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Over the last four decades, the government of Ethiopia and various a consortium of donors have been promoting different land management (LM) practices in the highlands of Ethiopia to halt land degradation. However, the adoption rate of these practices has been low. This is because investments in LM practices are influenced by various institutional, socio-economic and bio-physical factors. The main objective of this research is to investigate the impact of these different factors on investments in LM in the north-western Ethiopian highlands. It focuses on the drivers of the different stages of adoption, on profitability of LM practices, and on land quality, land fragmentation, tenure arrangements and social capital. We examined the drivers of the different stages of adoption of soil and water conservation (SWC) practices using an ordered probit model. The results indicate that adoption of soil and water conservation (SWC) passes through four major phases: non-adoption/dis-adoption, initial adoption, actual adoption and final adoption. Some socio-economic and institutional factors have a different effect on the respective SWC adoption phases. Final adoption depends mostly on profitability, land-related factors, social capital and perception of erosion problems. We also investigated the effectiveness and profitability of three SWC practices (stone bunds, soil bunds and Fanya juu bunds) using the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) and Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA). The results show that SWC practices are effective in controlling soil erosion, though the profitability of these SWC methods is dependent on the site where they are used. Fanya juu and stone bunds are generally profitable under standard conditions (e.g. medium slope and average soil quality and labour costs). However, the study also shows that different underlying assumptions change the CBA results considerably and consequently also change the conclusions regarding circumstances under which SWC measures are or are not profitable. Besides, we assessed farmers’ perceptions about land quality, land fragmentation and tenure systems and their influence on interrelated LM (Bunds, Compost/Manure and Fertilizer) investments using a multivariate probit (MPV) model. The study shows that investments in LM practices are interdependent. For example, compost/manure and fertiliser substitute each other to a certain extent (often not used together, or used interchangeably by farmers) in the farming system of the study areas. Land quality (e.g. slope and soil fertility status), land fragmentation (parcel size and distance of parcel from homestead) and tenure arrangements influence farmers’ investments in LM practices. In addition, the relationship between the different dimensions of social capital and investments in LM practices was explored. The results show that the different dimensions of social capital affect LM practices differently. In particular, the cooperation and trust dimensions of social capital are associated with the intensity of investment in SWC bunds and fertiliser use. The extent of participation in formal institutions has a positive effect on the use of fertiliser and compost. Furthermore, we evaluated different SWC practices using Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA) to assess their ecological, economic and social impacts. The study reveals that MCA is an effective evaluation tool that can take into account non- monetary and less quantifiable effects of SWC measures, which is not possible with Cost Benefit Analysis. The results of the analysis indicate that farmers have a range of criteria to evaluate the performance of SWC measures. The relative importance of each criterion in the selection of SWC alternatives depends to a large extent on slope categories. For enhancing the adoption and impacts of land management, there is a need to increase knowledge about location specific viable LM practices, to promote collective action at watershed level, to pay more attention to farmers’ preferences and to improve the capacity and capability of farmers.

Over the last four decades, the government of Ethiopia and various a consortium of donors have been promoting different land management (LM) practices in the highlands of Ethiopia to halt land degradation. However, the adoption rate of these practices has been low. This is because investments in LM practices are influenced by various institutional, socio-economic and bio-physical factors. The main objective of this research is to investigate the impact of these different factors on investments in LM in the north-western Ethiopian highlands. It focuses on the drivers of the different stages of adoption, on profitability of LM practices, and on land quality, land fragmentation, tenure arrangements and social capital. We examined the drivers of the different stages of adoption of soil and water conservation (SWC) practices using an ordered probit model. The results indicate that adoption of soil and water conservation (SWC) passes through four major phases: non-adoption/dis-adoption, initial adoption, actual adoption and final adoption. Some socio-economic and institutional factors have a different effect on the respective SWC adoption phases. Final adoption depends mostly on profitability, land-related factors, social capital and perception of erosion problems. We also investigated the effectiveness and profitability of three SWC practices (stone bunds, soil bunds and Fanya juu bunds) using the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) and Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA). The results show that SWC practices are effective in controlling soil erosion, though the profitability of these SWC methods is dependent on the site where they are used. Fanya juu and stone bunds are generally profitable under standard conditions (e.g. medium slope and average soil quality and labour costs). However, the study also shows that different underlying assumptions change the CBA results considerably and consequently also change the conclusions regarding circumstances under which SWC measures are or are not profitable. Besides, we assessed farmers’ perceptions about land quality, land fragmentation and tenure systems and their influence on interrelated LM (Bunds, Compost/Manure and Fertilizer) investments using a multivariate probit (MPV) model. The study shows that investments in LM practices are interdependent. For example, compost/manure and fertiliser substitute each other to a certain extent (often not used together, or used interchangeably by farmers) in the farming system of the study areas. Land quality (e.g. slope and soil fertility status), land fragmentation (parcel size and distance of parcel from homestead) and tenure arrangements influence farmers’ investments in LM practices. In addition, the relationship between the different dimensions of social capital and investments in LM practices was explored. The results show that the different dimensions of social capital affect LM practices differently. In particular, the cooperation and trust dimensions of social capital are associated with the intensity of investment in SWC bunds and fertiliser use. The extent of participation in formal institutions has a positive effect on the use of fertiliser and compost. Furthermore, we evaluated different SWC practices using Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA) to assess their ecological, economic and social impacts. The study reveals that MCA is an effective evaluation tool that can take into account non- monetary and less quantifiable effects of SWC measures, which is not possible with Cost Benefit Analysis. The results of the analysis indicate that farmers have a range of criteria to evaluate the performance of SWC measures. The relative importance of each criterion in the selection of SWC alternatives depends to a large extent on slope categories. For enhancing the adoption and impacts of land management, there is a need to increase knowledge about location specific viable LM practices, to promote collective action at watershed level, to pay more attention to farmers’ preferences and to improve the capacity and capability of farmers.

This study was motivated by the puzzlingly localised implementation of available Sustainable Land Management (SLM) practices despite the urgent need to reduce both land degradation and general poverty levels in the western highlands of Kenya. This research aimed to not only unravel reasons for the restricted geographical diffusion of SLM practices but also make concrete contributions to foster the promotion of SLM practices. Four specific research objectives and questions were formulated, and an integrated, multi-scale socio-ecological systems framework designed to address these issues at various levels. At the farming system level, high livelihood diversity was found as households increasingly depend on off-farm income opportunities. Besides, results show low production efficiency (average 40%) across five distinct farm types with important implications on intensification in land use. The off-farm oriented and resource-poor farm types were the least likely to invest in SLM practices on their farms. For the forest ecosystem, the estimated local economic benefits of around US$ 450 ha-1 yr-1 were considerably less than half the forgone returns from agricultural activities if the forest were to be converted. Arguably, continued protection of the Kakamega rainforest is justified because of the unknown value of its rich biodiversity and stored carbon in its system, which does not currently generate local economic benefits. At the landscape level, this study found that Vihiga District has undergone rapid land-use changes in the past 25 years. In particular, there has been a major conversion of forest and bare land to agricultural land use. Results show that productivity of tea and to a lesser extent, vegetables increased but the yields of maize and beans—the most common crops—oscillated around 1 ton ha-1. As a result, per capita food crop production dropped by 28% during the past two decades. Empirical findings demonstrate that high and increasing population pressure on land does not necessarily lead to agricultural intensification. Finally, with stakeholder participation, I evaluate local potentials for initiating collaborative action towards wider promotion of SLM practices in the western highlands of Kenya. A positive correlation (rho = 0.83) was found between stakeholder co-operation and the success level of past SLM projects. Reasonable prospects such as some technology adoption activities and organisation of local actors were established, which are necessary for triggering the transformation process to sustainable state of productivity. Based on synthesis of the key findings presented in this thesis, I conclude that the difficulty of achieving wider geographical diffusion of SLM practices in the study area can be attributed to four main reasons. First, there is a practical challenge to properly target the technologies to the right farming households in order to achieve the greatest impacts. Second, the rampant decrease in productive resources (land, capital and labour) for farm production coupled with low efficiencies in common farm enterprises has created an additional aspect of poverty traps—a ‘maize-centred’ poverty trap—making it difficult for a majority of farmers to invest meaningfully in SLM practices. Third, increasing pressure on land from population growth has failed to stimulate better land management practices and efficient resource use in agriculture possibly because the community attempts to make for the shortfall from off-farm activities or by accessing the almost free forest resources where available in the district. Lastly, the low collaboration level among key stakeholders involved in promotion of various components of SLM practices indicates a thin spread of efforts on the ground and unexpectedly delays an accelerated technological transition process. Therefore, I recommend a paradigm shift to embrace a broader, integrated and multi-stakeholder approach to solving the problem of land degradation in the study area and other similar agro-ecosystems in SSA; an approach that equally promotes improved farm productivity and creates off-farm income opportunities.

This thesis is the result of assessments on the extent of existing resource use and management practices using a Participatory Integrated Watershed Management (PIWM) as a viable approach to promote best soil water conservation (SWC) measures towards more sustainable land use. The study was conducted in two contrasting agro-ecological zones of the north-western highlands of Rwanda, namely; Gataraga and Rwerere in the framework of “Agasozi ndatwa” referred to as PIWM. "Agasozi ndatwa" program is implemented at watershed scale and involves investments from the government in establishing soil and water conservation structures as well as other development related activities. A stratification sampling approach was used in selecting the study area. The first strata consisted of a watershed and the second-level of strata consisted of villages. Two villages with boundaries that nearly coincided with that of the micro-watershed were selected.The studywas started by assessing the ecological and economic sustainability of smallholder farms using the level of nitrogen recycling between farm activities and farm income as indicators. Soil fertility management components including farm inputs and improved farming systems combined with the knowledge on how to adapt these practices to local conditions at field, farm and watershed levels were evaluated. Following a proper participatory assessment of soil and water conservation, a field experiment was conducted to explore the efficiency of 20+ year old slow forming terraces in farmer’s fields. Finally, the impact of PIWM activities on Natural Resource Management (NRM), crops and livestock productivity on farmers’ livelihoodwas assessed and the integration of several policies that are operating simultaneously in the watershed was evaluated.Nutrient balances and flows differed for the two agro-ecological zones due to differences in crop management and the importance of livestock. Positive nutrient balances were found for relatively fertile volcanic soils, but on steep slopes and acidic soils, N, P and K stocks were declining at rates of 8.6, 1.4 and 17.5 kg ha-1 year-1, respectively. Nitrogen recycling between farm activities was low, varying between 1.8 and 6 %, which may decrease the adaptability and reliability of the current farming systems. Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) component treatments comprising thecombination of fertilizer, FYM and improved seeds significantly increased yields but resulted (i) in a lower Nitrogen Agronomic Efficiency (N-AE) across sites and on relatively fertile foot slopes and (ii) in a lower marginal rates of return (MRR) due to the high cost of seeds and N fertilizer. Slow forming terraces of 20+ year old showed a marked “within” spatial difference in both soil quality and crop yield. The soil in the lower part of the terraces showed as much as 57% more organic carbon content and 31% more available phosphorous than the soil in the upper part. The marked soil fertility gradients indicate that the sustainability of slow-forming terraces is threatened, unless a site-specific fertilizer strategy is developed. Results suggest that an PIWM approach has the potential of improving farmers’ livelihoods and increasing the resilience of a degraded environment. Furthermore, due to PIWM approach, synergy of policies was effective leading to (i) positive impact on the size and composition of livestock, (2) the availability and use of manure, (3) the increase of production of fodder and (4) the reduction of soil loss.

This thesis is about peasant and indigenous struggles for water rights in the Ecuadorian Highlands. It is based on the following main research question: How have peasant and indigenous communities developed multi-scalar political agency in water governance to gain and maintain their water access and related rights in the Ecuadorian Highlands since the 1980s? To answer this question, this thesis analyses the histories and relationships between organized water users, water reforms and non-governmental development organisations (NGOs) active in the Ecuadorian irrigation sector. Through state reforms, and processes of coproduction between NGOs and local peasant and indigenous communities, water user associations were created in many supra-community irrigation systems. Once created, these organisations formed the basis for the development of provincial and national federations and policy advocacy networks and platforms that now form the building blocks of the Ecuadorian water users movement.

This thesis is the result of assessments on the extent of existing resource use and management practices using a Participatory Integrated Watershed Management (PIWM) as a viable approach to promote best soil water conservation (SWC) measures towards more sustainable land use. The study was conducted in two contrasting agro-ecological zones of the north-western highlands of Rwanda, namely; Gataraga and Rwerere in the framework of “Agasozi ndatwa” referred to as PIWM. "Agasozi ndatwa" program is implemented at watershed scale and involves investments from the government in establishing soil and water conservation structures as well as other development related activities. A stratification sampling approach was used in selecting the study area. The first strata consisted of a watershed and the second-level of strata consisted of villages. Two villages with boundaries that nearly coincided with that of the micro-watershed were selected.The studywas started by assessing the ecological and economic sustainability of smallholder farms using the level of nitrogen recycling between farm activities and farm income as indicators. Soil fertility management components including farm inputs and improved farming systems combined with the knowledge on how to adapt these practices to local conditions at field, farm and watershed levels were evaluated. Following a proper participatory assessment of soil and water conservation, a field experiment was conducted to explore the efficiency of 20+ year old slow forming terraces in farmer’s fields. Finally, the impact of PIWM activities on Natural Resource Management (NRM), crops and livestock productivity on farmers’ livelihoodwas assessed and the integration of several policies that are operating simultaneously in the watershed was evaluated.Nutrient balances and flows differed for the two agro-ecological zones due to differences in crop management and the importance of livestock. Positive nutrient balances were found for relatively fertile volcanic soils, but on steep slopes and acidic soils, N, P and K stocks were declining at rates of 8.6, 1.4 and 17.5 kg ha-1 year-1, respectively. Nitrogen recycling between farm activities was low, varying between 1.8 and 6 %, which may decrease the adaptability and reliability of the current farming systems. Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) component treatments comprising thecombination of fertilizer, FYM and improved seeds significantly increased yields but resulted (i) in a lower Nitrogen Agronomic Efficiency (N-AE) across sites and on relatively fertile foot slopes and (ii) in a lower marginal rates of return (MRR) due to the high cost of seeds and N fertilizer. Slow forming terraces of 20+ year old showed a marked “within” spatial difference in both soil quality and crop yield. The soil in the lower part of the terraces showed as much as 57% more organic carbon content and 31% more available phosphorous than the soil in the upper part. The marked soil fertility gradients indicate that the sustainability of slow-forming terraces is threatened, unless a site-specific fertilizer strategy is developed. Results suggest that an PIWM approach has the potential of improving farmers’ livelihoods and increasing the resilience of a degraded environment. Furthermore, due to PIWM approach, synergy of policies was effective leading to (i) positive impact on the size and composition of livestock, (2) the availability and use of manure, (3) the increase of production of fodder and (4) the reduction of soil loss.

This study was motivated by the puzzlingly localised implementation of available Sustainable Land Management (SLM) practices despite the urgent need to reduce both land degradation and general poverty levels in the western highlands of Kenya. This research aimed to not only unravel reasons for the restricted geographical diffusion of SLM practices but also make concrete contributions to foster the promotion of SLM practices. Four specific research objectives and questions were formulated, and an integrated, multi-scale socio-ecological systems framework designed to address these issues at various levels. At the farming system level, high livelihood diversity was found as households increasingly depend on off-farm income opportunities. Besides, results show low production efficiency (average 40%) across five distinct farm types with important implications on intensification in land use. The off-farm oriented and resource-poor farm types were the least likely to invest in SLM practices on their farms. For the forest ecosystem, the estimated local economic benefits of around US$ 450 ha-1 yr-1 were considerably less than half the forgone returns from agricultural activities if the forest were to be converted. Arguably, continued protection of the Kakamega rainforest is justified because of the unknown value of its rich biodiversity and stored carbon in its system, which does not currently generate local economic benefits. At the landscape level, this study found that Vihiga District has undergone rapid land-use changes in the past 25 years. In particular, there has been a major conversion of forest and bare land to agricultural land use. Results show that productivity of tea and to a lesser extent, vegetables increased but the yields of maize and beans—the most common crops—oscillated around 1 ton ha-1. As a result, per capita food crop production dropped by 28% during the past two decades. Empirical findings demonstrate that high and increasing population pressure on land does not necessarily lead to agricultural intensification. Finally, with stakeholder participation, I evaluate local potentials for initiating collaborative action towards wider promotion of SLM practices in the western highlands of Kenya. A positive correlation (rho = 0.83) was found between stakeholder co-operation and the success level of past SLM projects. Reasonable prospects such as some technology adoption activities and organisation of local actors were established, which are necessary for triggering the transformation process to sustainable state of productivity. Based on synthesis of the key findings presented in this thesis, I conclude that the difficulty of achieving wider geographical diffusion of SLM practices in the study area can be attributed to four main reasons. First, there is a practical challenge to properly target the technologies to the right farming households in order to achieve the greatest impacts. Second, the rampant decrease in productive resources (land, capital and labour) for farm production coupled with low efficiencies in common farm enterprises has created an additional aspect of poverty traps—a ‘maize-centred’ poverty trap—making it difficult for a majority of farmers to invest meaningfully in SLM practices. Third, increasing pressure on land from population growth has failed to stimulate better land management practices and efficient resource use in agriculture possibly because the community attempts to make for the shortfall from off-farm activities or by accessing the almost free forest resources where available in the district. Lastly, the low collaboration level among key stakeholders involved in promotion of various components of SLM practices indicates a thin spread of efforts on the ground and unexpectedly delays an accelerated technological transition process. Therefore, I recommend a paradigm shift to embrace a broader, integrated and multi-stakeholder approach to solving the problem of land degradation in the study area and other similar agro-ecosystems in SSA; an approach that equally promotes improved farm productivity and creates off-farm income opportunities.

This thesis is about peasant and indigenous struggles for water rights in the Ecuadorian Highlands. It is based on the following main research question: How have peasant and indigenous communities developed multi-scalar political agency in water governance to gain and maintain their water access and related rights in the Ecuadorian Highlands since the 1980s? To answer this question, this thesis analyses the histories and relationships between organized water users, water reforms and non-governmental development organisations (NGOs) active in the Ecuadorian irrigation sector. Through state reforms, and processes of coproduction between NGOs and local peasant and indigenous communities, water user associations were created in many supra-community irrigation systems. Once created, these organisations formed the basis for the development of provincial and national federations and policy advocacy networks and platforms that now form the building blocks of the Ecuadorian water users movement. Dit proefschrift gaat over de strijd om water en waterrechten van kleine boeren en inheemse gemeenschappen in de Ecuadoraanse hooglanden. De volgende onderzoeksvraag staat hierin centraal: hoe hebben gemeenschappen van kleine boeren en de inheemse bevolking in de Ecuadoraanse hooglanden hun politieke macht voor het verkrijgen en behouden van toegang tot water en bijbehorende rechten sinds de jaren 1980 ontwikkeld op verschillende bestuurlijke niveaus? Om deze vraag te beantwoorden heb ik de geschiedenis van - en de relatie tussen - georganiseerde watergebruikers, hervormingen in de watersector en niet-gouvernementele organisaties (NGO’s) werkzaam in dit veld geanalyseerd. Als gevolg van, en in reactie op overheidshervormingen en door samenwerkingen tussen NGO’s en watergebruikers, werden er in veel irrigatiesystemen watergebruikersorganisaties opgezet, zowel in autonome als in door de overheid beheerde systemen. Deze organisaties vormen de basis voor de ontwikkeling van provinciale en nationale federaties, belangenbehartigingsorganisaties en platforms waaruit de watergebruikersbeweging van Ecuador is ontstaan.

Soil erosion is a serious problem in the densely populated Uganda highlands and previous interventions were ineffective. This study, on the Ngenge watershed, Mount Elgon, was aimed at developing policy for the implementation of a new strategy for solving the problem, Integrated Watershed Management (IWM). For policy development, a user-friendly method for assessing erosion risk - using rainfall, slope and NDVI - enabled identifying priority areas for interventions, and a stakeholder analysis enabled identifying key stakeholders who participated in multilevel workshops for deliberating on appropriate interventions. In these workshops social learning was stimulated through constructing scenarios and developing action and work plans which are to inform policy. There was general satisfaction with the workshop processes and the participation of the stakeholders. However, considering IWM as a policy strategy, it was realized that it cannot be ‘rolled out’ but needs to be geared to specific biophysical and social context factors.

Soil erosion is a serious problem in the densely populated Uganda highlands and previous interventions were ineffective. This study, on the Ngenge watershed, Mount Elgon, was aimed at developing policy for the implementation of a new strategy for solving the problem, Integrated Watershed Management (IWM). For policy development, a user-friendly method for assessing erosion risk - using rainfall, slope and NDVI - enabled identifying priority areas for interventions, and a stakeholder analysis enabled identifying key stakeholders who participated in multilevel workshops for deliberating on appropriate interventions. In these workshops social learning was stimulated through constructing scenarios and developing action and work plans which are to inform policy. There was general satisfaction with the workshop processes and the participation of the stakeholders. However, considering IWM as a policy strategy, it was realized that it cannot be ‘rolled out’ but needs to be geared to specific biophysical and social context factors.

Land degradation in the form of soil erosion and nutrient loss is a major constraint to farming activities and agricultural development in the highlands of Ethiopia. Though large-scale conservation projects have been initiated and carried out by the government during the past few decades, the conservation measures introduced have not been sustained by most farmers and land degradation continued to be a problem. The main objective of this research was to examine soil and water conservation practices in the Beressa watershed of the Ethiopian central highlands and identify the constraints and opportunities for a better conservation intervention. The analysis was carried out in view of the history of land use dynamics, farming and livelihood changes, past conservation activities, and policy regime changes.Chapter 2: Long-term dynamics in land resource use and the driving forcesThe dynamics in land resources use between 1957 and 2000 was analysed. It was revealed that the watershed area underwent through substantial land use changes during the 43-year period. The most important changes were destruction of the natural vegetation cover, increased plantations, and expansion of grazing land. Cropland, which comprised of the largest proportion of the watershed area, increased slightly despite a quadrupling in the density of human population. The land use changes were driven by a combination of several factors; demographic pressure, soil degradation and water scarcity, introduction of cattle breeding program, and policy (land, economic) regime changes. It was indicated that farmers tended to change gradually from sole dependence on annual cropping to tree planting and livestock production to cope with the problems of soil degradation and smaller farm size. Functioning rural markets stimulated farmers to participate in tree planting and selling dung-cakes. Apparently, little attention has been paid to investments in SWC and local soil fertility amendments to combat degradation problems. It was concluded that increased erosion and related nutrient losses due to limited conservation investments as well as the removal of potentially available soil nutrients through the sale of manure are real threats to the future of agriculture in the area.Chapter 3: The dung-cakes threaten agricultural developmentThe extent of farmers' involvement in making and selling dung-cakes and the implications on agricultural activities in general and soil fertility management in particular was investigated. Estimates of the amount of dung-cakes households sell annually and the loss of soil nutrients was analysed. Data were obtained by employing a combination of methods that include socio-economic survey, soil sample analysis, market survey, discussions with the local farmers and literature review. It was shown that farmers in the downstream part of the watershed area were more involved in dung-cake selling. Most farmers process about 90% of their cattle manure into the dung-cakes. It was revealed that 40% of the household income was obtained from the sale of the dung-cakes in the market in Debre Birhan town. On average a farm household exports about 43.5 kg N, 9.0 kg P, and 41.4 kg K y -1 through the sale of the dung-cakes. While there is increased demand for chemical fertilizers by the farmers, actual utilization is constrained by high and increasing market prices, lack of credit services and risks associated with rainfall failure. It was concluded that poverty, market access, and soil degradation were the most important factors influencing farmers' participation in selling dung-cakes.Chapter 4: Farmers' knowledge and practicesA survey was conducted to explore farmers' perception of erosion problems and soil fertility changes as well as their conservation knowledge and practices in the watershed area. The results showed 72% of the 147 interviewed farmers recognized erosion problems. But most of the farmers associated severity of erosion problems with the appearance of visual evidence (rills and gullies) only. It was indicated that the majority of the farmers believe erosion could be stopped, and they applied a range of practices for erosion control and fertility improvement; stone terraces/bunds, waterways, drainage ditches, and contour ploughing. It was found that farmers have been changing and adapting the measures to fit local requirements. Apart from erosion control, the farmers also applied various practices for soil fertility maintenance which include crop rotation and animal manure.Though farmers were aware of the multiple benefits of organic matter for fertility improvement, intensity of manure application was largely limited by the use for fuel and sale as well as distant farm locations that impose labour constraints. Farmers tend to accept and use conservation practices that offer them short-term benefits instead of technologies that require long-term investments. It was concluded that conservation interventions should consider farmers' knowledge and practices in the design of conservation technologies.Chapter 5: Determinants of adoption and continued use of stone terracesIn this section, the determinants of sustained adoption of introduced stone terraces that have been widely promoted in past conservation interventions were analysed. A sequential decision-making model using the bivariate probit approach was employed to identify the factors influencing farmers' adoption decision and continued investments. The results revealed that adoption was influenced by farmers' age, farm size, perception of the technology's profitability, slope, livestock number, and soil fertility, while the decision to continue using the practice is influenced by actual technology profitability, slope, soil fertility, family size, farm size and participation in off-farm work. The results indicated the importance of household/farm and plot level factors in farmers' conservation decision. It was concluded that:analysis of the determinants of adoption per se may not provide a full understanding of the range of factors influencing farmers' decision of continued investmentsconservation interventions should not focus only on the biophysical performance of the measures but also on economic benefits that can be obtained to the farmers in the short runa 'blanket approach' to conservation intervention could make the measures inappropriate to local circumstances and eventually unacceptable by the farmersChapter 6: Participatory evaluation of soil and water conservation practicesA farmer participatory evaluation of currently used SWC practices was carried out. The Regime method in multicriteria analysis was employed to identify the best measures on the different categories of cultivated land based on farmers' evaluation criteria and rankings. It was revealed that farmers consider a range of criteria in choosing the conservation measures. Most of these criteria account for the costs and the benefits relating to the use of the conservation practices. The results indicated stone terraces the best measures on the steep slopes, followed by the waterways. On the medium slopes, soil bunds were considered best measures followed by contour ploughing. And on the gentle slopes where drainage problems were more serious than soil loss, drainage ditches were found to be the best measures. The results further underlined the relevance of farmers' knowledge and experience in the development of appropriate conservation technologies.Chapter 7: Creating enabling conditions for soil and water conservationA framework for better conservation intervention in the watershed area and other areas of the highlands with comparable situations was developed. The framework comprised of a set of enabling conditions that should be considered at three levels of decision-making, viz. local/household, village/community, and national/regional levels. Participatory technology development and farmers' participation in local level conservation activities were indicated most important. At the village/community level, the interaction between the farmers and extension workers should be improved. In addition, monitoring and evaluation of conservation activities, together with the farmers, was indicated necessary for checking the progress of interventions. It was also noted that national/regional level decisions should support and encourage local level actions by the farmers. Policies related to demographic pressure, security of land tenure, and efficient market and credit services require serious attention.

Land degradation in the form of soil erosion and nutrient loss is a major constraint to farming activities and agricultural development in the highlands of Ethiopia. Though large-scale conservation projects have been initiated and carried out by the government during the past few decades, the conservation measures introduced have not been sustained by most farmers and land degradation continued to be a problem. The main objective of this research was to examine soil and water conservation practices in the Beressa watershed of the Ethiopian central highlands and identify the constraints and opportunities for a better conservation intervention. The analysis was carried out in view of the history of land use dynamics, farming and livelihood changes, past conservation activities, and policy regime changes.Chapter 2: Long-term dynamics in land resource use and the driving forcesThe dynamics in land resources use between 1957 and 2000 was analysed. It was revealed that the watershed area underwent through substantial land use changes during the 43-year period. The most important changes were destruction of the natural vegetation cover, increased plantations, and expansion of grazing land. Cropland, which comprised of the largest proportion of the watershed area, increased slightly despite a quadrupling in the density of human population. The land use changes were driven by a combination of several factors; demographic pressure, soil degradation and water scarcity, introduction of cattle breeding program, and policy (land, economic) regime changes. It was indicated that farmers tended to change gradually from sole dependence on annual cropping to tree planting and livestock production to cope with the problems of soil degradation and smaller farm size. Functioning rural markets stimulated farmers to participate in tree planting and selling dung-cakes. Apparently, little attention has been paid to investments in SWC and local soil fertility amendments to combat degradation problems. It was concluded that increased erosion and related nutrient losses due to limited conservation investments as well as the removal of potentially available soil nutrients through the sale of manure are real threats to the future of agriculture in the area.Chapter 3: The dung-cakes threaten agricultural developmentThe extent of farmers' involvement in making and selling dung-cakes and the implications on agricultural activities in general and soil fertility management in particular was investigated. Estimates of the amount of dung-cakes households sell annually and the loss of soil nutrients was analysed. Data were obtained by employing a combination of methods that include socio-economic survey, soil sample analysis, market survey, discussions with the local farmers and literature review. It was shown that farmers in the downstream part of the watershed area were more involved in dung-cake selling. Most farmers process about 90% of their cattle manure into the dung-cakes. It was revealed that 40% of the household income was obtained from the sale of the dung-cakes in the market in Debre Birhan town. On average a farm household exports about 43.5 kg N, 9.0 kg P, and 41.4 kg K y -1 through the sale of the dung-cakes. While there is increased demand for chemical fertilizers by the farmers, actual utilization is constrained by high and increasing market prices, lack of credit services and risks associated with rainfall failure. It was concluded that poverty, market access, and soil degradation were the most important factors influencing farmers' participation in selling dung-cakes.Chapter 4: Farmers' knowledge and practicesA survey was conducted to explore farmers' perception of erosion problems and soil fertility changes as well as their conservation knowledge and practices in the watershed area. The results showed 72% of the 147 interviewed farmers recognized erosion problems. But most of the farmers associated severity of erosion problems with the appearance of visual evidence (rills and gullies) only. It was indicated that the majority of the farmers believe erosion could be stopped, and they applied a range of practices for erosion control and fertility improvement; stone terraces/bunds, waterways, drainage ditches, and contour ploughing. It was found that farmers have been changing and adapting the measures to fit local requirements. Apart from erosion control, the farmers also applied various practices for soil fertility maintenance which include crop rotation and animal manure.Though farmers were aware of the multiple benefits of organic matter for fertility improvement, intensity of manure application was largely limited by the use for fuel and sale as well as distant farm locations that impose labour constraints. Farmers tend to accept and use conservation practices that offer them short-term benefits instead of technologies that require long-term investments. It was concluded that conservation interventions should consider farmers' knowledge and practices in the design of conservation technologies.Chapter 5: Determinants of adoption and continued use of stone terracesIn this section, the determinants of sustained adoption of introduced stone terraces that have been widely promoted in past conservation interventions were analysed. A sequential decision-making model using the bivariate probit approach was employed to identify the factors influencing farmers' adoption decision and continued investments. The results revealed that adoption was influenced by farmers' age, farm size, perception of the technology's profitability, slope, livestock number, and soil fertility, while the decision to continue using the practice is influenced by actual technology profitability, slope, soil fertility, family size, farm size and participation in off-farm work. The results indicated the importance of household/farm and plot level factors in farmers' conservation decision. It was concluded that:analysis of the determinants of adoption per se may not provide a full understanding of the range of factors influencing farmers' decision of continued investmentsconservation interventions should not focus only on the biophysical performance of the measures but also on economic benefits that can be obtained to the farmers in the short runa 'blanket approach' to conservation intervention could make the measures inappropriate to local circumstances and eventually unacceptable by the farmersChapter 6: Participatory evaluation of soil and water conservation practicesA farmer participatory evaluation of currently used SWC practices was carried out. The Regime method in multicriteria analysis was employed to identify the best measures on the different categories of cultivated land based on farmers' evaluation criteria and rankings. It was revealed that farmers consider a range of criteria in choosing the conservation measures. Most of these criteria account for the costs and the benefits relating to the use of the conservation practices. The results indicated stone terraces the best measures on the steep slopes, followed by the waterways. On the medium slopes, soil bunds were considered best measures followed by contour ploughing. And on the gentle slopes where drainage problems were more serious than soil loss, drainage ditches were found to be the best measures. The results further underlined the relevance of farmers' knowledge and experience in the development of appropriate conservation technologies.Chapter 7: Creating enabling conditions for soil and water conservationA framework for better conservation intervention in the watershed area and other areas of the highlands with comparable situations was developed. The framework comprised of a set of enabling conditions that should be considered at three levels of decision-making, viz. local/household, village/community, and national/regional levels. Participatory technology development and farmers' participation in local level conservation activities were indicated most important. At the village/community level, the interaction between the farmers and extension workers should be improved. In addition, monitoring and evaluation of conservation activities, together with the farmers, was indicated necessary for checking the progress of interventions. It was also noted that national/regional level decisions should support and encourage local level actions by the farmers. Policies related to demographic pressure, security of land tenure, and efficient market and credit services require serious attention.

Resource degradation is a critical problem in the highlands of Ethiopia. With agricultural productivity lingering behind population growth the gap between the availability and the demand for agricultural land continues to grow. This results in severe land-use conflicts. Thus, high potential and more resilient soils need intensification to sustain human needs. This thesis discusses the opportunities of a short rotation (3 years) eucalyptus based agroforestry system to intensify annual sole cropping on the highland Vertisols. This soil type represents a major production resource in this agroecosystem but is vastly underutilized due to severe waterlogging. A typical Vertisols-Nitosolstoposequence in Ginchi watershed in the central highlands of Ethiopia was selected for this study. The productive and protective functions, alternative resource utilization, the farm economics and the allelopathic potential of anEucalyptus globulusagroforestry system were investigated. The proposed agroforestry system increases land productivity, cuts down soil erosion rates to tolerable limits, reduces runoff, and increase the proportion of available water for biomass production without inducing significant nutrient depletion. Eucalyptus trees capture part of the runoff and soil which otherwise get lost for agricultural crops. This justifies their integration into sole cropping systems thereby compensating for the extra resource required for their growth. Therefore, the farmers' choice to plant Eucalyptus species on seasonally waterlogged highland Vertisols must be acknowledged by policy makersIt is unthinkable to get other species, be it indigenous or exotic that can substitute Eucalyptus in a full range of benefits it provides on highland VertisolsA presumed allelopathic effect of eucalyptus has little ecological relevance and the role of Eucalyptus is far reaching when it is evaluated in its potential contribution to the substitution of dung. Under appropriate management practices dung is a renewable and sustainable soil improvement resource because of its role in the maintenance of soil physical and chemical properties. Eucalypt boundary plantings are also economically viable and wood and wood products from eucalypt boundaries help to reduce pressure on endogenous forests and biodiversity, which has global environmental implications

Smallholder dairy farmers in the Kenya highlands generally intensify their farming systems by integrating dairy with crop production and shifting from free-grazing to semi-zero- or zero-grazing. They consequently change the breed composition, size and structure of their herds with resultant change in herd demographic rates. The intensification of smallholder dairying has underpinned changes in the farming systems to sustain more intensive land use and support more people per unit area of land in smallholder households. However, the concern is whether smallholders will continue to benefit from dairying through continued intensification when facing the pressures of continuously shrinking landholdings, worsening soil fertility and reduced access to formerly public delivered livestock input and output services, while imported nutrients remain relatively low and non-agricultural job opportunities remain lacking. The objective of this study was therefore to quantify the consequences of the intensification of farming systems in the Kenya highlands on the dynamics of smallholder dairy herds in order to better understand the constraints to, and opportunities for, the continued intensification of smallholder dairying. Data collection was through a random stratified cross-sectional survey of smallholder households. Data from the cross-sectional survey sample were complemented with additional information from longitudinal and targeted semi-structured interviews, which involved a randomly selected sub-sample of the previous cross-sectional survey. The drivers of intensification of smallholder dairying were identified and the relative changes were quantified at the level of the farms and farming systems. Intensification requires increased use of external resources including sources of replacement animals, feed resources, animal health and breeding services and credit to sustain the herd population and production. Prospects for maintaining and expanding smallholder dairying in the Kenya highlands depend upon the proportion of free-grazing farms maintained within the farming systems, because these supply semi-zero- and zero-grazing farms with dairy replacements. The rationale underlying smallholders' breeding decisions is based on multiple objectives of more milk, adaptability to local feed conditions and diseases and the provision of non-marketed production such as manure, insurance and financing roles of cattle. Feeding interventions to support continued intensification of smallholder dairying must be within the context of the household's economy, which is characterised by limited cash flow and low risk bearing capacity. Smallholders need affordable working capital to sustain intensification with use of external resources. Solutions to constraints of intensification must concurrently involve both technical and institutional innovations that may encourage greater complementarities and stratification in the dairy sub-sector.

Smallholder dairy farmers in the Kenya highlands generally intensify their farming systems by integrating dairy with crop production and shifting from free-grazing to semi-zero- or zero-grazing. They consequently change the breed composition, size and structure of their herds with resultant change in herd demographic rates. The intensification of smallholder dairying has underpinned changes in the farming systems to sustain more intensive land use and support more people per unit area of land in smallholder households. However, the concern is whether smallholders will continue to benefit from dairying through continued intensification when facing the pressures of continuously shrinking landholdings, worsening soil fertility and reduced access to formerly public delivered livestock input and output services, while imported nutrients remain relatively low and non-agricultural job opportunities remain lacking. The objective of this study was therefore to quantify the consequences of the intensification of farming systems in the Kenya highlands on the dynamics of smallholder dairy herds in order to better understand the constraints to, and opportunities for, the continued intensification of smallholder dairying. Data collection was through a random stratified cross-sectional survey of smallholder households. Data from the cross-sectional survey sample were complemented with additional information from longitudinal and targeted semi-structured interviews, which involved a randomly selected sub-sample of the previous cross-sectional survey. The drivers of intensification of smallholder dairying were identified and the relative changes were quantified at the level of the farms and farming systems. Intensification requires increased use of external resources including sources of replacement animals, feed resources, animal health and breeding services and credit to sustain the herd population and production. Prospects for maintaining and expanding smallholder dairying in the Kenya highlands depend upon the proportion of free-grazing farms maintained within the farming systems, because these supply semi-zero- and zero-grazing farms with dairy replacements. The rationale underlying smallholders' breeding decisions is based on multiple objectives of more milk, adaptability to local feed conditions and diseases and the provision of non-marketed production such as manure, insurance and financing roles of cattle. Feeding interventions to support continued intensification of smallholder dairying must be within the context of the household's economy, which is characterised by limited cash flow and low risk bearing capacity. Smallholders need affordable working capital to sustain intensification with use of external resources. Solutions to constraints of intensification must concurrently involve both technical and institutional innovations that may encourage greater complementarities and stratification in the dairy sub-sector.

Resource degradation is a critical problem in highland Ethiopia. Past soil and water conservation efforts did not bring about significant results. Hence, there is an urgent need to tackle the problem through new conservation approaches and technologies. This thesis discusses the need for and possibilities of implementing integrated watershed management (IWM) approach. A typical highland watershed (the Chemoga watershed) was selected for the research, and multifaceted investigations were conducted on the extent, rate and processes of resource degradation and the existing resource-use and management practices. The results reveal that there are interlinked problems of resource degradation: expansion of croplands at the expense of natural vegetative covers, a high rate of soil erosion, adverse changes in some soil properties and depletion of the water resource. A strong physical interdependence was observed between upstream and downstream land uses both at the watershed and subwatershed scales. These facts suggest that IWM approach is the appropriate option for resource conservation in the Chemoga watershed in particular and highland Ethiopia in general. Effective implementation of the IWM approach will require: microwatershed-level planning and pursuing of farmer participatory processes, building upon indigenous knowledge systems and addressing of farmers priorities, ensuring of land tenure security, implementation of targeted and effective incentive systems and providing of client-oriented extension service.

Resource degradation is a critical problem in highland Ethiopia. Past soil and water conservation efforts did not bring about significant results. Hence, there is an urgent need to tackle the problem through new conservation approaches and technologies. This thesis discusses the need for and possibilities of implementing integrated watershed management (IWM) approach. A typical highland watershed (the Chemoga watershed) was selected for the research, and multifaceted investigations were conducted on the extent, rate and processes of resource degradation and the existing resource-use and management practices. The results reveal that there are interlinked problems of resource degradation: expansion of croplands at the expense of natural vegetative covers, a high rate of soil erosion, adverse changes in some soil properties and depletion of the water resource. A strong physical interdependence was observed between upstream and downstream land uses both at the watershed and subwatershed scales. These facts suggest that IWM approach is the appropriate option for resource conservation in the Chemoga watershed in particular and highland Ethiopia in general. Effective implementation of the IWM approach will require: microwatershed-level planning and pursuing of farmer participatory processes, building upon indigenous knowledge systems and addressing of farmers priorities, ensuring of land tenure security, implementation of targeted and effective incentive systems and providing of client-oriented extension service.

The overall goal of the EROAHI Project is to improve the Catchment Approach, a methodology for participatory soil conservation planning currently applied in the East African Highlands Eco-region. Anticipated improvements are: semi-quantification of soil and productivity loss using farmers’ knowledge, simple ex ante economic cost-benefit analysis of proposed scenarios and moving up the SWC planning from farm level to catchment scale. The project goal is to be achieved by realising the following objectives (EROAHI Management Document 1, 2000): To develop field-scale indicators of erosion and sedimentation based on indigenous knowledge of soil and vegetation characteristics; 1. To attach quantitative values of erosion, sedimentation and/or productivity to the developed indicators, based on field scale measurements; 2. To quantify erosion, sedimentation and soil productivity at catchment scale using the developed indicators and compare the estimates with a detailed model study to develop simple 'rules of thumb' for erosion assessment; 3. To develop a methodology for economic impact assessment of planned soil and water conservation measures at farm level; 4. To further develop a specific methodology for catchment scale soil and water conservation planning in the East African Highlands using a participatory approach.

The overall goal of the EROAHI Project is to improve the Catchment Approach, a methodology for participatory soil conservation planning currently applied in the East African Highlands Eco-region. Anticipated improvements are: semi-quantification of soil and productivity loss using farmers’ knowledge, simple ex ante economic cost-benefit analysis of proposed scenarios and moving up the SWC planning from farm level to catchment scale. The project goal is to be achieved by realising the following objectives (EROAHI Management Document 1, 2000): To develop field-scale indicators of erosion and sedimentation based on indigenous knowledge of soil and vegetation characteristics; 1. To attach quantitative values of erosion, sedimentation and/or productivity to the developed indicators, based on field scale measurements; 2. To quantify erosion, sedimentation and soil productivity at catchment scale using the developed indicators and compare the estimates with a detailed model study to develop simple 'rules of thumb' for erosion assessment; 3. To develop a methodology for economic impact assessment of planned soil and water conservation measures at farm level; 4. To further develop a specific methodology for catchment scale soil and water conservation planning in the East African Highlands using a participatory approach.