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In current dual porosity/permeability models, there exists a fundamental assumption that the adsorption-induced swelling is distributed uniformly within the representative elementary volume (REV), irrespective of its internal structures and transient processes. However, both internal structures and transient processes can lead to the non-uniform swelling. In this study, we hypothesize that the non-uniform swelling is responsible for why coal permeability in experimental measurements is not only controlled by the effective stress but also is affected by the adsorption-induced swelling. We propose a concept of the swelling triangle composed of swelling paths to characterize the evolution of the non-uniform swelling and serve as a core link in coupled multiphysics. A swelling path is determined by a dimensionless volumetric ratio and a dimensionless swelling ratio. Different swelling paths have the same start and end point, and each swelling path represents a unique swelling case. The swelling path as the diagonal of the triangle represents the case of the uniform swelling while that as the two perpendicular boundaries represents the case of the localized swelling. The paths of all intermediate cases populate inside the triangle. The corresponding relations between the swelling path and the response of coal multiphysics are established by a non-uniform swelling coefficient. We define this method as the triangle approach and corresponding models as swelling path-based ones. The proposed concept and models are verified against a long-term experimental measurement of permeability and strains under constant effective stress. Our results demonstrate that during gas injection, coal multiphysics responses have a close dependence on the swelling path, and that in both future experiments and field predictions, this dependence must be considered.

IntroductionPinus tabuliformis as a crucial afforestation species in semi-arid regions, faces issues such as the reduction of plantations. Calcium plays a significant role in alleviating drought stress and promoting nutrient uptake in plants.MethodsUtilizing a pot experiment approach, seedlings were treated with exogenous calcium at five concentrations (0, 50, 100, 200, and 400 mg•kg-1). The nutrient content of the plants and soil was measured, and their ecological stoichiometric characteristics and internal stability were analyzed. This was followed by a series of related studies.ResultsAs the concentration of calcium increases, the contents of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in various organs and the whole plant exhibit a trend of first increasing and then decreasing, peaking at calcium treatment of 50-100 mg•kg-1. Concurrently, the calcium concentration in plant organs and the entire plant gradually increases with the availability of calcium in the soil. The addition of exogenous calcium has a certain impact on the ecological stoichiometric ratios (C:N, C:P, N:P) of Pinus tabuliformis seedlings' leaves, stems, roots, and the whole plant, exhibiting distinct variation characteristics. At calcium concentrations of 50-100 mg•kg-1, the ratios of C:N and C:P are relatively lower. Under calcium concentrations of 0, 50, and 100 mg•kg-1, soil calcium shows a positive correlation with the total carbon (TC), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), total potassium (TK), and calcium contents in leaves, stems, roots, and the entire plant. However, at calcium concentrations of 200 and 400 mg•kg-1, soil calcium exhibits a significant positive correlation with the calcium content in leaves, stems, roots, and the entire plant, and a significant negative correlation with the total phosphorus, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and total potassium contents. After the addition of exogenous calcium at different concentrations, most stoichiometric indices of various organs of Pinus tabuliformis seedlings demonstrate strong balance.DiscussionCalcium, as an essential structural component and second messenger, regulates the nutrient uptake and utilization in plants, influencing the stoichiometry. However, both low and high concentrations of calcium can be detrimental to plant growth by disrupting nutrient metabolism and internal structures. Consequently, there exists an optimal calcium concentration for nutrient absorption.

Currently, several studies have demonstrated that cold stress can cause the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in fruit. However, little is known about the roles of gibberellic acid (GA3) on the antioxidant system in the mitochondria of fruit. To explore the molecular basis of GA3 interference with the chilling tolerance of fruit, ‘Jinqiuhongmi’ peach fruit was treated with 0.1 mmol L−1 GA3 after harvest. Exogenous GA3 treatment relieved the chilling injury of postharvest peach fruit with a lower cold injury index and higher antioxidant level. In addition, GA3 delayed the senescence of peaches by reducing the firmness, respiratory action, and ethylene production. The antioxidant enzyme activities were elevated, including superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT). Moreover, GA3-treated peaches exhibited lower hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and malondialdehyde (MDA) in comparison with the control. These results showed that the application of 0.1 mmol L−1 of GA3 enhanced the chilling resistance of peach fruit by regulating the antioxidant system.

Abstract Background Apple is an economically important fruit crop. Changes in metabolism accompanying human-guided evolution can be revealed using a multiomics approach. We perform genome-wide metabolic analysis of apple fruits collected from 292 wild and cultivated accessions representing various consumption types. Results We find decreased amounts of certain metabolites, including tannins, organic acids, phenolic acids, and flavonoids as the wild accessions transition to cultivated apples, while lysolipids increase in the “Golden Delicious” to “Ralls Janet” pedigree, suggesting better storage. We identify a total of 222,877 significant single-nucleotide polymorphisms that are associated with 2205 apple metabolites. Investigation of a region from 2.84 to 5.01 Mb on chromosome 16 containing co-mapping regions for tannins, organic acids, phenolic acids, and flavonoids indicates the importance of these metabolites for fruit quality and nutrition during breeding. The tannin and acidity-related genes Myb9-like and PH4 are mapped closely to fruit weight locus fw1 from 3.41 to 3.76 Mb on chromosome 15, a region under selection during domestication. Lysophosphatidylethanolamine (LPE) 18:1, which is suppressed by fatty acid desaturase-2 (FAD2), is positively correlated to fruit firmness. We find the fruit weight is negatively correlated with salicylic acid and abscisic acid levels. Further functional assays demonstrate regulation of these hormone levels by NAC-like activated by Apetala3/Pistillata (NAP) and ATP binding cassette G25 (ABCG25), respectively. Conclusions This study provides a metabolic perspective for selection on fruit quality during domestication and improvement, which is a valuable resource for investigating mechanisms controlling apple metabolite content and quality.

The study explored the effect of exogenous chlorine dioxide (ClO2) treatment on retaining freshness of post-harvest fresh ginger. The fresh tender ginger were treated with 80 mg/L ClO2 at room temperature for 10 min, and the rest were soaked in distilled water for 10 min as control, then stored at 4 ℃ for up to 28 days. The results showed that ClO2 treatment suppressed the respiration rate, reduced decay rate, delayed the decrease of soluble solids (TSS) and decreased the content of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and malondialdehyde (MDA) during the entire storage time. Compared with the control, ClO2 treatment significantly enhanced the enzymes activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase (POD). The research indicated that ClO2 maintained the storage quality of fresh tender ginger by promoting the antioxidant capacity.

The mitochondrial genome of Cuspidaria undata (Verrill, 1884) was sequenced in full using Illumina HiSeq 2500. The circular mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was 16,266 bp in size, encoded 37 genes, and contained 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 2 rRNAs and 22 tRNAs. The gene order of the 13 PCGs in this species exhibited extensive rearrangement and differences in comparison to other Cuspidariidae, indicating that gene order is not conserved within this family. Phylogenetic analysis based on 13 PCGs and 2 rRNAs recovered a monophyletic Cuspidariidae.

Ca2+ is a crucial second messenger in plant cells that plays a vital role in various physiological and biochemical processes, including plant growth and development, photosynthesis, and enzyme regulation. Exogenous calcium concentrations can have different effects on plant growth. The purpose of this study was to determine the appropriate calcium concentration for the growth of four tree seedlings, namely Pinus tabuliformis, Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica, Populus, and Morus alba seedlings, and whether this optimal calcium concentration varies among different tree species. This study utilized five calcium concentration gradients (0, 100, 200, 400, 800 mg·kg−1) for each species with three repeated treatments. To determine each species’ calcium concentration needs, several growth indices, photosynthetic metrics, chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, water usage efficiency, and antioxidant enzyme activities were analyzed. The results showed that exogenous calcium significantly affected the growth and development of each seedling. The growth, biomass, photosynthetic parameters, photosynthetic products, photosynthetic pigments, water use efficiency, and antioxidant enzyme activity all increased initially and then decreased with the increasing calcium concentration. The exogenous calcium supply increased the concentration of calcium in the leaves. Thus, there was an optimal calcium concentration for plant growth, and a high or low calcium concentration was not conducive to plant growth. Furthermore, this study found that the optimum calcium concentration of different tree species was different. The optimal calcium concentration for Pinus tabuliformis, Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica, Populus, and Morus alba seedlings was 100, 100, 200, and 400 mg·kg−1, respectively, with broadleaf seedlings requiring higher calcium concentrations than coniferous seedlings.

Peach (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch) is susceptible to chilling injury under improper low-temperature storage (2°C–5°C). Previous research has shown that abscisic acid (ABA) alleviates chilling injury in fruits and vegetables, but the potential mechanism is still unclear. To explore its effectiveness and potential mechanism in alleviating chilling injury during cold storage, exogenous ABA was applied to peach fruit by immersion in 100 μmol L−1 solutions for 10 min. In our experiment, ABA alleviated chilling injury by reducing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) content and ethylene production. In addition, ABA inhibited the expression of the ethylene synthesis-related genes PpACO1 and PpEIN2. At the same time, ABA activated the antioxidant enzymatic pathway and the ascorbate-glutathione (AsA-GSH) cycle, the transcript abundance encoding genes related to antioxidant enzyme activities also changed correspondingly. The results suggested that ABA alleviated chilling injury by scavenging excessive H2O2 by promoting antioxidant enzymes and the AsA-GSH pathway.

Salt cress (Eutrema salsugineum), an Arabidopsis-related halophyte, can naturally adapt to various harsh climates and soil conditions; thus, it is considered a desirable model plant for deciphering mechanisms of salt and other abiotic stresses. Accumulating evidence has revealed that compared with Arabidopsis, salt cress possesses stomata that close more tightly and more succulent leaves during extreme salt stress, a noticeably higher level of proline, inositols, sugars, and organic acids, as well as stress-associated transcripts in unstressed plants, and they are induced rapidly under stress. In this review, we systematically summarize the research on the morphology, physiology, genome, gene expression and regulation, and protein and metabolite profile of salt cress under salt stress. We emphasize the latest advances in research on the genome adaptive evolution encountering saline environments, and epigenetic regulation, and discuss the mechanisms underlying salt tolerance in salt cress. Finally, we discuss the existing questions and opportunities for future research in halophytic Eutrema. Together, the review fosters a better understanding of the mechanism of plant salt tolerance and provides a reference for the research and utilization of Eutrema as a model extremophile in the future. Furthermore, the prospects for salt cress applied to explore the mechanism of salt tolerance provide a theoretical basis to develop new strategies for agricultural biotechnology.

The ectopic expression of the EsMYB90 transcription factor gene from halophytic Eutrema salsugineum has been reported to enhance the level of anthocyanin and other flavonoid metabolites in transgenic tobacco. In this study, the wheat JW1 overexpressing EsMYB90 showed longer roots and higher fresh weight than that in wild type (WT) under salt stress. In addition, the transgenic wheat plants displayed significantly higher peroxidase (POD) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity, as well as markedly lower malondialdehyde (MDA) content than that of the WT during salt stress conditions. The analysis of histochemical staining and H2O2 level indicated that the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was significantly lower in the roots of transgenic wheat plants compared to the WT under salt stress. Transcriptome analysis revealed that the EsMYB90 gene affected the expression of considerable amounts of stress-related genes that were involved in phenylpropanoid biosynthesis and antioxidant activity in transgenic plants subjected to NaCl treatment. Importantly, the significantly upregulated expression genes in transgenic wheat under salt stress were mainly associated with the antioxidative enzymes POD and GST encoding genes compared with the WT. Furthermore, EsMYB90 is suggested to bind with the MYB-binding elements of pTaANS2 and pTaDFR1 by dual luciferase assay, to activate the transcription of TaANS2 and TaDFR1 genes that are encoding key enzymes of anthocyanin biosynthesis in transgenic wheat plants. All the results indicated that, under salt stress, the EsMYB90 gene plays a crucial role in preventing wheat seedlings from oxidative stress damage via enhancing the accumulation of non-enzymatic flavonoids and activities of antioxidative enzymes, which suggested that EsMYB90 is an ideal candidate gene for the genetic engineering of crops.

Cryptochrome (CRY) is a kind of flavin-binding protein that can sense blue light and near-ultraviolet light, and participates in the light response of organisms and the regulation of the circadian clock. The complete open reading frame (ORF) of CiPlant-CRY1 (GenBank ID OM389130.1), encoding one kind of CRY, was cloned from the Antarctic ice alga Chlamydomonas sp. ICE-L. The quantitative real-time PCR study showed that the expression level of the CiPlant-CRY1 gene was the highest at 5 °C and salinity of 32‰. CiPlant-CRY1 was positively regulated by blue or yellow light, suggesting that it is involved in the establishment of photomorphology. The CiPlant-CRY1 gene can respond to polar day and polar night, indicating its expression is regulated by circadian rhythm. The expression level of CiPlant-CRY1 was most affected by UVB irradiation, which may be related to the adaptation of ice algae to a strong ultraviolet radiation environment. Moreover, the recombinant protein of CiPlant-CRY1 was expressed by prokaryotic expression. This study may be important for exploring the light-induced rhythm regulation of Antarctic ice algae in the polar marine environment.

Crop genetics: genetic tools to study strawberry ripening Chinese researchers have optimized transient gene manipulation (TGM) to probe the function of genes in strawberries. In TGM, the expression of a gene is temporarily altered and the effect on plant development measured. TGM experiments can be conducted in days rather than the months needed for experiments involving stable transformation. A team led by Jia Wensuo of China Agriculture University evaluated how the use of TGM in strawberry fruits was affected by various conditions, including different delivery vectors, temperatures, time periods, and fruit stages. They found that the correct delivery vector, temperature, and fruit stage were crucial for the success of TGM. The team also developed a TGM analysis method to quantify and compare the contribution of different genes. The techniques developed in this study provide valuable tools for the genetic analysis of strawberry ripening.

Browning and lignification often occur in fresh-cut apple processing, leading to quality deterioration and limiting the shelf life of products. In this study, 0.8% (v/v) phytic acid was used to improve the quality and shelf life of fresh-cut apples. From the results, the browning was inhibited by the phytic acid treatment and the browning index (BI) of the control fruit was 1.62 times that of phytic acid treatment at 2 d of storage. The lignin content in phytic acid-treated fruit significantly decreased at 2, 4, and 6 d of storage compared to the control. Phytic acid treatment also reduced H2O2 and malonaldehyde (MDA) contents, which may indicate lighter membrane damage to apples. Compared with the control, the polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and peroxidase (POD) activities decreased while superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities increased in phytic acid-treated fruit. Consistent with the lignin content, the activities of phenylpropane metabolism-related enzymes phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), cinnamate 4-hydroxylase (C4H), and 4-coumarate: CoA ligase (4CL) were inhibited by phytic acid treatment. In conclusion, phytic acid alleviated the browning and lignification of fresh-cut apples by reducing PPO and POD activities, maintaining cell membrane integrity, and inhibiting phenylpropane metabolism.

Ethylene has long been known to be a critical signal controlling the ripening of climacteric fruits; however, the signaling mechanism underlying ethylene production during fruit development is unknown. Here, we report that two FERONIA-like receptor kinases (FERLs) regulate fruit ripening by modulating ethylene production in the climacteric fruit, apple (Malus×domestica). Bioinformatic analysis indicated that the apple genome contains 14 members of the FER family (MdFERL1–17), of these 17 FERLs, MdFERL6 was expressed at the highest level in fruit. Heterologous expression of MdFERL6 or MdFERL1, the apple homolog of Arabidopsis FER, in another climacteric fruit, tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) fruit delayed ripening and suppressed ethylene production. Overexpression and antisense expression of MdFERL6 in apple fruit calli inhibited and promoted ethylene production, respectively. Additionally, virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) of SlFERL1, the tomato homolog of FER, promoted tomato fruit ripening and ethylene production. Both MdFERL6 and MdFERL1 physically interacted with MdSAMS (S-adenosylmethionine synthase), a key enzyme in the ethylene biosynthesis pathway. MdFERL6 was expressed at high levels during early fruit development, but dramatically declined when fruit ripening commenced, implying that MdFERL6 might limit ethylene production prior to fruit development and the ethylene production burst during fruit ripening. These results indicate that FERLs regulate apple and tomato fruit ripening, shedding light on the molecular mechanisms underlying ripening in climacteric fruit.

Ripening of fleshy fruits is controlled by a series of intricate signaling processes. Here, we report a FERONIA/FER-like receptor kinase, FaMRLK47, that regulates both strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) fruit ripening and quality formation. Overexpression and RNAi-mediated downregulation of FaMRLK47 delayed and accelerated fruit ripening, respectively. We showed that FaMRLK47 physically interacts with FaABI1, a negative regulator of abscisic acid (ABA) signaling, and demonstrated that FaMRLK47 regulates fruit ripening by modulating ABA signaling, a major pathway governing strawberry fruit ripening. In accordance with these findings, overexpression and RNAi-mediated downregulation of FaMRLK47 caused a decrease and increase, respectively, in the ABA-induced expression of a series of ripening-related genes. Additionally, overexpression and RNAi-mediated downregulation of FaMRLK47 resulted in an increase and decrease in sucrose content, respectively, as compared with control fruits, and respectively promoted and inhibited the expression of genes in the sucrose biosynthesis pathway (FaSS and FaSPS). Collectively, this study demonstrates that FaMRLK47 is an important regulator of strawberry fruit ripening and quality formation, and sheds light on the signaling mechanisms underlying strawberry fruit development and ripening.