Search

The social and political history of South Africa yielded massive transformation in the higher education landscape, including access to education and the merger of universities. Despite the many successes of transformation, it brought with it challenges such as increasing participation, student retention, throughput, and graduation rates; changes in government funding models; declining student subsidies and providing quality education with limited resources. The South African higher education sector is multi-faceted, and students have a wide range of higher education options. This study explored factors influencing decision-making of first-year students when selecting a university. Data was collected from first-year students and employees at a University of Technology. Through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions, the researchers analysed the complex factors that guide students' decision-making when selecting a university. The findings revealed that factors significantly influencing decision-making on university selection are, the reputation and quality of university programmes offered, response time and support provided by staff; location; and infrastructure and facilities. This research is significant in that it will assist higher education institutions, particularly marketing and communications departments to be more responsive to students' needs by shifting toward active engagement in its marketing and recruitment approaches to attract, retain, and satisfy students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scholarship on Garveyism as a form of Afrikan philosophy of liberation is scarce in South African politics and history. Robert Edgar and Robert Vinson have laid the foundation for scholarship on the influence of the Garvey movement in South Africa. However, their scholarship does not delve into political philosophy as a component of Afrikan philosophy, especially the national-ideological tradition. This paper will rely on historical research design to discuss the political philosophy of Anton Lembede, who was influenced by Garveyism to formulate his political philosophy of Afrikanism. This paper will utilise the historical analytical framework to provide a brief intellectual portrait of Lembede to substantiate the argument that his political philosophy of Afrikanism was influenced by Garveyism. Because this paper is about the Black Radical Tradition in South Africa, it will depart from the fundamental premise that a radical indigenous tradition of resistance preceded the arrival of Garveyism in South Africa. The main objective of the paper is to delineate this indigenous radical tradition, which we call the Indigenous Fundamentalist Tradition. The second objective is to show that this resistance tradition was infused with Garveyism upon its arrival to lay the foundation for Lembede's Afrikanism as an expression of the Black Radical Tradition in South Africa. The main argument is that Lembede's political philosophy of Afrikanism is a combination of the indigenous radical tradition of resistance against conquest since 1652 and Garveyism through the battle cry of Afrika for the Afrikans. This regalvanisation encapsulates the combined impact of Garveyism, Lembede's Afrikanism, and the Black Radical Tradition as the Afrikan masses were radicalised and became more militant in confronting white supremacy and white settler colonialism in South Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In Africa, remnants of colonisation and the effects of coloniality have influenced childhood in ways dissimilar to those in other parts of the world. Objectives: This article contests against universalised theorising of children, advocates for Afrocentric approaches to childhood studies on African children, and makes a case for Afrocentric pedagogy in the psychology of child sexual violence and childhood trauma. Methodology: The arguments in this article are informed by a rapid review of doctoral research on the history of violence in South Africa and developmental theory to understand how children make meaning of the experience of sexual violence-related trauma. Results: South Africa's history of colonisation and Apartheid significantly contributes to child outcomes. Decolonial thought and African-centered theorising must be applied to childhood studies in Africa for a contextual understanding of African childhoods. They must centre on the needs and worldviews of Africans. Conclusion: Education is an instrument of enculturation; therefore, pedagogy should reflect the people it studies. The methods and practice in teaching childhood studies in psychology in Africa must humanise both children and professionals. Contribution: The article addresses the questions of relevance in childhood studies in Africa and advances recommendations for how academics and practitioners in childhood sexual violence and psychology should work with complex knowledge in childhood studies pedagogy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Across the disciplines and ages, the human body has been approached as complex, political, and mysterious. Caught in an intricate socio-cultural fabric, it acquires and projects multiple patterns of symbolism, seized by literature to convey deep realities and perplexing themes. The body has become to be recognised as an eloquent metaphor forpostcolonial writers, effectively staging the resistance to colonial practices and discourse. It isfrom the insides of such a body that the strange voice of a worm emerges and recounts its memories in Nadine Gordimer's short story, "Tape Measure," from Beethoven Was One-Sixteenth Black and Other Stories (2007). Drawing on the insights of trauma studies, this paperfocuses on the body as a metaphor to show how its use addresses the problematics of memory reconstruction and its limitations in the South African context. The unnatural voice of the worm articulates South African history as an abject "body" marked by "filthy" crimes, proposing the legacy of racism as an "excremental" practice that stains South African reality. The analogy finds its purchase in Julia Kristeva's theorisa-tion of the "abject" as "lack of cleanliness" and "monstrous"; history, thus, emerges as dark and deformed, and memories are hard to "expel." [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Feminist poet, editor, and anti-Apartheid activist Myesha Jenkins brought – possibly for the first time on South African public radio – a deliberate feminist agenda that validates poetry as political action. This paper documents and analyses her amplification of poetry on public radio and the feminist collectives that came before it, with specific focus on Jenkins' Pan-African feminist imagination and movement building. I suggest that Jenkins' body of work – particularly Poetry in the Air (PitA) – provided wider access to the featured poets as well as a place for self-writing and self-representation. I argue that PitA, along with Jenkins' other work building feminist poetry and performance collectives, made important contributions to South African women's performance strategies of liberation, in a country (and world) that actively (re)produces the 'Female Fear Factory'. As a co-creator with Jenkins on some of these Pan-African feminist poetry collectives and productions, I use the oral histories that I conducted with her between 2016 and 2017, the transcripts of PitA, and the social history of contemporary South African feminist poetry collectives to examine her legacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses language as a critical aspect of epistemological access to higher education in South Africa through a critical analysis of students' views on language preferences and attitudes at Durban University of Technology (DUT). Language of instruction at higher education institutions is one amongst a plethora of challenges faced in providing equity in higher education in a socially divided post-apartheid South Africa. This discussion of language and access takes place within broader epistemological access challenges faced in South African higher education. The data generated by 45 semi-structured interviews with undergraduate students from six faculties was collected as part of an institution-wide "Who are our students?" research project. The phenomenological thematic analysis arose from the three research questions asked: what is your home language and what language would you prefer to be taught in and why? Some students did not provide an explanation for their choice as they felt it was self-evident, while some provided interesting reasons for their choices. A critical analysis of the findings using Morrow's epistemological access theory is conducted against the backdrop of the context of English dominance over indigenous languages; the history of South African higher education, current DUT and higher education policy as it pertains to language and the subsequent challenges around equitable access. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores how to make sense of the feeling of unfreedom in South Africa today and how this unfreedom, charged with local and historical legacies, can be connected to global capitalist dynamics. Paralleling excerpts of the oral histories of Khumo who moved to Johannesburg in 1976, and Kagiso, who moved in 2015, this piece discusses how dispossession characterises unfreedom. Bringing literature on racial capitalism back to South Africa, its place of origin, and grounding it in the narratives of Khumo and Kagiso, the piece discusses the history and development of global dynamics of spatial exclusion and subjective, material, and productive-creative alienation. Furthermore, it discusses how Khumo and Kagiso perceive dispossession as historical thus racialised and manufactured, and contest it by negating racialisation and the idea of freedom. The article thus contributes to wider debates about neoliberalism in Africa, and (global) racial capitalism, showing how dispossession remains the main expression of unfreedom under capitalism; and how unfree life is reproduced every day in and through cities, and is lived as alienation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of History in Africa: A Journal of Method is the property of Cambridge University Press and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The South African Government has for the past two decades spent significant resources on introducing smallholders to Genetically Modified (GM) maize with the aim to make agriculture a way out of poverty. However smallholder farming continues to decline and poverty is on the rise in the country. The present paper aims to explain this failure of the government to support its smallholders by describing the intra-actions between maize, politics and technological development in South African history. Importantly maize is understood here as an agent in that its materialities are not only being impacted by, but are also having impact on the outcome of farming practices and wider political economies. The paper describes how maize, as a result of intra-action between maize biology and choices made by farmers, politicians and breeders during the colonial era and apartheid, developed in parallel as a commodity serving the settler farmers, and an anti-commodity, or escape crop, providing subsistence to marginalised smallholders. While South Africa today is a democracy that spends significant resources on improving smallholder livelihoods, recent technological development and market concentration have increased rather than decreased the gap between commodity- and anti-commodity maize. As a result new GM and hybrid maize varieties introduced to smallholders today are badly equipped to facilitate a crop led New Green Revolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The South African Constitution asserts that persons with disabilities must have equal access to opportunities in society; however, the realisation of this mandate has remained a challenge. There is a need to create contextually relevant, inclusive structures that support equal access to opportunities for persons with disabilities in society. Objectives: This article reflects on and highlights key considerations for an inclusive framework that facilitates access to opportunities for youth with disabilities in South Africa, which emanated from a study that explored how ongoing interaction with the performing arts can facilitate social and economic inclusion of youths with disabilities. Method: The study adopted a qualitative research approach, using critical ethnography. Primary data were obtained from three focus groups with a total of 20 youth with disabilities who have attended performance events, as well as an in-depth interview with a disabled performer. Results: The facilitation of access to equal opportunities for youth with disabilities must occur at a multidimensional level, involving both personal and systemic changes and levels of support. Complex barriers linked to the apartheid legacy also exist, some of which include access to resources and reduced self-determination, whilst positive factors such as internal resilience and skills development function as promising predictors of inclusion. Conclusion: Contextually relevant, disability-inclusive structures in South Africa must confront and address how youths with disabilities are uniquely impacted in present times by South Africa's history. Contribution: The voices of youths with disabilities make a key contribution as their experiences must inform these inclusive structures which have the potential to enhance access to equal opportunities for them at both personal and systemic levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New fieldwork around the Stormberg provided an opportunity to reassess a relative sequence that the well-known South African artist Walter Battiss proposed for rock paintings in the north-eastern parts of the Eastern Cape Province. The new and independent empirical observations are similar to those of Battiss. His sequence is particularly notable for its attention to the differences in painting technique, colour palette and subject matter between the shaded polychrome and more recent unshaded phases of rock painting. Much research has consistently, if sometimes tacitly, underscored these elements as robust and relevant to changes in the art during the precolonial contact period. The new fieldwork emphasises the value of Battiss's proposed sequence and its implications for rock paintings in the wider Maloti-Drakensberg region. His sequence has a previously underappreciated role to play both in the history of South African rock art research and in the understanding of painted sequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In geopolitical discourse, monopolistic institutions and developed states continue to compete for Africa's land and its natural resources. In the 1990s, neoliberal preying and privatisation of state institutions, financialisation of national economies and the silent alienation of land by domestic and foreign capitalists were some of the strategies that exacerbated neoliberalism in the land reform policy in South Africa. Africa's land question and its socioeconomic transformation remain critical in the public discourse that seeks to generate alternative development trajectories, particularly in the context of land reform. Empirical evidence indicates that Africa's land question has tended to focus on land tenure and livelihoods but hardly on the question of agrarian development and the expropriation of land without compensation. South Africa is no exception. South African history is tainted by the fight over land. The arduous nature of land ownership patterns and the unresolved historic problems have prompted a new debate. Closely related to this debate is the land expropriation without compensation policy. Contemporary scholarship pertaining to the land question in South Africa is underpinned by the identification of areas of discord in the landscape patterns and the different contexts and conditions under which Black rural people live. The land question in South Africa is associated with elements of neoliberalism that benefit the white elite and global capital system. The imprint of forceful removal of natives from their land is indelible, while the legacy of reversing that onerous effects remains questionable. This study is non-empirical in nature and relies on a critical review of the literature as a methodological approach to gathering insights. The objective is to explore how neoliberalism has succeeded in capturing and repacking the South Africa land reform policy and, in the process, tainted the notion of land expropriation without compensation. A summation and conclusion are also provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rhetorical function of the music in Ubu and the Truth Commission is explored through an analysis of the songs and accompanying soundscape to reveal a problematization of the concept of reconciliation. This is achieved by emphasizing the colonial history of South Africa and undermining the explicit messages Pa Ubu delivers in his songs through instrumentation, the use of music identified with the protest movement, and through harmonic and melodic function. Particular attention is paid to the juxtaposition of instruments and sounds of the West with those of Africa or the global South, and the defamiliarization of the idea of 'home' and the recognition of Pa Ubu's position of influence and power through the harmonic function of the dominant pitch and tonality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) is South Africa's foremost non-teaching social science research body. In this paper, the author gives an overview of its records, recently uncovered in the institution's building in Pretoria. To academics, policy makers, and all those interested in South Africa's intellectual and institutional history, these records are important in seeking to understanding the HSRC itself and other apartheid institutions. In addition, exploration of its history can, amongst other things, help to shape policy in liberated South Africa towards higher educational and research institutions in the light of their historical legacy of apartheid and segregation. The author cautions that, as researchers embark upon exploring the history of the HSRC, they should avoid romanticizing it but rather confront its nuances and challenges head on. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bailey's theatre project is apparently designed to rescue the African from 'the depths of humanity's swampy psyche, an ancient god of pre-reason' (Bailey [1], p. 159). In the introduction, the editors pronounce their focus on 'indigenous South African Drama that is predominately written in the English' to the exclusion of 10 other official languages which theatre practitioners write and perform in. The Methuen drama guide to contemporary South African theatre: edited by M. Middeke, P. P. Schnierer and G. Homann, London, Bloomsbury, 2015, 1-384 pp. The first chapter, "The Pioneers" by Sarah Roberts provides a historical overview of what she terms "mainstream theatre" (2015, p. 17) in the period from 1976 to 1994. [Extracted from the article]

The digitization of African materials has made it easier than ever for students to engage with primary source documentation and undertake original research. Digitizing sources and using digital sources to teach African history has great pedagogical value, but must be done ethically. This article suggests a model for collaborative and publicly-engaged scholarship, demonstrating the potential of transnational projects and shared knowledge production while maintaining sensitivity towards questions of the hegemony of the North. The study draws on experience of a virtual internship project between North American-based university students and the South African non-profit South African History Online (SAHO). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: South African scholarship on intellectual disability has produced a sizeable body of research, yet there are numerous areas where there is a paucity of research. One area in which there is a conspicuous paucity of research is historical studies of people with intellectual disability (PWID). The existing works devoted to the history of PWID in South Africa are primarily focused on the legal provisions and institutions for the protection and care of PWID. Missing from these works are the life stories and experiences of PWID. Objectives: The article offers a study devoted to the life stories and experiences of the children with intellectual disability (CWID) who were admitted to the Institute for Imbecile Children from 1895 to 1913. The institute opened in April 1895 in Makhanda (formerly known as Grahamstown), South Africa. The institute was the first of its kind in the Cape Colony for CWID. Method: The study presents a qualitative investigation of the life stories and experiences of the children that were recorded in the institute's casebook. The entire set of 101 cases contained in the casebook was analysed by adopting a Gadamerian approach to hermeneutics. Results: The examination of the institute's casebook identified several broad themes relating to the children's admittance, daily life at the institute and their routes out of the institute. The study also extols the individuality of each child's life story to provide an awareness and richer appreciation of the humanness and personhood of the children. Conclusion: The article contributes a positive narrative to the identity and the history of South African children with intellectual disability living in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many scholars have written on the challenges of ensuring access to water in South Africa, and much research has been done on the national water policy of the South African Government, yet major challenges facing the water sector persist. This study presents a human rights approach as a theoretical foundation for investigating the basic right to water access, with a specific focus on the sustainable development goals (SDGs) in the three tiers of governance. Existing literature on the history of water access was explored regarding the global as well as the South African history of water rights. The main focus of this study was SDG no. 6, which is related to issues regarding water access in South Africa. The study concluded that the human right of having access to water is a crucial issue to be treated with caution by the government in order for the poor to have basic infrastructure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural protected areas (NPAs) are commonly used to preserve environmental biodiversity. Such policies, however, often harm rural communities. This article argues that the human cost of NPAs is often because of a lack of formal electoral accountability that links national governments to these communities. Through the case of 1994 democratic elections in South Africa that signified the end of the apartheid, I show that an increase in electoral accountability can be associated with a decrease in the human cost of NPAs. Using scholarly observations and histories on NPAs in South Africa, and primary documents from governmental agencies, I examine the post-apartheid change in three areas pertinent to human cost: Law and Intention, Communication and Community Involvement, and Land Restitution. In doing so, I demonstrate that the enfranchisement of black South Africans, who overwhelmingly populate the rural communities that are harmed by NPAs, has led to a shift in human cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of History in Africa: A Journal of Method is the property of Cambridge University Press and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article surveys the contents of archival material found in the manuscript and archives section of the Special Collections of the University of Cape Town Libraries. In particular, it scrutinises the activities recorded in the Minute Book of the Cape Town Branch of the Classical Association of South Africa, 1927-1940. The details found in the Minute Book shed valuable light on the teaching and research of classical antiquity in South Africa in the early part of the twentieth century, illuminating a lesser-known period of the history of the Classical Association of South Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The (post)human turn has ushered in new ways of doing inquiry. (Post)humanism is the catalyst for news ways of thinking and doing research under an umbrella term called (post)qualitative research. In this article I discuss the contextual and philosophical dimensions that gave rise to (post)qualitative research. I outline some emerging characteristics of (post)qualitative research and discuss its relevance to South Africa. I suggest that (post)qualitative research informed by both (post)human theories and indigenous philosophies could open up new ways of doing research in the country, including research with water and land. I do not provide a set of answers in the article, but open up alternative ways of thinking and doing inquiry in the Anthropocene and in a context of ongoing decolonial conversations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyses the emphasis given to the teaching of the South African liberation struggle history at the country's universities. Although this history has been analysed in books, chapters, journal articles, conference papers, theses and dissertations by South African scholars working in various disciplines, it is generally underrepresented in the curricula of the country's universities. This absence stems, at least in part, from the racial segregation that divided South African universities until the end of Apartheid in 1994. Today, the overwhelming majority of lecturers devote, on average, six or fewer of their annual class sessions to the subject, when most university modules run from seven to fourteen weeks. Despite the limited time given to topics on South African liberation struggle history, a majority of academics surveyed in history and political science departments believe that their institution's undergraduate curriculum deals sufficiently with the history. Thus, aside from some notable exceptions, South African departments of history and political science have failed to integrate this field within the broader study of national history. As a result, most universityeducated South Africans lack post-secondary formal study on the history of the liberation struggle, a reality that affects the development of research and scholarship on this topic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Electrónica Interuniversitaria De Formación del Profesorado is the property of Asociacion Universitaria de Formacion del Profesorado (AUFOP) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The article discusses the policing of sex work in South Africa during the nation's history under British colonial rule and apartheid, and is also mentions South African democracy. The Dutch East India Company and slavery are addressed, along with the passage of the country's Contagious Diseases Act in 1868. Mass hysteria in the wake of a "black peril" involving black men and white women is examined, as well as human rights, morality, and several reasons why sex work should be criminalized.

The article presents a reprint of the article "The Third International and the Struggle for National Liberation in South Africa" by Robin D. G. Kelley, which appeared in the 1986 issue of "Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies." It discusses the 1928 Resolution of the Communist International on the South African Question. Other topics include the impact of nationalism on the Communist Party of South Africa (CPSA), the demand for self-determination in the country, and the Rand Revolt of 1922.

It is said that “history is told not as it was but as men saw it”. Women have largely been absent from the telling of our history, despite their vital contribution made in the struggle for freedom. The Department of Arts and Culture currently has an opportunity to record the largely untold micro-histories of South Africans through the recording and archiving of oral histories. The practice of recording oral histories will have two major advantages: 1) acting as a transformational mechanism through which past imbalances are addressed, and functioning as a therapeutic mechanism to deal with South Africa's turbulent past; and 2) enriching our educational curriculum at all levels, creating deep and thorough archives to be accessed by domestic and international scholars. It is of utmost importance that research needs to be undertaken on women prior to and in the struggle; women's everyday struggles; and women in leadership positions, among other contemporary issues. 2013 marked the centenary of the 1913 Women's Anti-Pass Campaign in Bloemfontein – a campaign which served as a turning point in our history, and left a lasting legacy for South African women in the 20thcentury. De Lauretis' (1989) statement that “it is the specific properties, qualities or necessary attributes that women have developed or have been bound to historically in their different patriarchal sociocultural contexts which make them women not men” is useful in guiding how we write women's lives and give women a voice. We, the KwaZulu-Natal Archives, will focus on writing the lives of forgotten heroines/activists like Nokuthela Dube, Portia Ndwandwe, Phyllis Naidoo, Bessie Head, Victoria Mxenge and Charlotte Manye Maxeke. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article discusses the development of the transport infrastructure in South African up to the end of the 20th century. It states that the wagon and transport-riding became the dominant mode of transport up to the middle of the 19th century. It notes that formal and permanent road construction was carried out dynamically in the period of 1806-1895. It mentions that the construction of rudimentary road networks started during the first half of the 20th century.

The article focuses on the collections, preservation, and maintenance of artworks in Cape Town, South Africa. It mentions that symbols of the Mace and the Black Rod combine a wide variety of techniques and materials which incorporates the laser-welding technology and ancient traditional skills. It states that the national flag and the national Coat of Arms were the two foremost symbols of state.

The article traces the social history of "kietaabs," manuscripts in Arabic script produced by the Muslim community of Cape Town, South Africa. The author investigates the historical context of the "kietaabs" shifting role as social objects using an approach based on work by anthropologists Arjun Appadurai and Carolyn Hamilton emphasizing the study of the social life and value of objects. Various roles of the "kietabbs" are described including their origins as practical communicative objects, their eventual status as family heirlooms, and their use as historical sources for the study of Cape Town's Muslim population.

The article discusses the lack of studies about post-colonialism in South Africa. According to the author of the article, historians are so focused on finding out when and why segregation developed in South Africa, that they omit to actually criticize colonialism. Due to decades of apartheid, South Africa is an exception in former colonized countries.

The article discusses South African archives that provide information concerning the foreign policy of the South African government and of anti-apartheid groups during the era of apartheid. Archives examined include the African National Congress (ANC) Liberation Archive, the Mayibuye Archive, and the South African History Archive (SAHA). The author also comments on the Historical Papers Archive and the Foreign Affairs Archive. Issues of historical censorship and the destruction of archival documents are also discussed.

The problem that this article concerns itself with is the reconstruction of the post-2009 election environment and the provision of an analytical and strategic context for this turbulent period, with the focus on local government instability. In order to fulfil these goals the analysis will include interpretative and reconstructive elements. The approach is to contextualise local government instability, to identify a theoretical point of departure, to analyse the factors contributing to political instability and the formulation of strategic perspectives towards 'breakdown' or 'breakthrough' . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the post-conflict societies that create a cessation of violence and political conflict transformation process in connection of dealing with the past. The author presents the case studies of South Africa and Northern Ireland that explains the use of violence in the post-war society. Moreover, suggests mutual understanding on both sides with what is just and legitimate from their own perspective.

The image of Shaka as one of the Great Men of southern African history was in essence a product of political struggles in the era of colonialism. Black people and white people alike were responsible for producing it. It began to take root after about 1840, and became widespread in southern Africa and elsewhere in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In the period of anti-apartheid struggles after World War II it was uncritically taken up and reinforced by liberal and radical academics, by African nationalists, and especially by Zulu nationalist politicians. In the 1980s and early 1990s the figure of Shaka the Mighty became a central icon in the ideology of Zuluism. The end of apartheid and the establishment of formal democratic rule in South Africa in 1994 led to an unexpectedly rapid decline of Zulu nationalism and, concomitantly, to a rapid fall-off in meaningful invocations of Shaka as a Mighty figure. In the early twentyfirst century the most active proponents of what are increasingly anachronistic ideas about Shaka the Mighty are operatives in KwaZulu-Natal's rapidly expanding heritage and tourism industries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]