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When exposed to convective thunderstorm conditions, pollen grains can rupture and release large numbers of allergenic sub-pollen particles (SPPs). These sub-pollen particles easily enter deep into human lungs, causing an asthmatic response named thunderstorm asthma (TA). Up to now, efforts to numerically predict the airborne SPP process and to forecast the occurrence of TAs are unsatisfactory. To overcome this problem, we have developed a physically-based pollen model (DREAM-POLL) with parameterized formation of airborne SPPs caused by convective atmospheric conditions. We ran the model over the Southern Australian grass fields for 2010 and 2016 pollen seasons when four largest decadal TA epidemics happened in Melbourne. One of these TA events (in November 2016) was the worldwide most extreme one which resulted to nine deaths and hundreds of hospital patient presentations. By executing the model on a day-by-day basis in a hindcast real-time mode we predicted SPP peaks exclusively only when the four major TA outbreaks happened, thus achieving a high forecasting success rate. The proposed modelling system can be easily implemented for other geographical domains and for different pollen types.

Measurements of atmospheric parameters were carried out during the partial solar eclipse (51% coverage of solar disc) observed in Belgrade on 20 March 2015. The measured parameters included height of the planetary boundary layer (PBL), meteorological parameters, solar radiation, surface ozone and air ions, as well as Very Low Frequency (VLF, 3–30 kHz) and Low Frequency (LF, 30–300 kHz) signals to detect low-ionospheric plasma perturbations. The observed decrease of global solar and UV-B radiation was 48%, similar to the solar disc coverage. Meteorological parameters showed similar behavior at two measurement sites, with different elevations and different measurement heights. Air temperature change due to solar eclipse was more pronounced at the lower measurement height, showing a decrease of 2.6 °C, with 15-min time delay relative to the eclipse maximum. However, at the other site temperature did not decrease; its morning increase ceased with the start of the eclipse, and continued after the eclipse maximum. Relative humidity at both sites remained almost constant until the eclipse maximum and then decreased as the temperature increased. The wind speed decreased and reached minimum 35 min after the last contact. The eclipse-induced decrease of PBL height was about 200 m, with minimum reached 20 min after the eclipse maximum. Although dependent on UV radiation, surface ozone concentration did not show the expected decrease, possibly due to less significant influence of photochemical reactions at the measurement site and decline of PBL height. Air-ion concentration decreased during the solar eclipse, with minimum almost coinciding with the eclipse maximum. Additionally, the referential Line-of-Sight (LOS) radio link was set in the area of Belgrade, using the carrier frequency of 3 GHz. Perturbation of the receiving signal level (RSL) was observed on March 20, probably induced by the solar eclipse. Eclipse-related perturbations in ionospheric D-region were detected based on the VLF/LF signal variations, as a consequence of Lyα radiation decrease.

To investigate the air pollutant distribution within the ambient of urban street canyon, Operational Street Pollution Model (OSPM) was used to predict hourly content of NO X , NO, NO 2 , O 3 , CO, BNZ and PM10. The study was performed in five street canyons in Belgrade (Serbia) during 10-week summer period. The model receptors were located on each side of street canyons at 4 m, 8 m and 16 m height. To monitor airborne trace element content, the moss bag biomonitors were simultaneously exposed with the model receptors at two heights–4 m and 16 m. The results of both methods, modelling and biomonitoring, showed significantly decreasing trend of the air pollutants with height. The results indirectly demonstrate that biomonitoring, i.e., moss bag technique could be a valuable tool to verify model performance. In addition, spectral analysis was applied to investigate weekly variation of the daily background and modelled data set. Typical periodicities and weekend effect, caused by anthropogenic influences, have been identified.

The aim of this study was to identify levels of population health risk caused by the inhalation of PM10-bound species in an urban area. A combination of multiple location measurements, several analytical tools, and cancer and non-cancer health risk assessment was used to evaluate influences of proximate anthropogenic activities and air pollution transport. The concentrations of PM10, six trace metals (As, Cd, Cr, Mn, Ni and Pb) and benzo[a]pyrene were measured at 15 air quality monitoring stations during the period 2011–2015 in a wide area of Belgrade (Serbia). Significant population health risk was estimated as a result of exposure to particulate air pollution. The concentrations of PM10, As, Ni and benzo[a]pyrene exceeded the EU Directive limit and target values. Of all the analysed species, Cr was the major contributor to carcinogenic health risk. Besides strong local sources related to traffic and industry, the influence of transported pollution is estimated in the range 8.95–36.07 %, with potentially the most important sources being located in East and West Europe.

The aim of this study was to assess PM10 pollution level and estimate required source emission reduction in Belgrade area, the second largest urban center in the Balkans. Daily mass concentrations and trace metal content (As, Cd, Cr, Mn, Ni, Pb) of PM10 were evaluated for three air quality monitoring sites of different types: urban-traffic (Slavija), suburban (Lazarevac) and rural (Grabovac) under the industrial influence, during the period of 2012-13. Noncompliance with current Air Quality Standards (AQS) was noticeable: annual means were higher than AQS at Slavija and Lazarevac, and daily frequency threshold was exceeded at all three locations. Annual means of As at Lazarevac were about four times higher than the target concentration, which could be attributed to the proximity of coal-fired power plants, and dust resuspension from coal basin and nearby ash landfills. Additionally, levels of Ni and Cr were significantly higher than in other European cities. Carcinogenic health risk of inhabitants' exposure to trace metals was assessed as well. Cumulative cancer risk exceeded the upper limit of acceptable US EPA range at two sites, with Cr and As as the major contributors. To estimate source emission reduction, required to meet AQS, lognormal, Weibull and Pearson 5 probability distribution, functions (PDF) were used to fit daily PM10 concentrations. Based on the rollback equation and best fitting PDF, estimated reduction was within the range of 28-98%. Finally, the required reduction obtained using two-parameter exponential distribution suggested that risks associated to accidental releases of pollutants should be of greater concern.

In the present study, the concentrations of VOC were measured using Proton Transfer Reaction Mass Spectrometer, together with NO x , NO 2 , NO, SO 2 , CO, and PM 10 during winter 2014 in Belgrade, Serbia. For the purpose of source apportionment, receptor models Positive Matrix Factorization and Unmix were applied to the obtained dataset, both resolving six profiles. The reliable identification of pollutant sources, description of their characteristics, and estimation of their spatio-temporal distribution are presented through comprehensive analysis and comparison of receptor model solutions, with respect to meteorological data, planetary boundary layer height, and regional and long-range transport. For emissions from petrochemical industry and oil refinery a significant contribution of transport is observed, and hybrid receptor models were applied for identification of potential non-local source regions.

The main purpose of this study was to assess the exceedance frequency of the EU (50 μg m−3) and US EPA (150 μg m−3) daily PM10 limit values, as well as the emission source reduction required to comply with air quality standards. The analysis was based on a 10-year (2003–2013) data set obtained for the Belgrade (Serbia) urban area, which is seriously affected by pollution. General probability (Pearson 5, lognormal and Weibull) and extreme value (two-parameter exponential and Gumbel’s) distributions were used to fit data and to estimate the number of exceedances. With the use of best fitting general probability distribution and rollback equation, the required reduction was determined to be in the range of 12 to 98 % for some years, although for others the total reduction of moderate sources would be insufficient to meet air quality regulations. The required emission reduction of strong sources for the whole monitoring period was estimated by means of extreme value distributions at about 45 %. The aforementioned methods can be successfully applied for prediction of pollutant loads, as well as for estimation of required reductions. As pollution in Belgrade is largely seen as the result of outdated technology, emission reduction measures must primarily rely on technological improvements and advances.

The objective of this study is to determine the major sources and potential source regions of PM10 over Belgrade, Serbia. The PM10 samples were collected from July 2003 to December 2006 in very urban area of Belgrade and concentrations of Al, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd and Pb were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry. The analysis of seasonal variations of PM10 mass and some element concentrations reported relatively higher concentrations in winter, what underlined the importance of local emission sources. The Unmix model was used for source apportionment purpose and the four main source profiles (fossil fuel combustion; traffic exhaust/regional transport from industrial centers; traffic related particles/site specific sources and mineral/crustal matter) were identified. Among the resolved factors the fossil fuel combustion was the highest contributor (34%) followed by traffic/regional industry (26%). Conditional probability function (CPF) results identified possible directions of local sources. The potential source contribution function (PSCF) and concentration weighted trajectory (CWT) receptor models were used to identify spatial source distribution and contribution of regional-scale transported aerosols. [Projekat Ministarstva nauke Republike Srbije, br. III43007 i br. III41011]

The primary objective of this study is to assess anthropogenic impacts on the environment by determination of element atmospheric depositions. Bulk depositions were collected monthly, from June 2002 to December 2006, at three urban locations in Belgrade. Concentrations of Al, V. Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd and Pb were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry and the current deposition fluxes of atmospheric metals were established. Fourier analysis was applied in order to investigate seasonal variation of the monthly data set. Nickel, V. Fe and Al showed pronounced seasonal dependence, while seasonal variation of the other elements was not evident. The enrichment factors of Pb. Zn, Cd and Cu were obviously above those who could have been caused by natural processes, indicating a mainly anthropogenic origin. Nickel was intermediately enriched suggesting participation of both natural and anthropogenic sources. The multivariate receptor model, Unmix, was used to analyze a 5-yr element atmospheric depositions data set. Three main source profiles (mixed road dust, oil combustion and metal processing) were identified and the overall average percentage source contributions determined. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The concentrations of air pollutants depend on meteorological conditions and pollutant emission level. From the statistical properties of air pollutants the number of times the daily average concentrations exceed the assigned air quality standard (AQS) can be estimated, as well as the level of reduction of particle matter emission sources required to meet the AQS. In this paper three statistical distributions (lognormal, Weibull and type V Pearson distribution) were used to fit the complete set of PM10 data for the Belgrade urban area during a three-year period (2003–2005). The method of moments and the method of least squares were both used to estimate the parameters of the three theoretical distributions. The type V Pearson distribution represented the PM10 daily average concentration most closely. However, the parent distributions sometimes diverged in predicting a high PM10 concentration and therefore asymptotic distributions of extreme values were used to fit the high PM10 concentration distribution more correctly. This method can successfully predict the return period and exceedances over a critical concentration in succeeding years. The estimated emission source reduction of PM10 to meet the assigned standard varied from 53% to 63% in the Belgrade urban area. The results provide useful information for air quality management and could be used to examine the similarities and differences among air pollution types in diverse areas.

In this study, we investigated the impact of potential emission sources and transport pathways on annual and seasonal PM10 loadings in an urban area of Belgrade (Serbia). The analyzed dataset comprised PM10 mass concentrations for the period 2003-2015, as well as their chemical composition (organic/elemental carbon, benzo[a]pyrene, As, Cd, Cr, Mn, Ni, Pb, Cl(-), Na(+), Mg(2+), Ca(2+), K(+), NO3 (-), SO4 (2-), and NH4 (+)), meteorological parameters, and concentrations of inorganic gaseous pollutants and soot for the period 2011-2015. The combination of different methods, such as source apportionment (Unmix), ensemble learning method (random forest), and multifractal and inverse multifractal analysis, was utilized in order to obtain a detailed description of the PM10 origin and spatio-temporal distribution and to determine their relationship with other pollutants and meteorological parameters. The contribution of long-range and regional transport was estimated by means of trajectory sector analysis, whereas the hybrid receptor models were applied to identify potential areas of concern.

The quality and pollution of air and its impact on the environment and particularly on human health, is an issue of significant public and governmental concern. The emission of the main air pollutants (sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides) has declined significantly but the trends in concentrations of a particulate matter are less clear and this pollutant still pose a risk to human health. The studies on the quality of air in urban atmosphere related to suspended particles PM10 and PM2.5, and first measurements of their mass concentrations have been initiated in our country in 2002, and are still in progress. The results of preliminary investigations revealed the need for the continuous and long-term systematical sampling measurements and analysis of interaction of the specific pollutants ? PM10 and PM2.5 as well as ozone, heavy metals in the ground level. Survey of some basic knowledge and features of atmospheric particles will be given and the results of air quality assessment in Belgrade will be presented as well.

In this study, advanced multivariate methods were applied for VOC source apportionment and subsequent short-term forecast of industrial- and vehicle exhaust-related contributions in Belgrade urban area (Serbia). The VOC concentrations were measured using PTR-MS, together with inorganic gaseous pollutants (NOx, NO, NO2, SO2, and CO), PM10, and meteorological parameters. US EPA Positive Matrix Factorization and Unmix receptor models were applied to the obtained dataset both resolving six source profiles. For the purpose of forecasting industrial- and vehicle exhaust-related source contributions, different multivariate methods were employed in two separate cases, relying on meteorological data, and on meteorological data and concentrations of inorganic gaseous pollutants, respectively. The results indicate that Boosted Decision Trees and Multi-Layer Perceptrons were the best performing methods. According to the results, forecasting accuracy was high (lowest relative error of only 6%), in particular when the forecast was based on both meteorological parameters and concentrations of inorganic gaseous pollutants.

In this study, the concentrations of volatile organic compounds were measured by the use of proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry, together with NO x , NO, NO2, SO2, CO and PM10 and meteorological parameters in an urban area of Belgrade during winter 2014. The multivariate receptor model US EPA Unmix was applied to the obtained dataset resolving six source profiles, which can be attributed to traffic-related emissions, gasoline evaporation/oil refineries, petrochemical industry/biogenic emissions, aged plumes, solid-fuel burning and local laboratories. Besides the vehicle exhaust, accounting for 27.6 % of the total mixing ratios, industrial emissions, which are present in three out of six resolved profiles, exert a significant impact on air quality in the urban area. The major contribution of regional and long-range transport was determined for source profiles associated with petrochemical industry/biogenic emissions (40 %) and gasoline evaporation/oil refineries (29 %) using trajectory sector analysis. The concentration-weighted trajectory model was applied with the aim of resolving the spatial distribution of potential distant sources, and the results indicated that emission sources from neighbouring countries, as well as from Slovakia, Greece, Poland and Scandinavian countries, significantly contribute to the observed concentrations.

Clean air is considered to be a basic requirement for human health and well being. Various chemicals are emitted into the air from both, natural and anthropogenic sources. In spite of the introduction of cleaner technologies in industry, energy production and transport, air pollution remains a major health risk and tighter emission controls are being enforced by many governments. Atmospheric particles – aerosols – are some of the key components of the atmosphere. They influence the energy balance of the Earth's surface, visibility, climate and environment as a whole [1-3]. According to World Health Organization (WHO), ozone, particulate matter (PM), heavy metals and some hydrocarbons present the priority pollutants in the troposphere [4]. Public health can also be indirectly affected by deposition of air pollutants in environmental media and uptake by plants and animals, what results in entering of chemicals into the food chain or drinking water, and thereby constituting additional sources of human exposure. A number of epidemiological studies have demonstrated that acute and chronic health effects are related to the inhalable PM10 (aerodynamic diameter less than 10 μm) exposure in the urban environment, and some data also seem to indicate possible seasonal effects of the particulate matter on human health [5-10]. This is especially important for urban aerosols, whose variety of size and composition make complete characterization a difficult task. Particulate matter pollution is nowadays one of the problems of the most concern in great cities, not only because of the adverse health effects, but also of the reducing atmospheric visibility and affect to the state of conservation of various cultural heritages [11]. Therefore, the measurement of the levels of atmospheric particulate matter is a key parameter in air quality monitoring throughout the world.

Active biomonitoring with wet and dry moss bags was used to examine trace element atmospheric deposition in the urban area of Belgrade. The element accumulation capability of Sphagnum girgensohnii Russow was tested in relation to atmospheric bulk deposition. Moss bags were mounted for five 3-month periods (July 2005-October 2006) at three representative urban sites. For the same period monthly bulk atmospheric deposition samples were collected. The concentrations of Al, V, Cr, Mn, Fe. Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, and Pb were determined by instrumental neutron activation analyses and atomic absorption spectrometry. Significant accumulation of most elements occurred in the exposed moss bags compared with the initial moss content. High correlations between the elements in moss and bulk deposits were found for V, Cu, As, and Ni. The enrichment factors of the elements for both types of monitor followed the same pattern at the corresponding sites. (C) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The primary objective of the present study was to assess anthropogenic impacts of heavy metals to the environment by determination of total atmospheric deposition of heavy metals. Atmospheric depositions (wet + dry) were collected monthly, from June 2002 to December 2006, at three urban locations in Belgrade, using bulk deposition samplers. Concentrations of Fe, Al, Pb, Zn, Cu, Ni, Mn, Cr, V, As and Cd were analyzed using atomic absorption spectrometry. Based upon these results, the study attempted to examine elemental associations in atmospheric deposition and to elucidate the potential sources of heavy metal contaminants in the region by the use of multivariate receptor model Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF). 2nd International Workshop on Non-Equilibrium Processes in Plasmas and Environmental Science, Aug 23-26, 2008, Belgrade, Serbia

An assessment of air quality of Belgrade, Serbia, was performed by determining the trace element content in airborne daily PM10 and PM2.5 samples collected from a central urban area. The ambient concentrations of Zn were the highest in PM2.5 (1,998.0 ng m(-3)). Multivariate receptor modelling (principal component analysis and cluster analysis) has been applied to determine the contribution of different sources of specific metallic components in airborne particles. The obtained results showed that vehicle traffic and fossil fuel combustion in stationary objects were the main sources of trace metals in Belgrade urban aerosols.

Air quality monitoring is used to determine the air pollution levels in urban environments and concentration measurements can be compared with the national and international guideline values. This review presents an attempt to assess air quality in Belgrade urban area and identify the possible pollution sources. An integrated monitoring approach has been applied related to the urban Belgrade locations with the aim to estimate the level of specific pollutants: particulate matter, trace metals and ozone. The measurements included the PM10 and PM2.5 mass and trace metals concentrations, total atmospheric deposition fluxes, as well as, biomonitoring of deposition and accumulation of trace elements. The obtained results gave us the first impression of concentration level, characterization and sources of inhalable particulates with aerodynamic diameter less than 10 m in Belgrade ambient air. The PM10 and PM2.5 values had high average values, compared to EU standard and results for other European cities. The highest mean metal concentration in PM2.5 was for Zn followed by Al and Fe. The mean Ni concentration of in the PM2.5 fraction was above the target value for PM10 issued by EU. Mean concentrations of Pb, Cd, V, and Mn did not exceed the current WHO air quality guideline values. Strong seasonal modulation existed and lower summer average decreased the annual average concentrations. The explanation for the seasonal pattern could be possibly attributed to the higher traffic density and combustion of fossil fuels for heating during winter, as well as, to the prevailed meteorological conditions e.g. temperature inversion layers, low temperature and stagnation of air masses. During the exceptional high pollution days, both in the summer and winter, high production of secondary aerosols occurred, as can be seen from increase of PM2.5 in respect to PM10. This was a result of high relevance for health aspects, as the fine particles were those of highest negative impact on health and had the longest residence time in the atmosphere. Episodes of high mass PM concentrations were observed in Belgrade throughout the year, although, they were more prominent during winter period. Air back trajectories analysis showed that the prevalence of stagnant or week flow regimes (calm conditions) favors the suspension and accumulation of particles produced locally, resulting at the elevation of suspended particles levels. The appearance of stronger W, SE and NE flows was responsible for the particles transported from the thermoelectric plants, refineries, chemical and steel industry.

Suspended atmospheric particulate matter, PM10 and PM2.5 (aerodynamic diameter less than 10 μm and 2.5 μm) are today a key issue in contemporary air pollution research. Daily aerosol samples were collected at three representative places in the central region of Belgrade in the period of 2002–2005. The results lead to assessment of air quality in urban area of Belgrade.

An extensive study on urban aerosols with the aim to determine the sources and provide a physico-chemical description of PM, present in the urban air of Belgrade, was performed. Air aerosol samples for PM10and PM2.5and trace metals were collected during June 2002 to July 2005 at representative locations in urban Belgrade area. Mass concentrations of PM10and PM2.5were determined gravimetrically, concentrations of 10 elements (Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, V and Zn) were determined with graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry and source identification was carried out by Principal Factor Analysis. The mean PM10mass concentration of 68.4 μg m−3exceeded the EC annual limit value of 40 μg m−3; 68 % exceedance of the proposed PM10daily limit value (50 μg m−3) was obtained and the mean PM2.5mass concentration of 61.4 μg m−3was more than 3 times the EC annual mean value of 20 μg m−3. The limit values of toxic trace elements from WHO and EC Air quality guidelines were not exceeded except for Ni. SEM/EDS analysis has been employed to individually characterize particles collected. The results of this study shows that the majority of trace metals in aerosols come from traffic emissions and traffic-induced road-dust resuspension along with industrial activities.

In order to assess the level of mass concentrations of ambient suspended particles PM10 and PM2.5, a pilot study was performed in the urban area of Belgrade, in winter and summer period from June 2002 to June 2003. The PM10 mass concentrations in Belgrade urban area were high (average value being 72 µg m-3) in comparison to other European cities and more than 68% of daily samples exceeded the limit value of 50 µg m-3. Average PM2.5 mass concentration was 61 µg m-3. Analysis of the PM10 mass concentrations indicated seasonal variation. Frequency distribution of PM10 and PM2.5 mass concentrations and wind speed was best represented by log-normal distribution. Physical and chemical characterization of suspended particulate matter was accomplished by electron microscopy methods.

A pilot study was performed to assess the concentration level of ambient suspended particulate matter PM10 and PM2.5 in the Belgrade urban area. This study has shown theoretical and experimental evidence of pollutants for characteristic measurements when maximum PM concentrations occurred. For this study, 60‐h air‐back trajectories are calculated. When the air masses were coming from the SW direction, the contribution from the complex of coal‐fired power plants was evident.