instruction from the thirteenth century. Scientific societies have played their most notable and influential part in the spread of scientific knowledge during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The importance of all scientific societies from the learned bodies to the multiplicity of provincial and parochial associations in relation to the progress of science was emphasized in the "Annual Report of the British Association, 1879." Several studies reveal that the history of universities and in particular the impact of the scientific revolution and the subsequent development of science courses have been fully explored. The decline in effectiveness of the institutes and the middle class invasion resulted from deficiencies in both primary and secondary education.

This article presents some evidence and sources revealing the history of educational periodicals in England. Many educational periodicals in Great Britain were short lived and limited in circulation. The recent publication of the first three volumes of the book "British Union-Catalogue of Periodicals" has, reportedly, made it possible to trace the whereabouts of any periodical in a British library. The value of educational periodicals to the historian of education lies largely in their correcting of any over-simplified views of the growth of the educational system or the development of educational practices. The earliest educational periodicals to appear, in the first forty years of the nineteenth century, were edited by clergymen and contained articles on religious, scientific and literary topics, book reviews and sermons as well as model lessons. They were directed at both the teachers and their employers. The most influential of these periodicals were: "The Educational Magazine" and "The English Journal of Education." The British and Foreign School Society published "Quarterly Extracts From the Correspondence" during 1825-45 and "The Educational Record" during 1848-1929. The next group of periodicals were general teachers' magazines.

The article presents information on the early efforts in international education during the 19th century. The founding of boarding schools in various countries, with similar curricula and methods of teaching so that their pupils might migrate from one school to another and thus acquire fluency in the several languages without disrupting their studies has long been conceptualized. It was in this concept that the International Education Society was founded. The origin of the scheme lay in the report of a committee appointed by the French Imperial Commissioners for the Paris Universal Exhibition to award the prizes offered for the best essays on the advantages of educating together children of the different European nations. The idea was taken up and the plan then was to form a large company of shareholders, and to establish at four places schools which should be perfectly alike in their arrangements. The institutions were to admit pupils between the ages of eleven and eighteen and were to dovetail into one another in such a manner that after every second year each boy was to pass onto another country. The plan met with a good deal of opposition on the grounds that it would weaken the development of national character and would necessarily produce a superficial education, but its protagonists were not deterred.

This article focuses on the need for establishing voluntary responsible bodies for adult education in Great Britain. Several recent articles and research papers have advised that consideration should be given to the question whether voluntary organizations should continue to be allowed to exercise the powers of Responsible Bodies under the Further Education Grant Regulations of the Ministry of Education. The term "Responsible Body" came into general use in relation to adult education after the publication of the "Adult Education Regulations of the Board of Education" in 1924. Those Regulations governed the payment of grants to bodies, not being Local Education Authorities, in aid of the liberal education of adults. They prescribed that each course must be under the control and direction of a Responsible Body, which will be held responsible by the British Board of Education for the efficiency of the instruction given in the course and for the observance of the regulations applicable to it. Responsible Bodies might, suggestively, be of two types: first, universities and university colleges for courses under Chapter 2 of the Regulations, which related to Preparatory, Three-Year, and Advanced Tutorial Classes, Tutorial Class Vacation Courses and University Extension Courses; and second, "Approved Associations" for courses under Chapter 3, which dealt with Terminal and One Year Courses, and Vacation Courses for selected students organized in connection with such classes.

The article presents information on the future pattern of technical education in Scotland. The development of technical education in Scotland has been under discussion for some time by various bodies in preparation for the formulation of official policy, which has now been published. In the White Paper of 1956, a building program was outlined. The White Paper recognizes four broad categories of workers, namely, technologists, technicians, craftsmen and operatives. For the first category entrance qualifications to the appropriate courses of study are to be broadly equivalent to University entrance requirements; and the courses will last for either four years or three years. The success of the program depends on the adequacy and efficiency of the teaching force. Despite the increase in the number of full-time teachers in central institutions and further education centers from 1369 in 1956 to 1725 in 1959, it is estimated that an additional 280 teachers per annum will be required between now and 1965.

The article provides information on the proposed new school examination structure in Scotland. In a Report of a Committee of the Advisory Council on Education in Scotland, entitled "The Post-Fourth Year Examination Structure in Scotland," a proposal has been made about the certification of education. The Committee has completed its consideration of one part of its remit, namely, to consider the post-fourth-year examination structure in Scotland. The present Scottish Leaving Certificate has two grades, a lower and a higher, except in the subject of Mathematics in which additional papers may be taken by candidates in their sixth year. The new proposals would add an advanced grade not only in the subjects of the higher grade but also in certain other subjects not generally considered "academic." The main purpose of the advanced grade examination is to encourage the development of genuine sixth-form work in the last year of the pupils' secondary schooling. The Committee are aware of possible difficulties and defects in the working out of their proposals. The Committee make a unanimous recommendation that the higher grade papers should continue to be set, if only because the universities appear likely to base their own certificate of attestation of fitness on higher grade passes, and other professional bodies, as banking and insurance, recognize such passes.

This article reports that the Editorial Board of the journal "Education for Teaching" welcome the opportunity to explain the policy of the journal. Journals concerned with teacher-training, or sponsored by teacher-training institutions, have had a checkered career in the U.S. "The Journal of Experimental Pedagogy," for example, which was sponsored by the Training College Association, published many distinguished papers but eventually disappeared. When the system for training teachers was reorganized after the war the new Association of Teachers in Colleges and Departments of Education (ATCDE) published "The Bulletin of Education," a miscellany of articles on training, papers on other aspects of education, reviews, and Association news. It was decided that the ATCDE journal should concern itself primarily with the problems of teacher-training and that the title should consequently be changed to "Education for Teaching," which also reflects the general acceptance of the broader aim implied by the word education as opposed to training for teachers.

The article author presents a reply to the comments made by social scientist D.Z. Phillips on his paper "Morals, Religion and the Maintained School" that focused on philosophy and religious education. From the start Phillips confuses things not a little by presenting the conclusion of the author's argument in the two propositions that there is little justification for the inclusion of religion in educational syllabus, and that at the moment there is no case for teaching religion. The author finds it hard to understand when Phillips gives some brief indication of his own view of the nature of claims to religious truth. When Phillips gives some brief indication of his own view of the nature of claims to religious truth the article author finds it hard to grasp what he is saying. At times he seems to be saying not only that "truth" here has distinctive criteria of application but that it also has a distinctive meaning. If that were so, it would depend on how radical the difference in meaning was whether any argument about the approach to truth and knowledge in education in other areas had application here too.

The article summarizes the findings of educational research on the marking of essays and the reliability of examinations. It also discusses how much notice is taken of this research by the nine examining boards which conduct the General Certificate of Education examination. During the 1920's and 1930's several writers casted doubt on the reliability of examinations. Some argued that candidates varied very much in their ability, or perhaps their successful use of it, on different occasions. Perhaps they chose on one day the one essay topic that best suited their particular abilities, while on another day they chose the topic that gave them least chance to show their individual talents. Perhaps they were much more nervous on some days than others. Besides, the essays of one and the same student written within one year may cover a range of merit equivalent to six mental years. While one essay would scarcely match the achievement of a lad of twelve, another would do credit to a youth of eighteen. They also argue that different examiners give such different marks to the same essay that it is doubtful whether an essay or an examination question resembling an essay can be marked fairly and accurately. Nobody can mark a given essay with a feeling of certainty that any other equally competent examiner would give the same mark if he had to deal with the same paper again after he had forgotten his previous appraisal.

This article reports that the story of how the state first involved itself in English primary education has long been a familiar part of the historical canon. It is informed that in 1833, the first reformed Parliament met. Flushed with the spirit of reform, the Radicals came forward with an agenda of measures to implement. One such measure was national education. Henry Brougham, a politician, had gained the reputation, since 1816, of being the most vigorous supporter of national education in the Commons. Although educationists took his accession to office in November 1830 as a sign that the Reform Ministry planned some measure in this area, it failed to bring any forward. The issue, however, was early on the agenda of the reformed Parliament of 1833. It is also reported that Brougham, as a minister, did not introduce the education bill which was expected of him, a bill similar to his measure of 1820. His own education committee had shown then that although voluntary contributions provided for considerable schooling, they were insufficient to supply all the required schools.

This article discusses some sources related to the history of school managers. The emergence of the school manager as a distinctive unit in educational administration can be traced in the Annual Reports of the Committee of Council to about midway through the nineteenth century. Minute books of managers' meetings are obviously the most valuable source of information. A number survive in county and local record offices and borough libraries. The large number of manuals written especially for school managers indicate the need for guidance in the performance of their duties. As some authors pointed out, many managers had not themselves attended elementary schools; and further, no training was given to prepare them for the work. The changing relationship between managers and teachers is well documented. Contemporary works of fiction illuminate various aspects of the teacher- manager relationship. Writer Charles Dickens' "Hard Times" is an obvious example; another is the graphic description of the dismissal of Phillotson, the master at Shaston, by the managers in Thomas Hardy's "Jude the Obscure."

Presents an introduction to the October 1973 issue of the "British Journal of Educational Studies."

The article focuses on the impact of the 1870 Education Act in Great Britain on trade unionists and artisans. The advanced sections of the working class--the trade unionists and skilled artisans and their representatives--took a deep interest in education and played an active part in both the campaigns and the debates that accompanied the passing of Forster's Bill. In addition to purely economic issues, the trade unionists of the period interested themselves in a range of social questions, including the extension of the franchise (achieved by the great majority of the urban workers in 1867), legal security and a recognized position for trade unionism and an extended and improved system of popular education. This desire for improved instruction reflected the low level of education among the working class as a whole. According to Thomas Wright, who had extensive experience of workshop life, the educated working man was in a small minority in any place of work. Looked up to as a "scholard" by his fellow workers, he was constantly in demand to read or write letters, settle disputes, draw up petitions or addresses and act as spokesman in putting forward demands or grievances to the employer.

This article presents information on the inspiration gathered from various sociologists and thinkers that inspired indigenous educational reformers and scientific innovators, led by researchers Hartlib and Robert Boyle, to co-operate in schemes for the advancement of learning. It was in 1641 that Hartlib Boyle, acting on behalf of a select group of members of both Houses of the British Parliament, invited sociologist Johannes Amos Comenius to visit England. He arrived on 21 September 1641, convinced that he had been officially invited by Parliament. The visit, well known to scholars, had a triple purpose: to found a Universal College which would participate in a reformation of existing schools and advance missionary and educational work among the Indians of New England and Virginia; to procure a sympathetic hearing and acceptance for exiled Moravian scholars in England; and to discuss ways by which Comenius's educational ideas could be further developed. As part of his contribution to the advancement of learning Hartlib Boyle maintained a voluminous correspondence with a large number of people both in England and on the Continent, ranging over philosophical, religious, scientific and educational matters.

This article reports that it is generally agreed among educational historians that the establishment of the Endowed Schools Commission in 1869 following the on the state of Report of the Taunton Commission schools offering an education above that of elementary, led to many changes in secondary education in the last 30 years of the nineteenth century. Although most writers refer to the Commission, there has been little systematic attempt so far to examine its work in detail. It is hoped to show here some of the sources which are available for making such a study. Briefly, the tasks of the Endowed Schools Commission were to re- distribute charitable endowments which were not being fully utilized and to widen the areas which would receive benefits from them; to ensure that schools were put on a sound financial footing; to establish the grade of a school in a given area; to reform governing bodies and trustees; to destroy the Church qualification for headmasters, assistant masters and pupil entry; and to provide in the schemes for boys of ability the opportunity of benefiting from the reformed schools through exhibitions and scholarships.

The article presents information on some published sources for the study of contemporary British further education. It is first necessary to define the term British further education. British means concerning Great Britain, that is England, Wales and Scotland, but not Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man nor the Channel Islands. In one sense further education could mean any education undergone by someone who had left school, or was over a certain age, or both; but such a broad usage would cover activities conducted in a heterogeneous lot of establishments or in none at all. Because of this it is more useful to limit the term to a specifically-defined part of the statutory education system. In this article British further education is therefore defined as the education intended primarily for persons who have left school, through provision secured either by the British Minister of Education, by the Secretary of State for Education and Science acting in the capacity of the former Minister of Education, by the Secretary of State for Scotland or by local education authorities in accordance with appropriate Schemes or Plans approved by one of these ministers. Besides, the word sources is used loosely here; it means mainly government publications, reports of committees and conferences, and studies by individuals in published form.

This article discusses the problems in the use of educationist A.F. Leach's work by educationists and historians. General historians of the Middle Ages have not used Leach's work, but writers of educational history and of innumerable histories of individual schools' have. This poses the dilemma which faces the student of the history of mediaeval schools. If he wants information he must go to Leach's work, yet there is this doubt about Leach's reliability. Its the author's contention that the reason for this doubt is a mistaken interpretation of the review of "The Schools of Medieval England" by A.G. Little in "The English Historical Review." Scholar Joan Simon's criticism of the author's contention throws some light on this dilemma. She asserts that all subsequent critics have referred to the review. But there have not been any subsequent critics. She considers that the author has been unjust to these critics, and that every historian who has not used Leach's work has conducted some sort of independent inquiry into it but kept silent. Yet she says that criticisms were never followed up.

The article focuses on how the Education Act of 1902 was implemented by the Board of Education in England. During the 19th century the bias of slowly developing post-elementary education had been towards the scientific and technical sides. It was in fact made clear that the secondary education fostered by the new authorities was to aim at the culture of the public schools and older grammar schools rather than the scientific and technical education associated with the higher grade schools of the school boards. The regulations and the covering memorandum which was published with them indicated that the secondary school was to have a status distinct from elementary schools. The Board's approval was necessary for the scheme of its governing body, including the plan of its relations with the authority itself. The new school was in fact to have a measure of independence of the authority. The Science and Art Department had checked extreme specialization in Schools of Science by requiring that some time should be devoted to literary subjects.

The article presents a list of books related to the scholar James Phillips Kay-Shuttleworth. The books mentioned in the article include "The Present Condition of the Administration of the Parliamentary Grant"; "Education Commission: Evidence"; "On Public Education and the Relation of Moral and Physical Forces in Civilization"; and "The Irish Church."

This article explores the origin of the general certificate of education in Great Britain. It is just over a hundred years since the University of Oxford held its first examination "for candidates who are not members of the University." Thus was born the system of University Local Examinations destined to grow into the General Certificate of Education. The initiation and success of the scheme is primarily dedicated to the works of educators Frederick Temple and Thomas Acland. Temple had started his professional career in the Examinations Section of the Education Department. He stressed the necessity of considering how to organize the education of the middle class. Acland, landowner and gentleman farmer, was also at this time being brought face to face with the problem of the improvement of the education of the middle class. As early as 1838 he had written a pamphlet entitled "National Education: The Present State of the Question Elucidated." Acland had strongly supported the claims of the National Society for the education of the poor under a religious rather than a secular aegis. The first idea that suggested itself to Acland for the conduct of the proposed examination was the establishment of self-constituted county boards.

This article focuses on the sources for the history of the British grammar schools. The most famous of all the girls' grammar schools of charity school origin are Red Maids' School, Bristol; Burlington School, Westminster; and the Grey Coat Hospital, Westminster. Usually a girls' grammar school incorporating or connected with an ancient foundation falls into one of two classes: it may be based on a charity school, or it was established in Victorian times, with a scheme under the Endowed School Act, for allotting it a cash endowment of its own. Parish records--even more varied in their content than are those of the counties--often throw light on the history of an ancient school. At the least, if a schoolmaster dwelt in the parish, the parish register should give the dates of birth of his children, and the date of his burial. Similarly a schoolmaster often served a parish office, and he may be found in the vestry minutes. Even before 1870 voluntary "higher grade" or "middle class" schools had developed among British and National School foundations. Of the rival institutions set up by the Boards, a very great number appear to this day in the list of recognized and grant-aided grammar schools. The movement for establishing them seems to have begun in Manchester.

The article focuses on the history of education in Surrey, England. The Surrey county authority has taken advantage of the 1944 Education Act which permits local authorities, with the approval of the Minister, to make a provision for conducting or assisting the conduct of research as appears to the authority to be desirable for the purpose of improving the educational facilities provided for their area. For such advantages, a former Chief County Inspector made an association which has been exploring the possibility of making a comprehensive and well documented survey of the County's educational history. This association approved a preliminary master plan for the schools of the County that prepared many school biographies. These biographies focused on some topics like school's environment; school's origin and foundation; buildings and equipment; staff: their training, salary, etc.; pupils: age and sex distribution, attendance, attainments, health, dress, games and hobbies, holidays, employment; curriculum: textbooks, methods of instruction, discipline, inspection and other external influences and many more. The association has been surveying the study of the County's educational history against the wider background of historical studies generally.

The article presents information on the publication of the quarterly issues of the "Journal of World History," which contains papers related to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization's project for a cultural history of mankind. The final work, together with criticisms of them by other experts, has turned to twelve, and the enterprise is developing with an ever-increasing weight of erudition and research. But the original target-date for publication will not be reached after all. It has been informed that the final manuscripts of the English and French texts of the six volumes will take time to get completed. The publication date is likely to be 1960, followed by the abridged school and popular editions.

The article focuses on the promotion schemes regulating the transfer of pupils from primary to secondary courses of instruction in Scotland. The approved schemes were based upon two intelligence tests, standardized attainment tests in English and arithmetic and teachers' scaled estimates of attainment in English and arithmetic. The circular further required that transfer boards be set up representative of teachers and educational administrators. In 1959 a special committee of the Advisory Council on Education was set up with a double remit, first, to review the post-fourth year structure of secondary education, arid second, to review the methods of transferring pupils from primary to secondary education, having regard both to the work of the final stages of the primary school and also to the possible forms of secondary school organization. The general tendency has been to admit many pupils to courses which sooner or later they find beyond their intellectual resources. On an average some 36 per cent of an age group are admitted to senior secondary courses' and only same 12 per cent of that age group are ultimately presented for Leaving Certificate examination.

This article focuses on the early system of teacher training in Great Britain. The first training schools in England were located in the central model school of the British and Foreign School Society, established in Borough Road in 1808. Local teachers would visit the model school for short periods and then return to their own schools to try to apply what they had learnt of the mechanics of teaching children by the monitorial system of education. This rudimentary method of teacher training lasted until the late 1830s. The article also discusses the ideas of the pioneers of teacher education in Great Britain. The main concern is to delineate the varying concepts of teacher training which found expression during the 1830s and 1840s. Here for the first time in modern educational literature one finds various philosophies of education worked out in great detail both in theory and practice.

This article focuses on the social conditions of miners in Cornwall and their initiatives in adult education. The miner's poor living and working conditions were a source of concern, and he often found his only outlets in debauchery and drunkenness. His earnings, varied from pitch to pitch in the same mine, but they climbed appreciably in the early nineteenth century. The author observes that the roots of the miner's social improvement might be sought in the late eighteenth century, when Wesleyan Methodism promoted a moral reformation, and inculcated a desire to succeed, besides supplying some inexpensive literature. Much remained to be done, however, before the working miner could benefit directly from an education related to his trade, or indeed, before there was a broad consensus of opinion accepting the value of such an education. The institutions that were to make some contribution to its development, a number were to be involved in wider aspects of adult education, rather than being specific mining schools, and the education they dispensed was more general than properly scientific or technical.

This article presents information on the role of the National Advisory Council on the Training and Supply of Teachers in Great Britain. The council was set up in 1949 to provide the Minister of Education with the means of obtaining advice on national policy relating to the training, qualification, recruitment and distribution of teachers. The advisory function of the NACTST, endorsed proposals put before it by the Minister. References to such endorsements are found in the Ministry of Education's Annual Reports during the 1950s and it is evident that the proposals put to the Council were generally of a minor and non-controversial nature. In 1949 the first task of the Council was to review the future supply of teachers for maintained schools. This it did in its Report on the Training and Supply of Teachers, in May 1951. In all these early published Reports the NACTST were operating within narrow fields of inquiry, and they produced unanimous recommendations which were either acceptable to the Ministry and subsequently implemented, or were quietly shelved until official policy had been formulated.

This article presents information on the criticism faced by the public schools education curriculum in the 1860s in Great Britain. In general critics found the curriculum of the public schools inadequate in two ways. In the first place it was too narrow. In the second place it was irrelevant to the new industrial society which had established itself. It was inevitable therefore that much of the debate should concern itself with the importance of expanding the curriculum through the development of the Sciences and the so called Modern subjects such as History and Geography. And it was likewise inevitable that considerable attention should be paid to the role of the mother tongue as a necessary field of study within a reformed curriculum. The article further informs that the debate on the mother tongue took place through Commission, through pamphlet, through speech, through editorial, with great vigor over a whole decade. The author comments on the clarity and insistence with which the failure to teach the mother tongue was picked out as a major deficiency of the school curriculum and the obscurity and half-heartedness of any practical proposals to remedy the deficiency.

This article focuses on the art education in Great Britain. There is little common agreement amongst educationalists or art teachers about the actual educational purposes which art serves. The author examines the many conflicting views on art and focus on the source of much of the confusion which surrounds art education at the moment. The orientation of what was art education, only in a very technical sense towards industry and manufacture excluded much that would come within the province of fine art and indeed it was not until the latter years of the century that the notion of fine art became acceptable as in any way relevant to art education, at least in its earlier stages. The author observes that the fine art concept of art education has also moved away from its earlier connotation, which implied a close adherence to the academic tradition in art education, a tradition which attached prime importance to the skill of drawing, and has moved towards a somewhat broader view which encompasses art appreciation, art history and those various inter-disciplinary and cross-subject groupings which link art with the broader pattern of learning as a whole.

The article presents information on dame schools. The article scrutinizes allusions to be culled from literary, biographical and artistic sources. One of the philosophers comments that the dame school appears so frequently in English literature both poetry and prose that it must have played a very important part in the beginnings of elementary education in England. The quest for dame schools before 1800 is fascinating. Two early references are both associated with English writer Samuel Johnson. Johnson quotes this in his Dictionary of 1755 in definition of schooldame that sending little children of two or three years old to a schooldame, without any design of learning one letter, but only to keep them, out of fire and water. In 1714 was born the boy who was later to adapt to the poetic convention of an earlier age some memories of his first schoolmistress. When William Shenstone thus commemorated Sarah Lloyd he established a romantic tradition which was followed by many other writers. Shenstone, along with Richard Jago, future clergyman and minor poet, attended a dame school at Halesowen conducted by Sarah Lloyd.

This article discusses various issues related to the philosophy of education. Philosophy is currently usually defined in some such terms as "thinking about meaning", "the exercise of critical thought," or simply "rational thought." Its stock in trade is conceptual analysis. The article attempts to argue that acceptance of the view that one cannot demonstrate incontestably that certain moral propositions are valid has been taken to imply that one man's opinion is as good as another's. This has led to a fear of tackling value judgements head on, and a reluctance to argue for specific value judgements on the part of some philosophers in education. Once the role of guru has been firmly renounced by the philosopher, the result is, not surprisingly, that other gurus, perhaps less wise, perhaps less modest, step into the breach. The sociologist, psychologist and historian proudly display their wares and cheerfully evaluate by naturalistic or any other means to hand. The dethroned philosopher now has a role to play: he can sit on the touchline policing the match, clarifying other people's vagueness and exposing these gurus when they inadvertently display a little sleight of hand.

This article reports that in contemplating the possibility of an ethics of belief, two major difficulties immediately loom up which seem to make such a notion both misguided and misconceived. The first of these difficulties concerns the broad distinction which one is ordinarily inclined to make between thought and action, or, roughly speaking, between what goes on in one's mind and what one does in the world. A teacher may think what he likes on political questions, but when he moves into action by teaching his opinions to his classes, then others acquire a legitimate interest in what he is doing. To be unable to believe, or to find difficulty in believing, is not to suffer from some obscure defect of will, or to be in need of urging to try harder. It is a more cognitive matter of finding the evidence unacceptable, or unsatisfactory, in its bearings on the proposition in question. Ethical considerations maybe amongst the many other considerations bearing on the belief, but those ethical considerations will still bear logically on that belief.

The article presents information on the paper "Primary Education in East Yorkshire, 1560-1902," by J. Lawson. It presents a detailed account, with plenty of implied suggestions for further research in many parts of the field, and an excellent bibliographical note.

This article discusses a socio-psychological aspect of school management. One of the most firmly established findings in educational research is the relationship between the socio-economic background from which a pupil comes and his educational achievement. A more recent research development in this area of inquiry has been to isolate particular aspects of the concept of social class and, by means of multivariate analysis, to estimate the relative importance of the variables normally associated with the concept in relation to school achievement. It is often said that the demonstration of a statistical relationship of this kind does not justify the assumption of any causal connection between the two variables of parental aspirations and the children's achievement. Implicit in this last view is the notion that the nature of the relationship between the two variables is that it is part of a complex process in which a great many factors are involved. The process of socialization is essentially one of learning, in the course of which individuals come to internalize and integrate into their personality systems the social norms of the groups to which they belong.

The article focuses on the middle-class non-vocational lecture and debating subjects in the 19th-century England. Throughout the nineteenth century in England the lecture and debate provided a public focus for social activity. Although in most clubs, societies and institutions the lecture suffered a decline in popularity during the second half of the century it was far from eclipsed. Despite debating never achieving the widespread appeal of the lecture its popularity was impressive with a number of societies such as the Philomathic in Liverpool which was devoted solely to it as a technique in adult education. However, in many of the institutions of the nineteenth century the debate was seen as a supplement to the lecture. It was exceptional for a society to be created just for the purpose of debate. It usually required a town of the size of Liverpool to support such specialization. The article deals with the fashions in lecture and debating subjects which are to be found nationally. Certain subjects were popular throughout the nineteenth century. Notables amongst these were geology and natural history.

The article examines the three journals, the "Edinburgh," the "Quarterly" and the "Westminster," as the most significant sources for the study of political attitudes towards education in the crucial years between 1833 and 1870 in the United States. The "Edinburgh," founded in 1802, appeared from the first in the blue and buff colors of the Whigs, in the early years nearly all its educational articles were written by Henry Brougham, and it gave consistent support to the educational schemes of such Whig leaders. The "Westminster" was originally founded in 1824 to represent the views of the philosophical radicals. Amongst its early editors was John Bowring, whilst John Stuart Mill was its proprietor from 1837. From the earliest days the examination showed a considerable zeal for the extension of education, and concentrated particularly upon such themes as the connection between education and democracy, the merits of secular education, the necessity for government control, and the ultimate purpose of education. In comparison with these two journals the "Quarterly's" attitude to education frequently seemed timid and reactionary.

The article focuses on the role of various political parties in the elementary education laws in the United States. British Statesman Robert Lowe's assessment of the implications of the Reform Act of 1867 has been accepted by most historians in their discussions of the Elementary Education Act of 1870. It is assumed that, as a logical extension of their competition over parliamentary reform political parties proceeded to compete over education, and that this accounts for the spate of educational schemes, which culminated in the 1870 Act. As far as the Conservative party is concerned the Reform Act had no significant influence on educational policy, which was hesitant and inchoate before 1867, and remained so afterwards. Generally, the sentiment of the party was opposed to any measure, which might undermine the denominational basis of popular education. The squire and the parson were still regarded as natural allies. Individual Conservatives were far less optimistic and more inclined for drastic remedies. Conservative John Pakington's advanced views on education had been expressed forcibly for some twenty years, much to the embarrassment of his party.

The article focuses on democratization in education. It considers some themes connected with demands for democratization. The call for democratization in universities often does take the form of protesting against the fact that teachers and students are not equal in relation to the subject and that this inequality is manifestly unjust in that the teacher has not been given his duties as the result of a popular vote by all those who work from day-to-day on a university campus. Those who argue for democratization in education also speak as though the right of student equality were a natural right, one not needing any justification by reference to status, relationship or role. Without critical intellectual inquiry the vital distinction between fact and value in education would go unrecognized. Similarly, when the present day advocates of democratization appeal to the needs of society which education must serve, the real need is to expose the conceptual confusion involved in such appeals. The revealing of this confusion is itself an exercise of the critical analysis which have been argued, must remain autonomous if there is to be anything one calls education.

The article presents information on the schools of the Royal Academy. There is no attempt here to deal with events preceding the founding of the Academy in 1768. The original request of November 28, 1768, made by twenty-two artists to King of Great Britain George III was for an academy with two principal objects: the establishing of a well-regulated School of Academy of Design for the use of students in the Arts, and an Annual Exhibition, open to all artists of distinguished merit, where they may offer their performances to public inspection. George III gladly took on this patronage and from that point, inevitably, there were two forces in Academy activities, the public one of annual exhibitions and the private one of routine meetings and the running of the Schools. Much of the subsequent development was thus fixed at the outset. Royal patronage occasioned Court patronage and the inevitable accent on portraiture. Successive Presidents and Professors followed his thinking, and the student-training side of the Academy was never allowed to be forgotten. But this was not the public face, and it was to the public face that many of the subsequent criticisms were directed.

The article presents information on a committee under the chairmanship of J. J. Thomson, President of the Royal Society. The committee was appointed by Prime Minister Herbert Henry Asquith in August 1916 to enquire into the position occupied by Natural Science in the Educational System of Great Britain especially in the Secondary Schools and Universities, and to advise what measures are needed to promote the study, regard being had to the requirements of a liberal education, to the advancement of Pure Science, and to the interests of the trades, industries and professions which particularly depend upon Applied Science. The establishment of the Thomson committee is commonly credited to the agitation of a "Neglect of Science Committee" set up in 1916 under the chairmanship of Sir Ray Lankester. The Thomson committee, together with a similar committee on modern languages, became technically a sub-committee of a government committee charged with a general review of the educational system. This reviewing committee was itself responsible to Asquith's Reconstruction Committee, the forerunner of the Ministry of Reconstruction in Lloyd George's administration.

The article examines a memorandum by politician W. E. Forster which presents suggestions for consideration in Framing the Education Bill for England. The memorandum has traditionally been regarded as the basis of the elementary education bill submitted to Parliament in February, 1870. Both T. Wemyss Reid, Forster's biographer, and David Roland, author of an extensive thesis on the 1870 Act and its aftermath, assumed that the first draft was submitted to the Cabinet. Reid included in his biography excerpts from the first draft which were excised from the second; Roland quoted the first draft in his thesis as if it were the only one. The material omitted from the second draft was concerned with two of the most controversial aspects of the education question, the relation of the state to religious instruction and the enforcement of school attendance. The first draft contained a well-argued critique of the former problem and provided a guide-line for dealing with it. It is informed that the changes made with regard to the attendance question had no effect on the future of the education bill.

The article critically appraises the literary work of educator Martin Buber. Buber's main educational activities, both in Germany and later in Israel, were largely connected with the essentially practical task of organizing and developing adult education. It is therefore somewhat ironic that he should be remembered today among students of education principally as an exponent of a somewhat abstruse theory of education, the core of which was an emphasis upon the importance of developing a particular type of personal relationship between the teacher and individual pupils. Perhaps Buber was himself partly to blame for this. The English edition of his collected essays entitled "Between Man and Man," which appeared in 1947 included the two most important of his essays on education. In the Foreword Buber encourages his readers to regard these two essays as attempts to apply his celebrated dialogical principle to educational thought and practice. While this may be an accurate description of the second of the two essays, called "The Education of Character," it is only partly true of "The Address on Education."

The article focuses on technical education and the politicians in Great Britain during the period 1870-1918. In the half century under review demands for secondary and technical education were undistinguishable, and the latter was particularly "the scheme of Liberal Britain." This is noticeable in the strong Liberal support given to the National Association for Secondary Education, and in the support given to technical education by leading Liberals. Foremost among these was the Sheffield manufacturer and M.P., A. J. Mundella, the "animating force" of whose radicalism was the fervent belief that in technical change and progress lay the prosperity of the country. He claimed to have begun fighting for technical education in 1865. The appearance of the Report of the Royal Commission on Technical Education in 1884 may be considered as a watershed. Its declaration that the best preparation for technical study is a good modern secondary school once again established the connection between technical and secondary education and forced politicians to define their position in relation to the Report.