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Compares games as one of the most interesting phenomena related to the computerization are the subject of many foreign and domestic psychological researches. The article presents the characteristics of the following international study destinations of computer (video) games: firstly, the scope of use of computer games in education, secondly, study computer’s game influence of the cognitive domain of children, as well as formation of different skills. Such studies, however, do not consider computer games as an object, and stop only at specific areas of attention or perception. We discussed the question about common conceptual and methodological basis for the construction of research, which will classify and interpret the private research in this area. It lists the various (both positive and negative) effects on the influence of computer games on the mental development of the player, their significant developmental and educational potential.

In social settings, people often need to reason about unobservable mental content of other people, such as their beliefs, goals, or intentions. This ability helps them to understand, to predict, and even to influence the behavior of others. People can take this ability further by applying it recursively. For example, they use second-order theory of mind to reason about the way others use theory of mind, as in ‘Alice believes that Bob does not know about the surprise party’. However, empirical evidence so far suggests that people do not spontaneously use higher-order theory of mind in strategic games. Previous agent-based modeling simulations also suggest that the ability to recursively apply theory of mind may be especially effective in competitive settings. In this paper, we use a combination of computational agents and Bayesian model selection to determine to what extent people make use of higherorder theory of mind reasoning in a particular competitive game, the Mod game, which can be seen as a much larger variant of the well-known rock-paper-scissors game. We let participants play the competitive Mod game against computational theory of mind agents. We find that people adapt their level of theory of mind to that of their software opponent. Surprisingly, knowingly playing against second- and third-order theory of mind agents entices human participants to apply up to fourth-order theory of mind themselves, thereby improving their results in the Mod game. This phenomenon contrasts with earlier experiments about other strategic oneshot and sequential games, in which human players only displayed lower orders of theory of mind.

In social settings, people often need to reason about unobservable mental content of other people, such as their beliefs, goals, or intentions. This ability helps them to understand, to predict, and even to influence the behavior of others. People can take this ability further by applying it recursively. For example, they use second-order theory of mind to reason about the way others use theory of mind, as in ‘Alice believes that Bob does not know about the surprise party’. However, empirical evidence so far suggests that people do not spontaneously use higher-order theory of mind in strategic games. Previous agent-based modeling simulations also suggest that the ability to recursively apply theory of mind may be especially effective in competitive settings. In this paper, we use a combination of computational agents and Bayesian model selection to determine to what extent people make use of higherorder theory of mind reasoning in a particular competitive game, the Mod game, which can be seen as a much larger variant of the well-known rock-paper-scissors game. We let participants play the competitive Mod game against computational theory of mind agents. We find that people adapt their level of theory of mind to that of their software opponent. Surprisingly, knowingly playing against second- and third-order theory of mind agents entices human participants to apply up to fourth-order theory of mind themselves, thereby improving their results in the Mod game. This phenomenon contrasts with earlier experiments about other strategic oneshot and sequential games, in which human players only displayed lower orders of theory of mind.

Part of the Let's make research great again series of the Professorship of User-Centered Design

Gamification heeft de afgelopen jaren een flinke opmars gemaakt in het onderwijs en in het bedrijfsleven. Een bekend voorbeeld waar gamification wordt toegepast is de app Duolingo. Met deze app worden gebruikers gemotiveerd om taaloefeningen te maken door gedrag te belonen met punten. Maar er is ook kritiek: veel toepassingen missen hun uitwerking, vooral door slecht ontwerp. De vraag is nu hoe we, voorbij de hype, handig gebruik kunnen maken van inzichten uit game design om gedragsverandering te bereiken.In deze middag neemt Eelco Braad MSc ons mee in de zin en onzin van gamification. Eelco is Senior Researcher bij het lectoraat User-Centered Design van de Hanzehogeschool Groningen en heeft ruime ervaring, in bedrijfsleven en onderwijs, met het ontwerpen, ontwikkelen en onderzoeken van toegepaste games. Met uitleg maar ook veel uitproberen en ervaren krijg je een indruk van wanneer en op welke manier gamification kan werken.

What makes an educational game good? This paper describes three research directions that could provide insight in the underlying principles of effective educational games. These aspects are 1) The importance of distinguishing between types of to-be-learned knowledge, 2) the need to understand the relationship between game mechanics and learning goals, and 3) using research on intelligent tutoring systems to create more personalized learning experiences. Central in these directions is the concept of cognition and how it impacts the educational effectiveness of an educational game. This paper will give a short introduction on cognition and discuss why the research directions require further research.

What makes an educational game good? This paper describes three research directions that could provide insight in the underlying principles of effective educational games. These aspects are 1) The importance of distinguishing between types of to-be-learned knowledge, 2) the need to understand the relationship between game mechanics and learning goals, and 3) using research on intelligent tutoring systems to create more personalized learning experiences. Central in these directions is the concept of cognition and how it impacts the educational effectiveness of an educational game. This paper will give a short introduction on cognition and discuss why the research directions require further research.

An important step in the design of an effective educational game is the formulation of the to-be-achieved learning goals. The learning goals help shape the content and the flow of the entire game, i.e. they provide the basis for choosing the game’s core (learning) mechanics. A mistake in the formulation of the learning goals or the resulting choice in game mechanics can have large consequences, as the game may not lead to the intended effects. At the moment, there are many different methods for determining the learning goals; they may be derived by a domain expert, based on large collections of real-life data, or, alternatively, not be based on anything in particular. Methods for determining the right game mechanics range from rigid taxonomies, loose brainstorming sessions, to, again, not any method in particular. We believe that for the field of educational game design to mature, there is a need for a more uniform approach to establishing the learning goals and translating them into relevant and effective game activities. This paper explores two existing, non-game design specific, methods to help determine learning goals and the subsequent core mechanics: the first is through a Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA), which can be used to analyse and formalize the problem and the knowledge, skills, attitudes that it is comprised of, and the second is through the Four Components Instructional Design (4C-ID), which can be used to determine how the task should be integrated into an educational learning environment. Our goal is to see whether these two methods provide the uniform approach we need. This paper gives an overview of our experiences with these methods and provides guidelines for other researchers on how these methods could be used in the educational game design process.

An important step in the design of an effective educational game is the formulation of the to-be-achieved learning goals. The learning goals help shape the content and the flow of the entire game, i.e. they provide the basis for choosing the game’s core (learning) mechanics. A mistake in the formulation of the learning goals or the resulting choice in game mechanics can have large consequences, as the game may not lead to the intended effects. At the moment, there are many different methods for determining the learning goals; they may be derived by a domain expert, based on large collections of real-life data, or, alternatively, not be based on anything in particular. Methods for determining the right game mechanics range from rigid taxonomies, loose brainstorming sessions, to, again, not any method in particular. We believe that for the field of educational game design to mature, there is a need for a more uniform approach to establishing the learning goals and translating them into relevant and effective game activities. This paper explores two existing, non-game design specific, methods to help determine learning goals and the subsequent core mechanics: the first is through a Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA), which can be used to analyse and formalize the problem and the knowledge, skills, attitudes that it is comprised of, and the second is through the Four Components Instructional Design (4C-ID), which can be used to determine how the task should be integrated into an educational learning environment. Our goal is to see whether these two methods provide the uniform approach we need. This paper gives an overview of our experiences with these methods and provides guidelines for other researchers on how these methods could be used in the educational game design process.

The article describes the different players in the Norwegian game industry, and discusses the challenges and possibilities that they face. In particular, it is argued that challenges relate to publishing, financial issues and recruitment, and that there are interesting possibilities in connection with the recent political attention that Norwegian game companies have received. An issue in addition is the fact that Norwegian game companies have never been closely associated with international publishing houses.

The goal: develop a serious game that aims to change behaviour.The setup:multi-cultural and multi-disciplinary teamscombined expertise from various broad backgroundsdesign and develop a game for an international environmentThe context:international assignment from international clienttargeted at developing countries20 weeks production timevirtual collaboration

Educational game design: integrating learning and playing. Presentation about educational game design models and approaches at the Dagstuhl Seminar on Serious Games.

Educatieve games: leermiddel of lapmiddel? In sommige wetenschappelijke studies worden succesvolle resultaten gerapporteerd over het effect van educatieve games. Andere studies geven, in vergelijking met traditionelere methoden, geen of zelfs een negatief resultaat.

The role of “mechanics” in the serious game design process. Presentation held during the Sino-Dutch conference, March 2015. In the last few years, there have been many developments in the design and application of serious games, particularly in the field of ‘games for health’. This is possible due to the emergence of new technologies that enable us to better connect with users, for instance through continuous online availability, or to use games for new application areas, through for instance the Kinect and the Oculus Rift. While it is good to see that these games are being used more than ever, there are still many uncertainties with regard to their effectiveness. This uncertainty is also voiced by the scientific community, as there is no consensus yet about whether games are more effective than traditional materials. This may be due to our perception of games as a black box instead of a rather intricate and interconnected set of mechanics; each mechanic will have an impact on the intended outcome. An important question thus lies with understanding exactly how (and why) these games work. In this keynote, we will look at the different goals and applications of games for health and their implications on the design of these games. We will do so by looking at three major aspects of a serious game: the intended goal of the game (educational or persuasive learning goals), the way that goal is achieved through the game (the game mechanics) and the target audience (users).

For over thirty years, there has been a discussion about the effectiveness of educational games in comparison to traditional learning materials. To help further this discussion, we aim to understand ‘how educational games work’ by formalising (and visualising) the educational and motivational aspects of such games. We present a model that focuses on the relationship between three different aspects: user properties, game mechanics, and learning objectives. In two example cases, we have demonstrated how the model can be used to analyse existing games and their game/instructional design, and suggest possible improvements in both motivational and educational aspects based on the model. As such, we introduce a novel approach to analysing educational games and, by inference, a novel design process for designing more effective educational games.

In September 2010, Hanze University of Applied Sciences in Groningen (the Netherlands) started a 20-week international program titled GameOn! The object of this program is for students to develop serious games, that aim to help the youth become aware of social and/or health related issues. Since the start of GameOn! students have worked on a number of different projects, all related to education through the use of interactive media. Topics were malaria, hiv/aids and personal hygiene. In all these projects, specific knowledge about the target region, domain knowledge of the subject of the game, and the target group was brought in by specialists and local representatives. The lessons drawn, in development and production, from these projects are: 1. The importance of an agile game development method that allows for regular testing, feedback moments and changes. 2. The importance of a user/player centred design and the context of playful experiences. 3. Cultural awareness in game design and development: consider and adapt to the values and beliefs of the target audience. 4. Collaboration and co-creation with local representatives in game development adds to game acceptance. 5. A very positive attitude towards the use of computers in education in the targeted areas. Addressing and incorporating these aspects into projects may contribute in more effective and adequate (social) health games or, in a broader sense, more effective interactive media applications aimed at facilitating educational learning.

Games zijn bedoeld voor vermaak, maar we kunnen ze ook opvatten als een vorm van cultuur. Ze vertellen iets over de samenleving waarin ze zijn gemaakt: al dan niet met opzet komen er via de verbeelding van de makers opvattingen over de samenleving in games terecht. Games zetten op hun beurt aan tot verbeelding, waardoor gamers zich mogelijk gestimuleerd voelen na te denken over die samenleving. Toch is het aannemelijk dat gamers daar weinig voor voelen, omdat dit een plezierige ervaring in de weg kan staan. Maar gamers blijken wel degelijk geneigd tot reflectie op de wereld om ons heen, over het leven, over goed en kwaad. Ruim driekwart van de gamers uit dit onderzoek zegt dat wel eens te doen. Tegen de verwachting is daarbij geen verschil te zien tussen reguliere gamers en professionals, zoals reviewers en game designers. Verondersteld werd dat die laatstgenoemden zich beroepsmatig vaker aangezet voelen tot reflectie op de wereld om ons heen. Vaker dan verwacht blijken gamers een kunstervaring te ondergaan bij het spelen van games. In de context van deze studie wil dat zeggen dat die spelers ‘tussen de regels door’ commentaar op de spel- en verhaalgebeurtenissen hebben opgemerkt, dat hen aan het denken zette over de wereld. Daarbij was geen verschil te zien tussen mainstream games en indiegames. De verwachting dat de meeste gamers vooral de bijzondere vormgeving van games noemen als reden om ze als kunst te bestempelen is ten slotte wel bevestigd. Dit laat meteen ook het verschil zien tussen de gangbare esthetische kunstopvatting en wat ik in deze studie onder kunst versta: het ervaren van een betekenisproces dat stimuleert tot reflectie op het leven.

Exergames, as one might infer from the name, are a combination of exercise and games. As such, they stimulate players to perform certain behaviours by providing them with engaging game mechanics (Whitehead, Johnston, Nixon, & Welch, 2010). While they can be used during physiotherapeutic rehabilitation sessions, they are particularly useful to increase therapy adherence at home (Song, Peng, & Lee, 2011). In this extended abstract, we explore an approach that addresses the first problem: how can we design a game that can be mapped on a wide range of therapeutic exercises?

Games zijn bedoeld voor vermaak, maar we kunnen ze ook opvatten als een vorm van cultuur. Ze vertellen iets over de samenleving waarin ze zijn gemaakt: al dan niet met opzet komen er via de verbeelding van de makers opvattingen over de samenleving in games terecht. Games zetten op hun beurt aan tot verbeelding, waardoor gamers zich mogelijk gestimuleerd voelen na te denken over die samenleving. Toch is het aannemelijk dat gamers daar weinig voor voelen, omdat dit een plezierige ervaring in de weg kan staan. Maar gamers blijken wel degelijk geneigd tot reflectie op de wereld om ons heen, over het leven, over goed en kwaad. Ruim driekwart van de gamers uit dit onderzoek zegt dat wel eens te doen. Tegen de verwachting is daarbij geen verschil te zien tussen reguliere gamers en professionals, zoals reviewers en game designers. Verondersteld werd dat die laatstgenoemden zich beroepsmatig vaker aangezet voelen tot reflectie op de wereld om ons heen. Vaker dan verwacht blijken gamers een kunstervaring te ondergaan bij het spelen van games. In de context van deze studie wil dat zeggen dat die spelers ‘tussen de regels door’ commentaar op de spel- en verhaalgebeurtenissen hebben opgemerkt, dat hen aan het denken zette over de wereld. Daarbij was geen verschil te zien tussen mainstream games en indiegames. De verwachting dat de meeste gamers vooral de bijzondere vormgeving van games noemen als reden om ze als kunst te bestempelen is ten slotte wel bevestigd. Dit laat meteen ook het verschil zien tussen de gangbare esthetische kunstopvatting en wat ik in deze studie onder kunst versta: het ervaren van een betekenisproces dat stimuleert tot reflectie op het leven.

Exergames, as one might infer from the name, are a combination of exercise and games. As such, they stimulate players to perform certain behaviours by providing them with engaging game mechanics (Whitehead, Johnston, Nixon, & Welch, 2010). While they can be used during physiotherapeutic rehabilitation sessions, they are particularly useful to increase therapy adherence at home (Song, Peng, & Lee, 2011). In this extended abstract, we explore an approach that addresses the first problem: how can we design a game that can be mapped on a wide range of therapeutic exercises?

Presentation USE Conference 2015.

In September 2010, Hanze University of Applied Sciences in Groningen (the Netherlands) started a 20-week international program titled GameOn! The object of this program is for students to develop serious games, that aim to help the youth become aware of social and/or health related issues. Since the start of GameOn! students have worked on a number of different projects, all related to education through the use of interactive media. Topics were malaria, hiv/aids and personal hygiene. In all these projects, specific knowledge about the target region, domain knowledge of the subject of the game, and the target group was brought in by specialists and local representatives. The lessons drawn, in development and production, from these projects are: 1. The importance of an agile game development method that allows for regular testing, feedback moments and changes. 2. The importance of a user/player centred design and the context of playful experiences. 3. Cultural awareness in game design and development: consider and adapt to the values and beliefs of the target audience. 4. Collaboration and co-creation with local representatives in game development adds to game acceptance. 5. A very positive attitude towards the use of computers in education in the targeted areas. Addressing and incorporating these aspects into projects may contribute in more effective and adequate (social) health games or, in a broader sense, more effective interactive media applications aimed at facilitating educational learning.

Presentation for Intercultural Communication master students of Wageningen University about the design of educational games for teaching about cultural differences.

Presentation USE Conference 2015.

Designing games for health.A presentation for the yearly conference of movement sciences focusing on the design of games for health purposes.

Pressure at play: measuring player approach and avoidance through the keyboard.With the increased adoption of real-time objective measurements of player experience, advances have been made in characterising the dynamically changing aspects of the player experience during gameplay itself. A direct coupling to player action, however, is not without challenges. Many physiological responses, for instance, have an inherent delay, and often take some time to return to a baseline, providing challenges of interpretation when analysing rapidly changing gameplay on a micro level of interaction. The development of event-related, or phasic, measurements directly coupled to player actions provides additional insights, for instance through player modelling, but also through the use of behavioural characteristics of the human computer interaction itself. In this study, we focused on the latter, and measured keyboard pressure in a number of different, fast-paced action games. In this particular case, we related specific functional game actions (keyboard presses) to experiential player behaviour. We found keyboard pressure to be higher for avoidance as compared to approach-oriented actions. Additionally, the difference between avoidance and approach keyboard pressure related to levels of arousal. The findings illustrate the application potential of qualifying players’ functional actions at play (navigating in a game) and interpret player experience related to these actions through players’ real world behavioural characteristics like interface pressure.

Guest lecture on December 3, 2013 for an international group of students from The Hague University to illustrate design principles of a game for a specific target group (children with visual impairments).

Presentatie gehouden tijdens Games for Health Conference in Boston (USA) op 26 juni 2013.In opdracht van organisatie HelpHeal zijn educatieve computergames ontwikkeld, getest bij de doelgroep in Kenia en uiteindelijk gedistribueerd bij lokale basisscholen.

Scrum.Presentatie op Indie Gameleon Festival te Groningen, 8-11 maart 2013Of je nu indie of professional bent, bij het ontwikkelen van games groeit het idee doorgaans tijdens het ontwikkelen. Reacties van jezelf, vrienden of testgroepen leiden tot nieuwe inzichten. Traditionele, lineaire projectmethodes bieden daar weinig mogelijkheden voor. Agile methoden zoals Scrum passen hier perfect bij. In de workshop een praktische werkwijze voor indies.

Todays gaming habits between women and men depends on the age range. Both sexes are playing but how do they create a character when they have free hands? Are there any differences from a gender perspective? The main purpose is to answer the question: How does women and men create characters in the computergame The Sims? By looking at the result of four women and four mens created character and then interviewing them for profound information, we have received data to answer those questions for our study. Data has shown that the men were less personal when they created a character, used more imagination and took less time to create the character. The majority of the women created themselfs or part of themselfs and took more time on details. Dagens spelvanor mellan kvinnor och män beror på åldern. Båda könen spelar men hur skapar de karaktär när de har fria händer? Finns det skillnader ur ett genusperspektiv? Det huvudsakliga syftet är att besvara frågan: Hur skapar kvinnor och män karaktärer i spelet The Sims? Genom att titta på resultatet av fyra kvinnor och fyra mäns karaktär och sedan intervjua dem för djupgående information har vi fått data som besvarar dessa frågor för vår studie. Data har visat att männen var mindre personliga när de skapade en karaktär,använde mer fantasi och tog mindre tid att skapa karaktär. Majoriteten av kvinnorna skapade själva eller delar av sig själva och tog mer tid vid detaljer.

Todays gaming habits between women and men depends on the age range. Both sexes are playing but how do they create a character when they have free hands? Are there any differences from a gender perspective? The main purpose is to answer the question: How does women and men create characters in the computergame The Sims? By looking at the result of four women and four mens created character and then interviewing them for profound information, we have received data to answer those questions for our study. Data has shown that the men were less personal when they created a character, used more imagination and took less time to create the character. The majority of the women created themselfs or part of themselfs and took more time on details. Dagens spelvanor mellan kvinnor och män beror på åldern. Båda könen spelar men hur skapar de karaktär när de har fria händer? Finns det skillnader ur ett genusperspektiv? Det huvudsakliga syftet är att besvara frågan: Hur skapar kvinnor och män karaktärer i spelet The Sims? Genom att titta på resultatet av fyra kvinnor och fyra mäns karaktär och sedan intervjua dem för djupgående information har vi fått data som besvarar dessa frågor för vår studie. Data har visat att männen var mindre personliga när de skapade en karaktär,använde mer fantasi och tog mindre tid att skapa karaktär. Majoriteten av kvinnorna skapade själva eller delar av sig själva och tog mer tid vid detaljer.

Het voorbije decennium onderging het internationale medialandschap ingrijpende veranderingen. Terwijl televisieomroepen zich trachten te handhaven, wil de videogame-sector zijn spectaculaire groei bestendigen door zijn doelpubliek uit te breiden. In beide sectoren verdwijnen oude grenzen of worden ze minder belangrijk. Deze wijzigingen gebeuren niet enkel op sectoraal niveau, maar ook op individueel niveau. De strikte scheiding tussen vrije tijd en werktijd vervaagt door verschillende sociale ontwikkelingen, gefaciliteerd door nieuwe technologieën. Geschikte werkplaatsen zijn bijvoorbeeld toegenomen (thuis, café, trein, ...), mede door de diffusie van laptops en netwerken. Ondanks deze verschuivingen lijkt de "magische cirkel" tussen spel en werk, zoals beschreven als culturele waarde door Huizinga in het vooroorlogse Nederland, nog steeds geinternaliseerd en geinstitutionaliseerd te worden. In het IBBT-project TELEON onderzoeken we voor wie en waarom deze waarde een verklaring kan zijn om het gamen niet te omarmen als activiteit. In de eerste fase van het project werd op kwalitatieve multimethodische wijze de individuele ervaring van het crossmediale product "Emma" (VRT) onderzocht. Hierbij werden 15 participanten met verschillende sociaaleconomische achtergrondskenmerken geïnterviewd en geobserveerd in hun "Emma"-ervaringen en -gebruik, waarin zich een "whodunnit"-verhaallijn ontwikkelde die gebruikers via verschillende mediavormen zoals een televisieserie, blogs, websites en 15 online videogames konden volgen. Op een analytisch niveau is het concept van de "magische cirkel" niet langer houdbaar voor online gamen, waar traditionele beperkingen van tijd en ruimte wegvallen. Onze onderzoeksresultaten tonen echter aan dat de culturele norm van beperking, een "magische cirkel" rond gaming blijft bestaan. De meeste respondenten gaven aan de tijd dat ze videogames spelen te beperken, en de voorkeur te geven aan spellen waarbij kortere speelsessies mogelijk zijn. Verder meldde men een verrijkte gebruikerservaring door de combinatie van verschillende mediavormen. De videogames speelden hierin een essentiële rol: het interactieve karakter en narratief potentieel ervan maken grotere betrokkenheid bij het crossmediale product mogelijk.

Currently, game research is characterized by the (re)construction of contested boundaries such as the “magic circle” of the game experience. These boundaries create dichotomies, for instance, between the real and the imaginary that hide the complexity of actual play, design and research. In this thesis I propose to go “beyond the magic circle” in order to understand games and play from a network perspective. My case study is role-play in the online game World of Warcraft (Blizzard Entertainment 2004), whereby players act out the roles of their Fantasy characters. I understand Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPGs) as networks of social interaction in which players (human actors) interact both with each other and with the system (nonhuman actors). Through interaction, role-players are creating meaning and social bonds that stretch out far beyond dichotomies such as in-character and out-of-character, in-game and out of game, real and imaginary, leisure and work or education, virtual and material, online and offline. The emergence of Fantasy role-playing games, of which the pen and paper game Dungeons and Dragons (D&D, 1974) is the first and World of Warcraft (WoW, Blizzard Entertainment, 2004) is one of the latest incarnations, ties in with the development of what sociologist Manuel Castells termed the network society. Through rich empirical case studies in his trilogy The Information Age: economy, society and culture (1996, 1997 and 1998), he mapped how since the late 1960s we have been witnessing a shift from hierarchies to networks in all sectors of society. Castells’ work is part of a growing body of network theory in which our society, including science itself, is understood as a complex system shaped by processes within and between actor networks that are often powered by information and communication technologies. In order to study MMORPGs as networks, I made use of Actor Network Theory as it is formulated within science and technology studies (Callon 1986, Law 1987, Latour 1987, 2005), Thomas Gieryn's concept of boundary work (Gieryn 1983, 1999), Erving Goffman’s work on social interaction (Goffman 1956, 1974), and the concept of “situatedness,” a crucial addition that Donna Haraway made to network theory, which aims to make visible how scholars are positioned in constantly morphing network structures (Haraway 1991). This thesis contributes to 1) an understanding of online role-playing games as networks that interact with daily life, Fantasy game culture, and the broader technological and socio-cultural developments over the last thirty years; 2) a description and analysis of role-play as a specific MMORPG play style that is characterized by its negotiation principles, and thus to understand the roles, conventions, identities, and interpersonal relationships that self-proclaimed role-players negotiate in and through the systems of a commercially distributed game; and, finally, 3) an understanding of how collaborative play, design, and game research are closely intertwined. Going “beyond the magic circle” has profound implications for both epistemology and education in game research and design. A network epistemology asks for interdisciplinary academic work that combines not only scholarship from the humanities and social sciences, but also from computer sciences. Furthermore, it calls for a societal contextualization of scholarship and a connecting of fundamental and applied theorization both “inside” and “outside” academia, done by players, designers, and academics, roles that more often can be found in one person. A networked education teaches a specialization in the context of other research and design disciplines, as the ability and passion to create unexpected blends is crucial for future innovative developments in play, design, and research.

Currently, game research is characterized by the (re)construction of contested boundaries such as the “magic circle” of the game experience. These boundaries create dichotomies, for instance, between the real and the imaginary that hide the complexity of actual play, design and research. In this thesis I propose to go “beyond the magic circle” in order to understand games and play from a network perspective. My case study is role-play in the online game World of Warcraft (Blizzard Entertainment 2004), whereby players act out the roles of their Fantasy characters. I understand Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPGs) as networks of social interaction in which players (human actors) interact both with each other and with the system (nonhuman actors). Through interaction, role-players are creating meaning and social bonds that stretch out far beyond dichotomies such as in-character and out-of-character, in-game and out of game, real and imaginary, leisure and work or education, virtual and material, online and offline. The emergence of Fantasy role-playing games, of which the pen and paper game Dungeons and Dragons (D&D, 1974) is the first and World of Warcraft (WoW, Blizzard Entertainment, 2004) is one of the latest incarnations, ties in with the development of what sociologist Manuel Castells termed the network society. Through rich empirical case studies in his trilogy The Information Age: economy, society and culture (1996, 1997 and 1998), he mapped how since the late 1960s we have been witnessing a shift from hierarchies to networks in all sectors of society. Castells’ work is part of a growing body of network theory in which our society, including science itself, is understood as a complex system shaped by processes within and between actor networks that are often powered by information and communication technologies. In order to study MMORPGs as networks, I made use of Actor Network Theory as it is formulated within science and technology studies (Callon 1986, Law 1987, Latour 1987, 2005), Thomas Gieryn's concept of boundary work (Gieryn 1983, 1999), Erving Goffman’s work on social interaction (Goffman 1956, 1974), and the concept of “situatedness,” a crucial addition that Donna Haraway made to network theory, which aims to make visible how scholars are positioned in constantly morphing network structures (Haraway 1991). This thesis contributes to 1) an understanding of online role-playing games as networks that interact with daily life, Fantasy game culture, and the broader technological and socio-cultural developments over the last thirty years; 2) a description and analysis of role-play as a specific MMORPG play style that is characterized by its negotiation principles, and thus to understand the roles, conventions, identities, and interpersonal relationships that self-proclaimed role-players negotiate in and through the systems of a commercially distributed game; and, finally, 3) an understanding of how collaborative play, design, and game research are closely intertwined. Going “beyond the magic circle” has profound implications for both epistemology and education in game research and design. A network epistemology asks for interdisciplinary academic work that combines not only scholarship from the humanities and social sciences, but also from computer sciences. Furthermore, it calls for a societal contextualization of scholarship and a connecting of fundamental and applied theorization both “inside” and “outside” academia, done by players, designers, and academics, roles that more often can be found in one person. A networked education teaches a specialization in the context of other research and design disciplines, as the ability and passion to create unexpected blends is crucial for future innovative developments in play, design, and research.

Hovedformålet med denne oppgaven er å se om et ikke-proprietært online-spill er egnet i undervisningsøyemed. For å undersøke dette, ble det gjennomført forsøk med en tiendeklasse ved en ungdomsskole for elever med atferdsvansker. Spillet ble benyttet i engelskundervisningen, der elevene skulle løse småoppdrag spunnet rundt en større historie. For å løse oppdragene, måtte elevene kommunisere i sanntid med instruktører inne i spillet. De avholdte timene var vellykkede på to måter. For det første var studentene svært motiverte da de fikk muligheten til å benytte IKT generelt og et dataspill spesielt. For det andre tilbød online-spillet et miljø preget av spill, lek og trygghet. Denne atmosfæren var med på å senke elevenes terskel for å ytre seg på et fremmed språk. Ut i fra disse positive resultatene, mener vi at bruk av et slikt spill under gitte betingelser kan være hensiktsmessig i undervisningsøyemed.