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Worships are identified in Islam with the sort of religious obligations that regulate the relationship between Allah and his servants, which are to be carried out exactly in the way it is ordained by Allah Almighty Himself. In other words, they are the sort of the divine injunctions that are largely contingent on the declarations of Allah, called as al-ahkam at-ta‘abuddiyya. The ta‘abbudi ahkam are the rulings that are in principle closed to personal interpretation (ijtihad); they therefore remain as ordained by Allah and are not subject to change or intervention of any other authority. They are therefore by and large based on the transmitted sources of law (al-adilla an-naqliyya). The rulings regarding the performance and the manner of fasting are primarily based upon mutawattir and ahad reports transmitted from the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). It is because of the traditional character of this obligation that the Muslim Nation (Ummah) since the first generation of the Companions till today unanimously agreed that menstruating women is not allowed to perform fasting and if she does so it would be invalid. It is the consensus of the Muslim Nation that declares that the woman in this state is not allowed to perform the daily five obligatory prayers and Ramadan fasting, but she is under obligation to compensate by performing exact number of missed days of fasting after the ‘Iyd of Ramadan. She is however not under obligation to re-fulfill the missed prayers. This consensus is so universal and categorical that no Muslim in the history of Islam attempted to understand it otherwise due to the fact that it is based on the transmitted knowledge from the Prophet, hence the consensus of the Companions. Nevertheless, recently there have been some new opinions arising, claiming that the Quran has not prohibited menstruating women to perform fasting; this view ignores the consensus just mentioned and base its interpretation on a reading of the Qur’anic word “أذى ” found in the verse about menstruating women. By translating this word as sickness/illness and placing the state of menstruation under the umbrella term of sickness, they argued that a menstruating woman is like any patient is allowed to perform fasting if they feel well. They also justify their view by re-interpreting a Hadith transmitted from ‘Aisha dealing again with the fasting while menstruating. Those who favors the view that the menstruation is not an impediment to preform fasting disagree among themselves; one group argues that menstruating women can fast if they wish to do so, but she is not under obligation; others argue that menstruating women are not discharged of the obligation of fasting, if they feel well in this state. This study shall critically read these newly emerging opinions with particular emphasis on the arguments put forward by these groups. Since they justify their positions with reference to a reading of the Qur’anic passages, the study will analyze these readings in reference to the disciplines of Tafsir, Hadith, Fiqh and Usul al-Fiqh. In addition, the analysis will also take into account the etymological arguments around the word “أذى ” and discuss the asserted interpretations by going through the classical dictionaries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Increases in reproductive hormones like estrogen, play an important role in the remarkable increases in plasma volume observed in pregnancy. Accurate estimates of plasma volume expansion during pregnancy depend on correctly timing and measuring plasma volume in nonpregnant women. However, to date, there is no consensus on the pattern of plasma volume across the menstrual cycle. We prospectively measured plasma volume in 45 women across a single menstrual cycle. A urine‐based fertility monitor was used to time three clinic visits to distinct points in the menstrual cycle: the early follicular phase (~day 2), periovulation (~day 12), and the mid‐point of the luteal phase (~day 21)—based on a 28‐day cycle length. Healthy women aged 18–41 years with regular menstrual cycles and a healthy body weight were enrolled in the study. At each visit, blood samples were collected before and after injection of 0.25 mg/kg body weight of indocyanine green dye (ICG). Pre‐ and post‐ICG injection plasma samples were used to measure plasma volume. Preinjection samples were used to measure ovarian hormones and plasma osmolality. Mean plasma volume was highest during the early follicular phase (2,276 ± 478 ml); it declined to 2,232 ± 509 ml by the late follicular phase and to 2,228 ± 502 ml by the midluteal phase. This study found that overall variations in plasma volume are small across the menstrual cycle. Therefore, in clinical practice and research, the menstrual cycle phase may not be an important consideration when evaluating plasma volume among women of reproductive age.

Increases in reproductive hormones like estrogen, play an important role in the remarkable increases in plasma volume observed in pregnancy. Accurate estimates of plasma volume expansion during pregnancy depend on correctly timing and measuring plasma volume in nonpregnant women. However, to date, there is no consensus on the pattern of plasma volume across the menstrual cycle. We prospectively measured plasma volume in 45 women across a single menstrual cycle. A urine‐based fertility monitor was used to time three clinic visits to distinct points in the menstrual cycle: the early follicular phase (~day 2), periovulation (~day 12), and the mid‐point of the luteal phase (~day 21)—based on a 28‐day cycle length. Healthy women aged 18–41 years with regular menstrual cycles and a healthy body weight were enrolled in the study. At each visit, blood samples were collected before and after injection of 0.25 mg/kg body weight of indocyanine green dye (ICG). Pre‐ and post‐ICG injection plasma samples were used to measure plasma volume. Preinjection samples were used to measure ovarian hormones and plasma osmolality. Mean plasma volume was highest during the early follicular phase (2,276 ± 478 ml); it declined to 2,232 ± 509 ml by the late follicular phase and to 2,228 ± 502 ml by the midluteal phase. This study found that overall variations in plasma volume are small across the menstrual cycle. Therefore, in clinical practice and research, the menstrual cycle phase may not be an important consideration when evaluating plasma volume among women of reproductive age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Saliva being the most available and non-invasive biofluid of the human body, permanently "bathes" the oral cavity, and is trying to cope with an ever-changing milieu. Oral cavity acts as a mirror of our body's health; thus, it acts as a diagnostic window in both healthy and diseased conditions. The different phases in women's life are menstruation, pregnancy, and menopause, the hormone fluctuations during these phases act as a significant factor which attributes in altering the specific salivary proteins, minerals, lipids, or some combination of these. This research studies the effects of menopause on saliva and dental health. Aim: This study aims to evaluate the salivary flow rate and pH in normal menstruating women and in postmenopausal women. Materials and Methods: Saliva sample was collected using spitting method from 25 menstruating and 25 menopausal women. The pH of the saliva was analyzed using a pH paper. Graduated centrifuge tube was used to measure the unstimulated salivary flow rate. Results: There is a marked decrease in salivary pH and flow rate in postmenopausal women. Conclusion: There is a noticeable decrease in salivary pH and flow rate in postmenopausal women which, in turn, can lead to dental problems. This study has shown the importance of preventive dentistry with aging in females. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to investigate the combined influence of diet, menstruation and genetic factors on iron status in Spanish menstruating women (n = 142). Dietary intake was assessed by a 72-h detailed dietary report and menstrual blood loss by a questionnaire, to determine a Menstrual Blood Loss Coefficient (MBLC). Five selected SNPs were genotyped: rs3811647, rs1799852 (Tf gene); rs1375515 (CACNA2D3 gene); and rs1800562 and rs1799945 (HFE gene, mutations C282Y and H63D, respectively). Iron biomarkers were determined and cluster analysis was performed. Differences among clusters in dietary intake, menstrual blood loss parameters and genotype frequencies distribution were studied. A categorical regression was performed to identify factors associated with cluster belonging. Three clusters were identified: women with poor iron status close to developing iron deficiency anemia (Cluster 1, n = 26); women with mild iron deficiency (Cluster 2, n = 59) and women with normal iron status (Cluster 3, n = 57). Three independent factors, red meat consumption, MBLC and mutation C282Y, were included in the model that better explained cluster belonging (R2 = 0.142, p < 0.001). In conclusion, the combination of high red meat consumption, low menstrual blood loss and the HFE C282Y mutation may protect from iron deficiency in women of childbearing age. These findings could be useful to implement adequate strategies to prevent iron deficiency anemia.

Purpose: This study aimed to determine whether there is a relationship between iron status and bone metabolism, and to compare the effects of the consumption, as part of the usual diet, of an iron or iron and vitamin D-fortified skimmed milk on bone remodelling in iron-deficient women. Methods: Young healthy iron-deficient or iron-sufficient women (serum ferritin ≤30 ng/mL or >30 ng/mL, respectively) were recruited. Iron-deficient women were assigned to a nutritional intervention consisting of a randomised, controlled, double-blind, parallel design trial of 16 weeks during winter. They consumed, as part of their usual diet, an iron (Fe group, n = 54) or iron and vitamin D-fortified (Fe+D group, n = 55) flavoured skimmed milk (iron, 15 mg/day; vitamin D, 5 μg/day, 200 IU). The iron-sufficient women followed their usual diet without supplementation (R group, n = 56). Dietary intake, body weight, iron biomarkers, 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD), parathyroid hormone (PTH), procollagen-type 1 N-terminal propeptide (P1NP), and aminoterminal telopeptide of collagen I (NTx) were determined. Results: Negative correlations were found between baseline log-ferritin and log-NTx ( p < 0.001), and between transferrin and P1NP ( p = 0.002). Serum 25OHD increased (from 62 ± 21 to 71 ± 21 nmol/L, mean ± SD, p < 0.001) while P1NP and NTx decreased in Fe+D during the assay ( p = 0.004 and p < 0.001, respectively). NTx was lower in Fe+D compared to Fe at week 8 ( p < 0.05) and was higher in Fe and Fe+D compared to R throughout the assay ( p < 0.01). PTH did not show changes. Conclusions: Iron deficiency is related with higher bone resorption in young women. Consumption of a dairy product that supplies 5 μg/day of vitamin D reduces bone turnover and increases circulating 25OHD to nearly reach an optimal vitamin D status, defined as 25OHD over 75 nmol/L. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Iron-deficiency anaemia (IDA), one of the most common and widespread health disorders worldwide, affects fundamental metabolic functions and has been associated with deleterious effects on bone. Our aim was to know whether there are differences in bone remodelling between a group of premenopausal IDA women and a healthy group, and whether recovery of iron status has an effect on bone turnover markers. Thirty-five IDA women and 38 healthy women (control group) were recruited throughout the year. IDA women received pharmacological iron treatment. Iron biomarkers, aminoterminal telopeptide of collagen I (NTx), procollagen type 1 N-terminal propeptide (P1NP), 25-hydroxyvitamin D, and parathormone (PTH) were determined at baseline for both groups and after treatment with pharmacological iron for the IDA group. IDA subjects were classified as recovered (R) or non-recovered (nR) from IDA after treatment. NTx levels were significantly higher ( p <0.001), and P1NP levels tended to be lower in IDA women than controls after adjusting for age and body mass index (BMI), with no differences in 25-hydroxyvitamin D or PTH. After treatment, the R group had significantly lower NTx and P1NP levels compared to baseline ( p <0.05 and p <0.001 respectively), whilst no significant changes were seen in the nR group. No changes were seen in 25-hydroxyvitamin D or PTH for either group. IDA is related to higher bone resorption independent of age and BMI. Recovery from IDA has a concomitant beneficial effect on bone remodelling in premenopausal women, decreasing both bone resorption and formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Iron and vitamin D deficiencies are two of the most widespread nutritional disorders in the world. Our aim was to know whether the consumption of an iron-fortified fruit juice modifies bone remodelling and the possible influence of baseline vitamin D status on the recovery of iron status in a group of iron-deficient women. Methods: Iron biomarkers, 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and dietary intake were measured in 123 iron-deficient menstruating women. A subgroup ( n = 41) participated in a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled study of 16-weeks during winter. They consumed a placebo fruit juice (P) or iron-fortified fruit juice (F). Dietary intake, 25-hydroxyvitamin D, parathormone (PTH), bone alkaline phosphatase (ALP), aminoterminal telopeptide of collagen I (NTX) and iron biomarkers were determined. Results: Ninety-two per cent of the iron-deficient women were vitamin D deficient or insufficient. Transferrin saturation and 25-hydroxyvitamin D were positively correlated. Iron status improved in F, 25-hydroxyvitamin D decreased in F and P, and PTH, ALP and NTX levels were within the normal range and did not vary. Women with 25-hydroxyvitamin D ≥ 50 nmol/L compared with 25-hydroxyvitamin D < 50 nmol/L showed a higher increase in transferrin saturation (a marker of iron supply to tissues) during iron recovery. Conclusion: The prevalence of vitamin D deficiency or insufficiency is very high in iron-deficient women. The recovery of iron status by consuming an iron-fortified food does not affect 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels; however, the increase in iron supply to tissues is lower if the women also present vitamin D deficiency. Although bone health does not seem to be affected in this group of women, correction of iron and vitamin D deficiencies should be promoted in young women to improve present and future health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We see that there were different religious provisions in accordance with different approaches in the subject of holding and reciting the holy quran by women who are in the menstrual period. The opinions of jurisprudents who for prohibiting menstruating women to hold and recite the Quran who constitute the majority are mentioned. Their arguments are also given in addition to those of scholars who give permission for menstruating women to hold and recite the Quran or who give permission them if they fear forgetting in case they have learnt it by heart, or if they are teachers or learners. These opinions are at the basis of the argument. In this research we canvass the subject in accordance with the arguments of the Qur'an and Sunnah and try to understand how the jurisprudents who have different oppinions argued out it. The research keeps on evaluating the arguments and jurisprudent's opinions and ends with conclusion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Iron deficiency anaemia is a worldwide health problem in which environmental, physiologic and genetic factors play important roles. The associations between iron status biomarkers and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) known to be related to iron metabolism were studied in menstruating women. Methods A group of 270 Caucasian menstruating women, a population group at risk of iron deficiency anaemia, participated in the study. Haematological and biochemical parameters were analysed and 10 selected SNPs were genotyped by minisequencing assay. The associations between genetic and biochemical data were analysed by Bayesian Model Averaging (BMA) test and decision trees. Dietary intake of a representative subgroup of these volunteers (n = 141) was assessed, and the relationship between nutrients and iron biomarkers was also determined by linear regression. Results Four variants, two in the transferrin gene (rs3811647, rs1799852) and two in the HFE gene (C282Y, H63D), explain 35% of the genetic variation or heritability of serum transferrin in menstruating women. The minor allele of rs3811647 was associated with higher serum transferrin levels and lower transferrin saturation, while the minor alleles of rs1799852 and the C282Y and H63D mutations of HFE were associated with lower serum transferrin levels. No association between nutrient intake and iron biomarkers was found. Conclusions In contrast to dietary intake, these four SNPs are strongly associated with serum transferrin. Carriers of the minor allele of rs3811647 present a reduction in iron transport to tissues, which might indicate higher iron deficiency anaemia risk, although the simultaneous presence of the minor allele of rs1799852 and HFE mutations appear to have compensatory effects. Therefore, it is suggested that these genetic variants might potentially be used as markers of iron deficiency anaemia risk.