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This paper examines the phenomenon of child and youth labour in the post-Stalin era in the Soviet Union. The starting point for the consideration constitutes the analysis of the law adopted by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in 1958 titled "On the strengthening of the link between school and life and the further development of people's education in the USSR". This law placed great emphasis on combining education with practice and involving pupils from the earliest grades in various forms of both productive and socially useful labour. Subsequently, four categories of labour to which children and young people in the USSR were systemically forced has been distinguished. These included: occasional labours, work and leisure camps, so-called subbotniki and little communal works, as well as compulsory recycling. The paper thoroughly depicts all of them in the light of memoir material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The problem of interaction between man and nature throughout history is, relatively, rarely addressed by classical historiography. The session entitled Man and Nature: Between destruction and creation, organized and chaired by Prof. Tadeusz Janicki (Faculty of History, UAM, Poznań, Poland) and Prof. Dariusz J. Gwiazdowicz (Department of Forest Protection, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poland) on 24 August 2022 as part of the XXIII International Congress of Historical Sciences Poznań 2022, was an attempt to change this tendency and broaden the existing research perspective. The papers delivered during the occassion were the starting point for the preparation of a special issue of the journal Studia Historiae Oeconomicae (SHO), the primary purpose of which is interdisciplinary reflection by specialists from various scientific disciplines on the problem of destruction of natural landscapes and creation of cultural landscapes, along with other issues concerning the interaction between humans and the natural environment from prehistoric times to the present. This special issue of SHO consists of seven articles on diverse topics, analysing human interactions with nature through different historical periods, meanwhile taking into account their economic, civil, social and climatic conditions. The result is a multifaceted mosaic of topics that constitutes an original and interdisciplinary analysis of man's relationship with nature, which may be a source of inspiration for readers and perhaps further research in this field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper attempts to see the women and child worker in the old city of Hyderabad in the Bangle industry. Women make up a sizable portion of India's labour force, yet they are paid less and have less secure jobs than men. As a result, many of these mothers choose to earn an income for their families by working from home. Women who work in the informal sector work with minimum pay and hence the girl child is an easy prey to assist the mother in supplementing the income and helping in the household chores so that more time is left to pursue the trade for an income. Our sample includes 100 women respondents and 150 girls. Being in the unregulated, home-based informal sector has made it challenging to organize the employees, leaving the bulk of bangle-makers in precarious positions both at work and at home. The increasing number of children, especially girls, who are taking part in the production of bangles is also a cause for alarm. It would appear that the piece rate method of payment and the fact that the work may be done from home encourage the participation of family members, including children, in the labour force. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowadays we perceive child labour as a shameful torture and a wicked destruction of the natural order of things. After all, childhood is a time for carelessness, fun and schooling, and children are innocent and vulnerable. Nowadays people believe that these are primeval and natural rights, which is not true. There used to be two models of child labour which I present in my paper. Domestic work in the countryside and in cities, characteristic of the feudal economy at the time when a workplace and a place of residence were the same place (this is still the case in the countryside nowadays), and work outside home, for example in a factory, characteristic of the capitalist economy. There were also varied mixed forms. Thus, in the pre-modern period, rural children were already given to work on a lord's farm, to a rich farmer, or to serve in a city. Similarly, in modern times, children worked at home in domestic industries. The extensive use of child labour was first made possible by the lack of compulsory schooling, which in turn later prevented regular child labour. As long as there was an economic need, however, school had to give way to earning a living for one's family. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the cultural image of child and adolescent labour performed in the People's Republic of Poland in the years 1948–1989 as was presented in the literary fiction addressed to the young people. During the Stalinist period, literature officially condemned child labour on individual farms, but affirmed the labour of adolescent workers in state industry and construction. After the 1956 Thaw, the subject matter of labour was receding into the background, for several reasons. Nevertheless, the post-1956 youth literature also featured labour-related themes: community works, school cooperatives, work in family crafts, tutoring, and shady trade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Child labour is a controversial issue both in presentday as well as in past societies. In historical perspective, studies focus on the factory labour of children during the industrialization process. On the one hand, its contribution to the family income is mentioned as a potential positive effect on the living standard of the whole family, on the other hand reference is made to the permanent health risks for children working in the factories. Using qualitative sources, there were contemporary testimonies supporting both views. The present paper, thererfore, uses a rather quantitive approach referring to the number of working days lost due to illness, anthropometric indicators such a height and weight, the results of draft examinations as well as mortality differences and cause-of-death rates from "accidents" in urban and rural areas during the nineteenth century. Available data do not provide clear evidence of direct harmful effects of child labour; many indications point to a neutral or even positive effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses the population censuses on the Polish area, particularly, the subject of censuses and their thematic scope. the study refers to the censuses in the 19th and 20th centuries (the study closes with the 1988 census). The paper consists of three parts. The first one presents the origins of censuses and the first censuses conducted in Europe in the 18th century. This part also shows the efforts of international statistical institutions to normalise and standardise national censuses. It allowed for building international standards to make national censuses comparable. The second part shows censuses in the 19th century, and the third part discusses censuses in the 20th century. A fundamental feature of the censuses is a set of questions common to demographic and social issues. This makes it possible to carry out comparative analysis in different regional cross-sections on a secular basis. It should also be provided that census categories are not always comparable, hence various conversions and estimates are necessary. The universality of the censuses have made them a huge organizational challenge each time. The greatest effort was borne by the statistical institutions responsible, not only for conducting the censuses, but also during the compilation and publication of the data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper studies the phenomenon of poverty in underdeveloped/third-world countries, particularly within the context and the failure of international organizations in Sub-Saharan Africa. The article analyzes that the increasing problem of poverty in the region's countries/Africa is a replication of the failure of the organizations such as the IMF and the World Bank policies such countries. Despite some projects such as Millennium Development Goals (MDG), Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), and many more by the United Nations. Many of these programs have failed to eradicate or reduce poverty. Instead, the situation has worsened most, especially in Africa, where the rate of poverty is increasing, with several regions in the continent experiencing the worse hunger epidemic in recent times. Therefore, the research posits that the failure of international institutions, the World Bank, and IMF policies have immensely become a significant contributing factor to the poverty level in Sub-Saharan Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present work introduces the scholarly community to a database containing information about the invalids, orphans, and widows of the First World War in Transylvania – the IOW database, which uses data extracted from the files relating to pensions awarded to these social categories as its main sources. these consist primarily of civil status documents, reports on the personal characteristics of the enrolled soldiers, data relating to war participation and testimonies proving disappearance or death in addition to medical records, as well as information regarding the situations of the beneficiaries' families and the amounts of money they received, and evidence attesting changes in the status of pension beneficiaries. Next, the details were entered into a relational database that will enable multiple scientific investigations in the fields of humanities, social sciences, and legal studies, as well as medicine and history of medicine, and offer the possibility of having a social and cultural impact among the general public and local communities. the preliminary results, drawn from the table relating to widows, illustrate the negative consequences of war on the lives of men, women, and children in transylvania. Finally, the paper outlines further development of the database and future lines of research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the industrialization period of the city of Lodz, one of the most important industrial centres in the Kingdom of Poland (the former Russian Partition), experienced a dynamic population growth caused by migratory movement from rural areas to the city. The population registry cards for inhabitants of Lodz contained information on dates of birth (sometimes on dates of death), place of birth, religious denomination, nationality, and address of residence in the city, as well as the number of children born in a family. The aim of this paper is to present population registry cards of permanent and non-permanent residents of the city of Lodz deposited in the State Archives in Lodz, as a source for research on urban society during the period of industrialization. In this work, the use, quality, and reliability of population registry cards, as well as their research limitations for studies are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to analyse the employment of women in banking during the Second Polish Republic (i.e. interwar Poland). The banking sector was small in terms of employment. The number of people associated with this sector was 18.1 thousand in 1921 and 31.2 thousand in 1931, which accounted for 0.5-0.6% of all professionally active workers outside the agricultural sector. The banking community was dominated by men, the number of women working in banks was about 6.1 thousand in 1921 and 8.5 thousand in 1931 (30% of all human resources). This paper presents the nature of jobs performed by women, their positions and earnings. The presentation takes a number of forms: according to bank types, groups of voivodeships, size of the town and according to headquarters and branches. In all cases, the activities and earnings of women and men were compared. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper compares nationalisation campaigns in the German Democratic Republic and socialist Poland, with particular focus on industry. It is based on secondary literature as well as material from both the German and Polish statistical offices. The main finding is a surprising lack of simultaneity in the nationalisation campaigns in the two countries, which possibly had a significant impact on the course of economic transformation in East Germany and in Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While often operating the margins of propriety, advertisers and marketers are constrained by the social mores of their times. During the early nineteenth century, product promotion opportunities were limited to a mix of newspapers, hoardings and pamphlets. Some enterprising entrepreneurs and innovative individuals pushed the envelope of the acceptable, effectively creating new standards. This paper presents the first case study where the advertising and marketing strategies of a single French entrepreneur are being examined in depth. To successfully promote his products, the small-scale paint manufacturer Louis Viard employed a range of strategies. These ranged from the true and tried media of newspaper advertisements, product packaging and advertising cards to more innovative modes of promotion, such as mobile advertising on delivery carts as well as flamboyant street processions, to clever and engaging use of billboards and product placement in plays. In addition, he maintained a workforce of loudly attired roaming painters, who combined promotion and marketing at the same time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the ideologies informing the expansion of Japanese rule at c. 1900. The core feature discussed is the idea of tenka (天下; literally translated: all under heaven), constituting the group of ruled in terms of a universalist indigenat (kokumin 国民), which allowed its expansion beyond the Japanese archipelago at government discretion. The concept of the universalist indigenat, having been tied to the Confucian perception of the world as a well-ordered and change-absorbing entity, conflicted with the European concept of the nation as a particularistically conceived type of group, tied to the perception of the world as a dynamic and largely unruly entity. During the latter third of the nineteenth and the early years of the twentieth century, some Japanese intellectuals came to appreciate the dynamism enshrined in the European perception of the world and worked it into established universalism. The fusion produced a powerful ideology of colonial expansion targeted primarily at East and Southeast Asia as well as the South Pacific. By contrast, European military strategists and political theorists, unaware of the Japanese strategic conceptions, expected that solely Russia formed the target of Japanese military expansion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper deals with mechanisms used for reducing unemployment among women in Poland after the World War II, the so-called "women productivisation." I discussed women's attitude to employment and the state's standpoint as far as the problem of women's unemployment is concerned, and analyzed women's unemployment figures in the introductory part. Employment policy in the early days of the Polish People's Republic was a combination of many factors, among which the most important were ideology, pre-war tradition, and war-related experiences. Women found employment in the industry since the beginning of industrialization of the Polish lands in 19th century. In the interwar period and the early days of the Polish People's Republic, employment increased mainly out of economic reasons (necessity to support family and oneself). It was in keeping with the Marxist ideology in place after the World War II. The "new woman" was to be free from capitalist exploitation and on par with a man in terms of professional career. The role model of the woman was in particular a female-worker employed in industry. After the war, in 1940s, the number of women registered at labor offices was rising. According to labor offices' figures, the number of job offers for women was insufficient or these were unattractive. Hence, the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy (Ministerstwo Pracy i Opieki Społecznej) conceived the idea of developing short-term training for women and employing them in the cottage industry - action "AZ". It lasted from 1947 to 1950; it was evolved due to changing regulations. Undoubtedly, the action "AZ" contributed to the development of "female" cooperatives, but with time it was considered as ineffective and its scope was limited. My fundamental goal was to discuss the 'AZ' program, including its course, scope, and scale, as well as its evaluation. The subject matter in question has not been discussed in detail to date but only briefly addressed in the literature listed below. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper views globalisation and women's work and exploitation in a micro enterprise in India, the beedi (indigenous cigarette) industry with a case study from one of the states in India. Rural occupational structures and employment patterns in India have undergone a transition in the last few decades due to globalisation. Newer forms of employment like construction work, domestic services and beedi making have become alternatives to agricultural labour for women. Beedi is an indigenous cigarette, in which tobacco is rolled in a tendu leaf and tied with a cotton thread. This is smaller and less expensive than a cigarette and in the popular imagination it stands for the working class. This work is done sitting at home and mostly women and girls do it. This is a very gendered industry, for only women and girls that too from low-income groups make beedis. There is a lot of exploitation in this industry and this has only increased with the advent of globalisation but this is generally ignored by data gathering systems, policy makers and administrators. There is an occupational health hazard too for many of these workers suffer from various health hazards not because they are smoking these beedis but because they are making them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In both World Wars, combatant nations, including the United States, Britain, and Germany, learned that inadequate or poorly-maintained footwear produced costly and preventable casualties from trench foot and frostbite. While provision of shoes and boots to troops were major issues in earlier conflicts, no nation before World War I had fully appreciated the significance of warm, dry, well-fitting socks to the effectiveness of soldiers in the field. The large numbers of trench foot casualties in World War I, especially among the French and British, convinced policymakers that this vital commodity must receive a higher priority in military production planning, but few nations in wartime could shift production to knitting mills rapidly enough to make a difference. Thus, in Britain and the U.S, the best policy option proved to be recruiting women and children civilians to knit socks by hand for the military in the first war, and for refugees, prisoners and civilians in the second. This paper discusses the economic and military importance of this effort, including the numbers of pairs produced, and the program's role in supplementing industrial production. The production of this low-technology but crucial item of military apparel is typical of detail-oriented tasks performed by women under conditions of full mobilization for war, in that they have a high impact on battlefield and home front performance and morale, but very low visibility as significant contributions to national defense. Often, both during and after the emergency, these efforts are ridiculed as trivial and/or wasteful. Unlike women pilots or industrial workers, handcrafters of essential supplies are regarded as performing extensions of their domestic roles as makers and caretakers of clothing and food. This was especially true in the U.S. in and after World War II, a wealthy industrialized nation that took pride in its modern - and thoroughly masculinist - military industrial complex. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A drastic decrease in the European pond turtle population occurred at the end of 18th century and during the first half of 19th century. The exploitation of this species, as a source of food and drug substances, is nowadays almost forgotten. The present paper aimed at, firstly, underlining some historical sources concerning the exploitation of the European pond turtle. Secondly, its goal is to answer the following question: to what extent did the exploitation of the species contribute to the decline of the population? The author concludes with the importance and necessity of historical and economic analysis in order to understand the phenomenon of the decline of the European pond turtle population. This research, which must be continued by historians, will help the naturalists in action to protect and reintroduce the species into its former geographical range. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It might seem natural to think that the socialist model of the economy, and a reality where collective property prevailed, eliminated the problem of financial crime. But did it really? This paper, which presents the scale of this type of crime as reflected by GUS (Polish Central Statistical Office) statistics, is an attempt at answering this question. At the same time we would like to present the '3 Cs' model (circumstances, character, chance), in which all the 'C' factors occurred simultaneously, but on each occasion each of these had a different impact on the particular criminal act. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The subject of this article is financial crime among workers, in particular industrial workers who were supposed to be the 'vanguards' of the new political system created in Poland after the year 1944. The paper will concentrate on theft in industrial plants and its motivations. This text also discusses the speed with which these negative - both for the economy and the Polish society - phenomena were shaped in the times when the experience of occupation and the new political experiences created unique circumstances their emergence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The subject of this article is a part of a broader debate related to the participation of the private sector in the execution of public services. It concerns those services which are provided to recipients in the conditions of a natural monopoly, based on a license (so with the privilege of exclusivity) awarded to private companies for executing the state's tasks. This paper aims at outlining the reasons behind the implementation of similar solutions and the problems related to entrusting the private party with satisfying public needs - problems which revealed a conflict of interest between the parties of the licensing contract. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the paper is to discuss the issues associated with the psychological aspect of possessions. The basic question of our consideration refers to the place which poverty and wealth occupy among human values. In particular, the analysis of this article includes recognition of Milton Rokeach and Shalom H. Schwartz. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article will present an analysis of a psychological reaction which may occur in people living in big cities, the so-called urban stress. The paper will concentrate mainly on describing the influence of strong sensory input (e.g. noise and pollution), which is characteristic of a big city, as well as social issues on the cognitive, emotional and behavioural functioning of individuals. What is more, various consequences of the emergence of stress will be discussed. The summary of the article includes conclusions drawn from a review of research and theories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although historians and social scientists devoted considerable attention to issues related to housing in the Polish Peoples' Republic era, many problems still need further research. The crucial problem of the paper is to find an answer to the question: what did Poles have to do in the period between 1944/45 and 1989 in order to obtain housing? The answer given is the effect of several years of primary source research which encompassed archival material of assorted types and origins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper deals with the problem of shaping landscape. The examples of towns of Great Poland from the 13th century were implemented and used. Their layout was not accidental. Towns were created with a substantial dose of accuracy. A market square was precisely laid out; roads were turned straight to the nearby towns, and plots were created for townsmen. It tended to be the final product of human thought and idea. The comparison of towns' sizes shows that the same measures and similar schemes were used. In a medieval town each and every aspect was carefully planned and well- thoughtout, but sometimes it was modified due to the terrain. Subsequent generations interpreted landscape on their own and occasionally changed the layout of a town. The contemporary appearance of towns is a product of thought materialisation in the living space. That is why the landscape of towns can be analysed and read. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper addresses the issue of the origins of the town of Poznań founded in mid-13th century under German law. The birth of the charter town on the left bank of the Warta river is illustrated first and foremost by sources: documents from the mid-13th century, particularly a location charter of 1253, and narrative sources, e.g. The Wielkopolska Chronicle and yearly records written in Wielkopolska. The town was the work of Przemysł I, the duke of Wielkopolska, who sorted out property issues on the left bank of the Warta, made grants and granted privileges, erected his new castle next to the new town, and together with his brother Boleslaw issued a location charter in 1253. The duke's action resulted in the rise of one of the most important urban centers in medieval Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]