Search

Evidence is limited regarding the association between low-carbohydrate diet (LCD) score and mortality among Asians, a population that consumes a large amount of carbohydrates.The present study examined the association between low-carbohydrate diet (LCD) score (based on percentage of energy as carbohydrate, fat, and protein) and the risk of total and cause-specific mortality among Asians.This study was a prospective cohort study in Japan with follow-up for a median of 16.9 years involving 43008 men and 50646 women aged 45-75 years. Association of LCD score, LCD score based on animal sources of protein and fat, and LCD score based on plant sources of protein and fat with risk of mortality was assessed using Cox proportional hazards model.A U-shaped association was observed between LCD score and total mortality: the multivariable-adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) (95% CI) of total mortality for lowest through highest scores were 1.00, 0.95 (0.91, 1.01), 0.93 (0.88, 0.98), 0.93 (0.88, 0.98), and 1.01 (0.95, 1.07) (P-non-linearity0.01). A similar association was found for mortality from cardiovascular disease (CVD) and heart disease. LCD score based on carbohydrate, animal protein, and animal fat also showed a U-shaped association for total mortality (P-non-linearity0.01). In contrast, LCD score based on carbohydrate, plant protein, and plant fat was linearly associated with lower total (HR, 0.89; 95% CI: 0.83, 0.94 for highest versus lowest quintile), CVD [0.82 (0.73, 0.92)], heart disease [0.83 (0.71, 0.98)], and cerebrovascular disease [0.75 (0.62, 0.91) mortality.Both LCD with high animal protein and fat and high-carbohydrate diet with low animal protein and fat were associated with higher risk of mortality. Meanwhile, LCD high in plant-based sources of protein and fat was associated with a lower risk of total and CVD mortality.

The economic loss caused by herbivore browsing in forest plantations is a concerning problem in many areas around the world. Information on the spatial distribution of browsing damage is important for forest owners when selecting locations for new plantations, because planting trees in areas of high browsing pressure increases economic losses. Although it is difficult to survey browsing damage across large areas, sporadic sampling data on browsing damage are often collected by foresters, governments, and researchers. Thus, in this study, we applied a generalized additive model (GAM) for analysis of sporadic data to reveal large-scale spatial variation in deer (Cervus nippon) browsing damage. A map of browsing pressure produced by a GAM that used years after planting (plantation age) and location as independent factors showed a few areas of high browsing pressure. In addition, browsing damage increased with increasing plantation age, and plantation stands aged 2+ years showed more browsing damage. Areas with high browsing damage estimated based on plantation stands aged 2+ years generally coincided with areas of high deer abundance, with some exceptions. Thus, this model reflects large-scale browsing damage relatively well and will help forest owners to avoid locating new plantations in areas of high browsing pressure.

The robustness of clades to parameter variation may be a desirable quality or even a goal in phylogenetic analyses. Sensitivity analyses used to assess clade stability have invoked the incongruence length difference (ILD or

Zootaxa has been the leading journal on invertebrate systematics especially within Annelida. Our current estimates indicate annelids include approximately 20,200 valid species of polychaetes, oligochaetes, leeches, sipunculans and echiurans. We include herein the impact of Zootaxa on the description of new annelid species in the last two decades. Since 2001, there have been over 1,300 new annelid taxa published in about 630 papers. The majority of these are polychaetes (921 new species and 40 new genera) followed by oligochaetes (308 new species and 10 new genera) and leeches (21 new species). The numerous papers dealing with new polychaete species have provided us a clear picture on which polychaete families have had the most taxonomic effort and which authors and countries have been the most prolific of descriptions of new taxa. An estimated additional 10,000+ species remain to be described in the phylum, thus we urge annelid workers to continue their efforts and aid in training a new generation of taxonomists focused on this ecologically important group.

Our study aimed to elucidate the interactive relationship between factors associated with dental caries in school children using decision tree analysis.Cross-sectional study Methods: Participants were recruited from public primary schools (9-12 years, 4th to 6th grade) and junior high schools (12-13 years, 1st grade) in Japan. A total of 1775 students (928 boys and 847 girls) were analyzed. Questionnaire survey, oral examination, and saliva test were performed. Multiple logistic regression and decision tree analysis were performed.Multiple logistic regression showed an association between dental caries and toothpaste use, dental attendance and the presence of Streptococcus mutans. Decision tree analysis showed that students with non-regular dental attendance were at a significantly higher risk of dental caries at the late stage of primary school. At the early stage of primary school, high levels of Streptococcus mutans and male sex were factors associated with dental caries. In students with low levels of Streptococcus mutans, using toothpaste occasionally was associated with a high risk of dental caries.In early primary school years, S. mutans may be a useful screening and diagnostic tool for dental caries. In students with high levels of S. mutans, sex may be associated with dental caries. Furthermore, in students with low levels of S. mutans, regular use of toothpaste should be encouraged, and in late primary school years, regular dental attendance should be encouraged to prevent dental caries.

Annelid disparity has resulted in morphological-based classifications that disagree with phylogenies based on Sanger sequencing and phylogenomic analyses. However, the data used for the latter studies came from various sources and technologies, involved poorly occupied matrices and lacked key lineages. Here, we generated a new Illumina-based data set to address annelid relationships from a fresh perspective, independent from previously generated data and with nearly fully occupied matrices. Our sampling reflects the span of annelid diversity, including two symbiotic annelid groups (Myzostomida and Spinther) and five meiofaunal groups once referred to as part of Archiannelida (three from Protodrilida, plus Dinophilus and Polygordius). As well as the placement of these unusual annelids, we sought to address the overall phylogeny of Annelida, and provide a new perspective for naming of major clades. Our results largely corroborate the phylogenomic results of Weigert et al. (2014; Illuminating the base of the annelid tree using transcriptomics. Mol Biol Evol. 31:1391-1401), with "Magelona + Owenia" and Chaetopteridae forming a grade with respect to all other annelids. Echiura and Sipuncula are supported as being annelid groups, with Sipuncula closest to amphinomids as sister group to Sedentaria and Errantia. We recovered the three Protodrilida terminals as sister clade to Phyllodocida and Eunicida (=clade Aciculata). We therefore place Protodrilida as part of Errantia. Polygordius was found to be sister group to the scaleworm terminal and the possibility that it is a simplified scaleworm clade, as has been shown for the former family Pisionidae, is discussed. Our results were equivocal with respect to Dinophilus, Myzostomida, and Spinther possibly owing to confounding long-branch effects.

Sipunculans (also known as peanut worms) are an ancient group of exclusively marine worms with a global distribution and a fossil record that dates back to the Early Cambrian. The systematics of sipunculans, now considered a distinct subclade of Annelida, has been studied for decades using morphological and molecular characters, and has reached the limits of Sanger-based approaches. Here, we reevaluate their family-level phylogeny by comparative transcriptomic analysis of eight species representing all known families within Sipuncula. Two data matrices with alternative gene occupancy levels (large matrix with 675 genes and 62% missing data; reduced matrix with 141 genes and 23% missing data) were analysed using concatenation and gene-tree methods, yielding congruent results and resolving each internal node with maximum support. We thus corroborate prior phylogenetic work based on molecular data, resolve outstanding issues with respect to the familial relationships of Aspidosiphonidae, Antillesomatidae and Phascolosomatidae, and highlight the next area of focus for sipunculan systematics.

Sipunculan taxonomy relies on a limited set of external morphological and internal anatomical characters. In addition, this marine group is characterized by an unusual large number of putatively cosmopolitan species. However, this ‘cosmopolitan’ status could be an artifact of their conserved morphology and the small number of unambiguous taxonomic characters available for delimiting species. Species delimitation can therefore be aided by molecular techniques. We investigated the case of the widespread and common species Sipunculus nudus Linnaeus, 1766 to determine its systematic validity. We analysed the morphology of multiple specimens of S. nudus collected from 11 localities around the world and undertook phylogenetic analyses using molecular sequence data from four genes (28S rRNA, 16S rRNA, histone H3 and cytochrome c oxidase subunit I). High levels of genetic differentiation are present between distantly related populations of the putative species S. nudus. Five distinct lineages were identified by phylogenetic analyses, three of which – the best-represented populations – can be distinguished morphologically. Our phylogenetic and morphological analyses thus do not favor the cosmopolitan status of S. nudus, suggesting instead that it constitutes a complex of morphologically similar but distinguishable species.

The systematics of the molluscan class Bivalvia are explored using a 5-gene Sanger-based approach including the largest taxon sampling to date, encompassing 219 ingroup species spanning 93 (or 82%) of the 113 currently accepted bivalve families. This study was designed to populate the bivalve Tree of Life at the family level and to place many genera into a clear phylogenetic context, but also pointing to several major clades where taxonomic work is sorely needed. Despite not recovering monophyly of Bivalvia or Protobranchia—as in most previous Sanger-based approaches to bivalve phylogeny—our study provides increased resolution in many higher-level clades, and supports the monophyly of Autobranchia, Pteriomorphia, Heteroconchia, Palaeoheterodonta, Heterodonta, Archiheterodonta, Euheterodonta, Anomalodesmata, Imparidentia, and Neoheterodontei, in addition to many other lower clades. However, deep nodes within some of these clades, especially Pteriomorphia and Imparidentia, could not be resolved with confidence. In addition, many families are not supported, and several are supported as non-monophyletic, including Malletiidae, Nuculanidae, Yoldiidae, Malleidae, Pteriidae, Arcidae, Propeamussiidae, Iridinidae, Carditidae, Myochamidae, Lyonsiidae, Pandoridae, Montacutidae, Galeommatidae, Tellinidae, Semelidae, Psammobiidae, Donacidae, Mactridae, and Cyrenidae; Veneridae is paraphyletic with respect to Chamidae, although this result appears to be an artifact. The denser sampling however allowed testing specific placement of species, showing, for example, that the unusual Australian Plebidonax deltoides is not a member of Donacidae and instead nests within Psammobiidae, suggesting that major revision of Tellinoidea may be required. We also showed that Cleidothaerus is sister group to the cementing member of Myochamidae, suggesting that Cleidothaeridae may not be a valid family and that cementation in Cleidothaerus and Myochama may have had a single origin. These results highlight the need for an integrative approach including as many genera as possible, and that the monophyly and relationships of many families require detailed reassessment. NGS approaches may be able to resolve the most recalcitrant nodes in the near future.

Kawauchi, G. Y., Sharma, P. P. & Giribet, G. (2012). Sipunculan phylogeny based on six genes, with a new classification and the descriptions of two new families. —Zoologica Scripta, 41, 186–210. The internal phylogeny of Sipuncula has proven elusive, with the monophyly of multiple traditional groups in question. Repeated attempts to infer sipunculan relationships have attained discordant results, possibly owing to fragmentary molecular sequence data sets. We reassessed the phylogeny of Sipuncula using a six-gene data set and with larger target amplicons of certain loci. We additionally dated the molecular phylogeny employing recently discovered fossil taxa to constrain node ages. Our multilocus data set recovers six major clades of Sipuncula across multiple analytical treatments. Some groups considered suspect in previous studies are vindicated (e.g. Aspidosiphonidae), but most traditional sipunculan families were recovered as para- or polyphyletic groups, especially Sipunculidae, whose members appear in three distinct clades. To redress the dissonance between the current classification and the phylogeny of Sipuncula, we provide a new classification of the group, wherein (i) we erect two new families, Siphonosomatidae fam. nov. and Antillesomatidae fam. nov.; (ii) Phascolionidae and Themistidae are synonymized with Golfingiidae, new synonymies (iii) Phascolopsis is transferred to Golfingiidae, new familial assignment; and (iv) Lithacrosiphon is synonymized with Aspidosiphon, new synonymy. We observe that the origins of all families recognized are ancient, dating at least to the Mesozoic.

We investigate the phylogeny, biogeography, time of origin and diversification, ancestral area reconstruction and large‐scale distributional patterns of an ancient group of arachnids, the harvestman suborder Cyphophthalmi. Analysis of molecular and morphological data allow us to propose a new classification system for the group; Pettalidae constitutes the infraorder Scopulophthalmi new clade, sister group to all other families, which are divided into the infraorders Sternophthalmi new clade and Boreophthalmi new clade. Sternophthalmi includes the families Troglosironidae, Ogoveidae, and Neogoveidae; Boreophthalmi includes Stylocellidae and Sironidae, the latter family of questionable monophyly. The internal resolution of each family is discussed and traced back to its geological time origin, as well as to its original landmass, using methods for estimating divergence times and ancestral area reconstruction. The origin of Cyphophthalmi can be traced back to the Carboniferous, whereas the diversification time of most families ranges between the Carboniferous and the Jurassic, with the exception of Troglosironidae, whose current diversity originates in the Cretaceous/Tertiary. Ancestral area reconstruction is ambiguous in most cases. Sternophthalmi is traced back to an ancestral land mass that contained New Caledonia and West Africa in the Permian, whereas the ancestral landmass for Neogoveidae included the south‐eastern USA and West Africa, dating back to the Triassic. For Pettalidae, most results include South Africa, or a combination of South Africa with the Australian plate of New Zealand or Sri Lanka, as the most likely ancestral landmass, back in the Jurassic. Stylocellidae is reconstructed to the Thai‐Malay Penisula during the Jurassic. Combination of the molecular and morphological data results in a hypothesis for all the cyphophthalmid genera, although the limited data available for some taxa represented only in the morphological partition negatively affects the phylogenetic reconstruction by decreasing nodal support in most clades. However, it resolves the position of many monotypic genera not available for molecular analysis, such as Iberosiro, Odontosiro, Speleosiro, Managotria or Marwe, although it does not place Shearogovea or Ankaratra within any existing family. The biogeographical data show a strong correlation between relatedness and formerly adjacent landmasses, and oceanic dispersal does not need to be postulated to explain disjunct distributions, especially when considering the time of divergence. The data also allow testing of the hypotheses of the supposed total submersion of New Zealand and New Caledonia, clearly falsifying submersion of the former, although the data cannot reject the latter. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 105, 92–130.

The striped false limpet Siphonaria pectinata (Linnaeus, 1758) has traditionally been considered a pulmonate gastropod (but see current phylogenetic work for the placement of Siphonariidae; e.g. Grande, Templado & Zardoya, 2008; Jorger et al., 2010) with a limpet-like shell adapted to life on wave-swept rocky intertidal shores. With its 12 synonyms, S. pectinata is known from the Atlantic coast of Portugal, European and African Mediterranean and West African coast to Angola, Macaronesian archipelagos in the eastern Atlantic and from the Caribbean and nearby Atlantic, including eastern Florida, Texas and Mexico (Abbott, 1974; Rolan, 2005). Although its presence in the western Atlantic has been attributed to a Nineteenth Century invasion from the Mediterranean Sea (Morrison, 1963, 1972), this view was questioned by Carlton (1992) based on habitat and broad Western Atlantic distribution, and it is thus considered by some a cryptogenic species (Carlton, 1992; Baker, Baker & Fajans, 2004) – a species that may be either native or introduced. The potential invasive capacity of Mediterranean Siphonaria pectinata has recently been demonstrated by a considerable range extension to the Gulf of Tunis (northeastern Tunisia), where it was established after 2005 (Antit, Gofas & Azzouna, 2007) and Croatia (unpublished sequence data available in GenBank, accessioned October 2010). The dietary specialization of the species on soft microalgae that may serve to reduce competition with other grazers that consume harder encrusting material (Ocana & Fa, 2003) has been interpreted as one of the advantages of this species for colonizing new localities. In order to test the potential invasion of Siphonaria pectinata into (or from) the western Atlantic, we collected samples from near the extreme of the species distribution in localities in the province of Cadiz, southeastern Spain (La Caleta and el Puerto de Santa Maria), southern Cameroon (Kribi) and the Atlantic coast of Florida (Fort Pierce) (Table 1), totalling 23 individuals, collected between 1993 and 2010 (see Fig. 1 for some of the sampled specimens). The oldest specimens were preserved in 70% ethanol and transferred to 96% ethanol a few years after collection; newer specimens were preserved in 96% ethanol and stored at –808C until processed for DNA extraction. Specimens were retained as vouchers and, together with their DNA extractions, are deposited in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Department of Invertebrate Zoology DNA collection under numbers MCZ DNA100660, DNA104633, DNA104886 and DNA105664. Total DNA was extracted from a small tissue sample from the foot using the DNeasy Tissue Kit from QIAGEN# and the protocol provided by the manufacturer. The purified DNA was used as a template for PCR amplification of fragments of the mitochondrial genes cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI), and 16S rRNA. A 658-bp fragment of the COI gene was amplified and sequenced using the primer pair LCO1490–HCO2198 (Folmer et al., 1994), and part of the 16S rRNA gene, between 436 and 437 bp, was amplified and sequenced using primer pair 16Sa–16Sb (Xiong & Kocher, 1991; Edgecombe, Giribet & Wheeler, 2002). PCRs (25 ml) included 1 ml of the template DNA, 1 ml of each primer, 2.5 ml EconoTaq 10X PCR buffer containing 15 mM MgCl2 (Lucigen), 0.25 ml of dNTPs 100 mM, 1.25 U of EconoTaq DNA polymerase (Lucigen). The PCRs were carried out using an Eppendorf Mastercycler epgradient thermal cycler, and involved, for COI, an initial denaturation at 958C for 2 min, followed by 36 cycles of denaturation step at 958C (45 s), annealing at 41–448C (COI) or 48–538C (16S rRNA) (1 min) and elongation at 728C (90 s). The final elongation step at 728C (4 min) and a rapid thermal ramp for 48C were applied to finalize the process. The double-stranded PCR products were visualized by agarose-gel electrophoresis (1.5% agarose), cleaned up with 2 ml of diluted (1:3) ExoSAP-IT (USB Corp., Cleveland, OH, USA) in a volume of 22 ml PCR product and performed at 378C for 30 min followed by enzyme inactivation at 808C for 15 min. Sequencing reactions were performed in a 10-ml reaction volume using 3.2 ml primer (1 mM), a 1 ml of ABI BigDye Terminator v. 3.0 (Applied Biosystems), 0.5 ml BigDye 5 Sequencing Buffer (Applied Biosystems) and 3.3 ml of cleaned PCR product. The sequencing reaction, performed by using the thermal cycler described above, involved an initial denaturation step for 3 min at 958C, 25 cycles (958C for 10 s, 508C for 5 s and 608C for 4 min) and a rapid thermal ramp to 48C. The BigDye-labelled PCR products were cleaned using Performa DTR Plates (Edge Biosystems, Gaithersburg, MD, USA). The chromatograms were visualized, edited and assembled using Sequencher (Gene Codes Corporation#1991–2006). External primers were cropped and discarded from the edited sequences. Subsequently, the sequences were edited using the sequence alignment editor Se-Al v. 2.0a11. The same program was used to translate COI sequences to ensure that stop codons were not present. The sequences generated in this study have been deposited in GenBank under accession numbers HQ386632–HQ386679. Using Siphonaria concinna G.B. Sowerby I, 1824 (GenBank accession numbers EF489378.1 and EF489300.1 for COI and 16S rRNA, respectively), S. serrata (Fischer, 1807) (GenBank accession numbers EF489380.1 and EF489302.1) and the western Atlantic species S. alternata Say, 1826 (new data for voucher MCZ DNA105833; GenBank accession numbers HQ386678 and HQ386679) as outgroups we performed a maximum-likelihood (ML) phylogenetic tree search. Phylogenetic analyses were conducted in RAxML 7.0.4 (Stamatakis, 2006). Nodal support was estimated via bootstrapping (1,000 replicates) (Stamatakis, Hoover & Rougemont, 2008). Because COI and 16S rRNA can be considered part of the same locus, all analyses were conducted for both genes independently and as a concatenated dataset. The

In June 1970, a diverse group of scientists attended the International Symposium on the Biology of the Sipuncula and Echiura at the Marine Biological Station in Kotor, Yugoslavia. Forty-two years later, in June 2012, an aspiring generation of like-minded scientists convened the Second International Symposium on the Biology of the Sipuncula (ISBS2) along the banks of the Fort Pierce Inlet to the Indian River Lagoon in Fort Pierce, Florida, USA. The primary objective of the second symposium was to convene the world’s dedicated sipunculan biologists in one place for a long-overdue face-to-face communication of past, present, and future research. This proceedings volume includes a brief summary of workshop discussions and field events as well as a compilation of selected research papers presented by an international group of 16 scientists from 12 nations in attendance at the ISBS2. Herein, we highlight molecular, developmental, morphological, ecological, and biogeographic diversity of adult and larval sipunculans. In addition, we introduce several of the outstanding research challenges associated with resolving sipunculan interrelationships, establishing standard sets of taxonomic characters, refining methods for identification of cryptic species, reconstructing an evolutionary framework of developmental life history patterns, and addressing implications of recent phylogenetic and phylogenomic hypotheses that have relocated the ancient radiation of unsegmented sipunculan body plans within the predominantly segmented Annelida. Collectively, although we represent a small group of sipunculan biologists (of whom a matching number did not attend the ISBS2), we hope this volume will not only draw attention to an intriguing and notably understudied clade of marine worms but also attract new researchers to help us promote them as valuable experimental models and to include them among broader interdisciplinary efforts to better understand the biological diversity of marine invertebrate animals worldwide. Smithsonian Contributions to the Marine Sciences , number 42, x + 235 pages, 151 figures, 23 tables, 2018.

Phascolosoma perlucens is one of the most common intertidal sipunculan species and has been considered a circumtropical cosmopolitan taxon due to the presence of a long-lived larva. To verify whether P. perlucens is a true cosmopolitan species or a complex of cryptic forms, we examined the population structure and demographics of 56 putative P. perlucens individuals from 13 localities throughout the tropics. Analysis of two mitochondrial markers, cytochrome c oxidase subunit I and 16S rRNA, suggests high levels of genetic differentiation between distantly located populations of P. perlucens. At least four different lineages identified morphologically as P. perlucens were distinguished. These lineages are likewise supported by phylogenetic analysis of the two mitochondrial markers and by the haplotype network analysis. Our results suggest that P. perlucens is a case of overconservative taxonomy, rejecting the alleged cosmopolitanism of P. perlucens. However, cryptic speciation also exists in some areas, including a possible case of geminate species across the Isthmus of Panama.

Two new species of the genus Nephasoma, phylum Sipuncula, are described from subtropical waters of the western Atlantic. Nephasoma (Nephasoma) columbaris is described from the central east coast of Florida where it is found along the edge of the continental shelf at depths of 61 to 104 m associated with the rubble from the reefs of the deep water coral Oculina varicosa. A second species, Nephasoma (Nephasoma) ditadii, is described from Brazilian waters in sand habitats at 150 m on the continental shelf off the coast of the state of Sao Paulo. Morphology of the two species is compared with allied species in the genus and the phylum. Usage in the taxonomic literature of the diagnostic characters “shield” and “pseudoshield” is reviewed and evaluated.

Catiniid copepods are characterized by the presence of a pedunculate sucker on the antenna. Four genera are currently included in the family Catiniidae: Catinia, Cotylemyzon, Cotylomolgus and Myzomolgus, the most speciose. Within the framework of the Special Research Program "Conservation and Sustainable Use of the Biodiversity of the State of São Paulo - Biota/FAPESP", a new species of Myzomolgus was found as an external associate of Sipunculus nudus and S. phalloides phalloides. The sipunculan worms were collected during the low tide in Araçá Beach, State of São Paulo, Brazil (23º49’02"S, 45º24’19"W). The new species differs from its three congeners, namely M. stupendus from France and M. tenuis and M. orientalis from Korea, by the peculiar ornamentation of the third antennal segment, morphology of mandible and leg 6 and presence of denticulate area between maxillipeds. The description of this new species raises to four the number of catiniid species (one of Catinia and two of Myzomolgus) associated with the widely distributed S. nudus. In Brazil, this is the first record of Myzomolgus and the second species associated with sipunculan worms (a new species of Catinia found on S. phalloides phalloides is under description).Os copépodes catiniídeos se caracterizam pela presença de uma ventosa pedunculada na antena. Atualmente, quatro gêneros estão incluídos na família Catiniidae: Catinia, Cotylemyzon, Cotylemolgus e Myzomolgus, o mais especioso. Como parte de um programa especial de pesquisa "Conservação e Uso Sustentável da Biodiversidade do Estado de São Paulo - Biota/FAPESP", uma nova espécie de Myzomolgus foi encontrada associada à superfície externa de Sipunculus nudus e S. phalloides phalloides. Os sipuncúlidos foram coletados na Praia do Araçá, Estado de São Paulo, Brasil (23º49’02"S, 45º24’19"W), durante a maré baixa. A nova espécie difere de M. stupendus, da França, e M. tenuis e M. orientalis, ambos da Coréia do Sul, pela ornamentação peculiar do terceiro artículo da antena, morfologia da mandíbula e perna 6, e presença de área denticulada entre os maxilípedes. A descrição desta nova espécie eleva para quatro o número de catiniídeos (uma espécie de Catinia e duas de Myzomolgus) associados a S. nudus, um táxon de larga distribuição. No Brasil, este é o primeiro relato de Myzomolgus, e o registro da segunda espécie associada a sipuncúlidos (uma nova espécie de Catinia associada a S. phalloides phalloides encontra-se em descrição).

Summary The various shapes, size and fine details of ossicles are of paramount importance as systematic characters in the Echinodermata. The ossicles in this group are endodermal and a method to free them from the dermis is essential for their study. To date, a small quantity of hypochlorite solution (usually household liquid bleach) has been used to dissolve a small piece of tissue and, consequently, free these ossicles. A new method, using a proteolytic enzyme instead of hypochlorite solution to dissolve holothurian tissues, is proposed. This method was tested on fragments of body tissues from three species in three different orders of holothurians: Holothuria grisea Selenka, 1867 (Aspidochirotida), Duasmodactyla seguroensis (Deichmann, 1930) (Dendrochirotida) and Synaptula secreta Ancona Lopez (1957) (Apodida). Observations of material prepared using the hypochlorite and the enzyme methods were made using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The SEM images show the striking differences in the surface of the ossicles obtained by each method, and reveal the advantages of the enzyme method.

The tilt angle, i.e., the angle from horizontal made by the fish body as its head dives down or up, affects the readings on fish echo soundings. We measured the tilt angle of Japanese sandeels (Ammodytes personatus Girard) in a water tank, and calculated the acoustic target strength (TS) using a theoretical scattering model. This study examined the TS of sandeels from the northern coast of Hokkaido, which have a larger body size than those in other regions in Japan. TS values for sandeels, a swimbladderless fish, were estimated using a distorted-wave Born approximation (DWBA) model at two frequencies: 38 and 120 kHz. The mean tilt angle was 20.4?? (S.D. = 18.5??), which differed slightly from that of the lesser sandeel, Ammodytes marinus. The regression equations of the average TS values were TS38kHz = 8.2 log10SL ??? 74.2 and TS120kHz = 20.9 log10SL ??? 92.6, respectively. At 120 kHz, the slope was close to 20, suggesting that the acoustic backscattering strength was proportional to the square of the body length. This value was smaller at 38 kHz, suggesting that the acoustic backscattering strength was stable to differences in body length. We obtained a small discrepancy for both frequencies (??TS = TS120kHz???TS38kHz) were TS120kHz < TS38kHz. Discrepancies of ???1.3 dB for the maximum TS, and ???1.8 dB for averaged TS were found in 72 fish samples, which would be useful for identifying sandeel schools in practical analysis using TS differences.

Revived interest in molluscan phylogeny has resulted in a torrent of molecular sequence data from phylogenetic, mitogenomic, and phylogenomic studies. Despite recent progress, basal relationships of the class Bivalvia remain contentious, owing to conflicting morphological and molecular hypotheses. Marked incongruity of phylogenetic signal in datasets heavily represented by nuclear ribosomal genes versus mitochondrial genes has also impeded consensus on the type of molecular data best suited for investigating bivalve relationships. To arbitrate conflicting phylogenetic hypotheses, we evaluated the utility of four nuclear protein-encoding genes—ATP synthase β, elongation factor-1α, myosin heavy chain type II, and RNA polymerase II—for resolving the basal relationships of Bivalvia. We sampled all five major lineages of bivalves (Archiheterodonta, Euheterodonta [including Anomalodesmata], Palaeoheterodonta, Protobranchia, and Pteriomorphia) and inferred relationships using maximum likelihood and Bayesian approaches. To investigate the robustness of the phylogenetic signal embedded in the data, we implemented additional datasets wherein length variability and/or third codon positions were eliminated. Results obtained include (a) the clade (Nuculanida + Opponobranchia), i.e., the traditionally defined Protobranchia; (b) the monophyly of Pteriomorphia; (c) the clade (Archiheterodonta + Palaeoheterodonta); (d) the monophyly of the traditionally defined Euheterodonta (including Anomalodesmata); and (e) the monophyly of Heteroconchia, i.e., (Palaeoheterodonta + Archiheterodonta + Euheterodonta). The stability of the basal tree topology to dataset manipulation is indicative of signal robustness in these four genes. The inferred tree topology corresponds closely to those obtained by datasets dominated by nuclear ribosomal genes (18S rRNA and 28S rRNA), controverting recent taxonomic actions based solely upon mitochondrial gene phylogenies.

We have studied “Cellular Robotic System (CEBOT)”, which consists of many kinds of units called “cell”. CEBOT is required to be able to carry out many sorts of tasks under various surroundings. But it is impossible for CEBOT to install all sorts of the task execution procedures. Then CEBOT should be able to generate task execution procedures for a new task by reconfigurating himself. In this paper, we propose a new kind of the distributed intelligence system which is based on the concept of CEBOT. This proposed intelligence system has the abilities of learning, reasoning, and self-organizing. As similar to the hardware structure of CEBOT, this system consists of various kinds of intelligence units called “knowledge-cell”. By using the knowledge-cells and the proposed algorithms, the system which can generate task procedures is realized. Some simulations are also shown for demonstrating the self-organization and self-evolution abilities of the distributed intelligence system.

The stress-strain curve of an industrial composite such as a fiber-reinforced plastic falls between those of fibers and plastic matrix. On the other hand, despite the fact that the biological soft tissue is composed of collagen fascicles in a matrix whose Young’s modulus is almost negligible, the Young’s modulus of the tissue is higher than the fascicles. To insight into the mechanism of such inverse characteristics, we developed a mathematical model of a ligament, by taking into account a fascicle’s kinematic non-uniformity along its longitudinal direction and mechanical interaction between fascicles or a fascicle and matrix. Simulations results demonstrated the inverse characteristics and also helped to understand the mechanism of ligament’s failure.

Catiniid copepods are characterized by the presence of a pedunculate sucker on the antenna. Four genera are currently included in the family Catiniidae: Catinia, Cotylemyzon, Cotylomolgus and Myzomolgus, the most speciose. Within the framework of the Special Research Program "Conservation and Sustainable Use of the Biodiversity of the State of São Paulo - Biota/FAPESP", a new species of Myzomolgus was found as an external associate of Sipunculus nudus and S. phalloides phalloides. The sipunculan worms were collected during the low tide in Araçá Beach, State of São Paulo, Brazil (23º49’02"S, 45º24’19"W). The new species differs from its three congeners, namely M. stupendus from France and M. tenuis and M. orientalis from Korea, by the peculiar ornamentation of the third antennal segment, morphology of mandible and leg 6 and presence of denticulate area between maxillipeds. The description of this new species raises to four the number of catiniid species (one of Catinia and two of Myzomolgus) associated with the widely distributed S. nudus. In Brazil, this is the first record of Myzomolgus and the second species associated with sipunculan worms (a new species of Catinia found on S. phalloides phalloides is under description). Os copépodes catiniídeos se caracterizam pela presença de uma ventosa pedunculada na antena. Atualmente, quatro gêneros estão incluídos na família Catiniidae: Catinia, Cotylemyzon, Cotylemolgus e Myzomolgus, o mais especioso. Como parte de um programa especial de pesquisa "Conservação e Uso Sustentável da Biodiversidade do Estado de São Paulo - Biota/FAPESP", uma nova espécie de Myzomolgus foi encontrada associada à superfície externa de Sipunculus nudus e S. phalloides phalloides. Os sipuncúlidos foram coletados na Praia do Araçá, Estado de São Paulo, Brasil (23º49’02"S, 45º24’19"W), durante a maré baixa. A nova espécie difere de M. stupendus, da França, e M. tenuis e M. orientalis, ambos da Coréia do Sul, pela ornamentação peculiar do terceiro artículo da antena, morfologia da mandíbula e perna 6, e presença de área denticulada entre os maxilípedes. A descrição desta nova espécie eleva para quatro o número de catiniídeos (uma espécie de Catinia e duas de Myzomolgus) associados a S. nudus, um táxon de larga distribuição. No Brasil, este é o primeiro relato de Myzomolgus, e o registro da segunda espécie associada a sipuncúlidos (uma nova espécie de Catinia associada a S. phalloides phalloides encontra-se em descrição).

Siphonaria pectinata (Linnaeus, 1758) has been considered a widespread species with Amphiatlantic distribution or a case of cryptic taxonomy where sibling species exist. We undertook molecular evaluation of 66 specimens from across its putative distribution range. We examined up to three molecular markers (mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I and 16S rRNA, and nuclear internal transcribed spacer-2) of putative S. pectinata, including populations from the Mediterranean Sea, eastern Atlantic (Spain, Canary Islands, Cape Verde Islands, Cameroon and Gabon) and western Atlantic (Florida and Mexico), covering most of the natural range of the species. While little information could be derived from the shell morphology, molecular data clearly distinguished three lineages with no apparent connectivity. These lineages correspond to what we interpret as three species, two suspected from prior work: S. pectinata, restricted to the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean and S. naufragum Stearns, 1872 in Florida and the Gulf of Mexico. A third species has been identified for the Cape Verde Archipelago, for which we use the available name S. placentulaMenke, 1853.

Thc Dynamically Rcconflgurahlc Robotic Systcm (1)IllCS) Is a ncw kind ol' robotlr system whlch Is ablr to reconrlguratc I Lscl f to optimal structure dcpending on purpose and environment. To realize this concept, we has proposed CEBOT (Cellular Robotics). Communication is needed in CEBOT system as follows: When cells are separated , communication master cell needs to know other cell's function, position and determine the target cell for docking. A mobile cells should be able to coordinate with other mobile cells. When cells are docked, forming cell structure/module, a master cell should control bending joint cell and know of which cells the construction is composed. In this paper, we propose a communication protocol for both cases with optical sensor applicable to CEBOT. Some experimental results are shown by realizing the proposed communication method between cells.

Cellular Robotic System"CEB0T" has been studied to realize a dynamically r econfigurable r obotic system, which can c arry out m any kind of tasks under various environments by the authors. CEBOT consists of a lot of units called "cell" which has a simple function. To deal with a complex task which can not be carried out by a cell, CEBOT generates various "module" ,which is composed of some cells. A much complex 5ystem composed of some modules is called "structure", which can carry out very complicated tasks. As above mentioned concepts, CEBOT is very similar to a living creature, because tissues and organs are formed by a lot of cells. CEBOT h as to not only create new modules and structures, but also kill some modules and structures, because the number of cells is limited. Therefore it is necessary to study a system which can create and kill new group composed of many units of the system. In this paper, We propose a strategy of self-organization. We call the strategy an Genetic Cell Production Algorithm (GCPA). The GCPA is based on the Genetic Algorithms, which are search algorithms based on the mechanics of natural se1ectiol.r and n atural genetics. We also propose a estimation method for the distributed system, which can be described by relations among subsystems. To simulate the self-organization based on the GCPA, we designed a distributed s ystem, which has a hierarchical cell-structure based on the concept of CEBOT. By using the model of a distributed system, some simulational results and analysis are reported in this paper, to verify the efficiency of the GCPA.

An 86-year-old woman with liver cirrhosis was admitted because of clouding of consciousness, which had been present for 3 days. She had mild fever and marked nuchal rigidity. CSF showed increased polymorphonuclear leukocytes (1620 μL), increased protein (614 mg/dL), and low glucose level (1 mg/dL). CSF culture revealed Escherichia coli …

It is well known that exposure to various stresses leads to pain suppression in animals. However, there is no report about the effects of gravitational alteration to serve as a kind of stress. The purpose of the present study is to clarify the effect of hypergravity (2 G) on the nociceptive responses and histochemical changes in rats. We examined the level of the threshold of withdrawal reflex against the noxious [correction of noxicious] stimulation in rats that were exposed to 2 G. Data show that the 2 G exposure elevates the nociceptive threshold. We have demonstrated for the first time that gravity change induces analgesic effects on rats in concomitant with c-fos induction in the arcuate, and paraventricular nuclei of rat hypothalamus. Gravity change acts as a kind of stress in rats.

It is known that pain suppression in animals is induced by certain environmental stimulus. However, little is known about the effects of gravitational alteration on the nociceptive responses in rats. A recent study indicated that Fos protein expression was strongly induced in the vestibular-related brainstem regions of rats that were exposed to 2 G hypergravity (Gustave Dit Duflo et al., 2000). A number of studies indicate that Fos expression is induced in the brain by various kinds of stress. We showed that either long-term exposure or short-term exposure to 2 G hypergravity elevated the nociceptive threshold in the rat skin surfaces, in concomitant with Fos induction in the hypothalamus including the arcuate nucleus and paraventricular nucleus (Kumei et al., 2000). We have examined the possible involvement of beta-endorphin, an endogenous opioid, in the hypergravity-induced analgesic effects on rats and its counteraction by naloxone, an opioid receptor antagonist.

The dynamically reconfigurable robotic system is a novel kind of robotic system that can reconfigure itself to optimal structure depending on purpose and environment. To realize this concept, the authors propose CEBOT (cellular robotics). They explain the necessity of communication in both the docked and undocked states for CEBOT as an autonomous decentralized coordinated system and propose a method for achieving this. They show the necessity of coordination control and compare two autonomous docking methods. They define a communication protocol in the undocked state and realize it by an optical sensor. They then choose and realize a communication protocol in the docked state. >

The authors propose a genetic knowledge production algorithm (GKPA) for CEBOT, in order to realize a self-organizing and self-evolutionary knowledge system. They propose a new kind of distributed intelligence system which is based on the concept of CEBOT employing the GKPA. This proposed intelligence system has capabilities of learning, reasoning, and self-organizing. This system consists of various kinds of intelligence units called knowledge-cells. As an example of the applications of the self-organizing intelligence, a robotic manipulator capable of learning and reasoning has been made from the CEBOT concept by installing the intelligence system with GKPA in the manipulator. The knowledge acquisition ability of the manipulator is demonstrated by experimental results. >

The Cellular Robotic System (CEBOT) is studied with the aim of realizing a self-organizing robotic system. A principle of the distributed decision making method for a multi-agents robotic system is reported. Some simple control laws which each unit should obey are proposed. The conditions of parameters of the control laws to keep the total system stable are also discussed. To demonstrate the efficiency of the proposed method, a simple task (carry the object) is carried out by some mobile cells which obey the methods from simulation experiments. The optimal number of cells to execute the task is evaluated and discussed. >

The authors have studied the cellular robotic system (CEBOT) with the aim of realizing a self-organizing robotic system. It can be regarded that CEBOT is one of the multi-agents robotic systems studied by many researchers. It is generally considered that one of the features of the multi-agents robot is that the system can carry out many kinds of tasks under various environments due to coordination among many agents. It is assumed that a group of the agents can get higher performance than an ability of single agent. In this paper, the relation between the resource amount, which implies both hardware and software installed into the system, and system performance is discussed. At first, a new concept called function amplification is proposed and defined, the control law of each agent to achieve the function amplification is secondarily discussed. In the last part of this paper, some simulations are reported and discussed to demonstrate the relation between resource amount and system performance.

A new heating method for hyperthermia using microwaves and ultrasound simultaneously is proposed, and temperature distributions are obtained by computer simulations. The results show that the simultaneous use of microwaves and ultrasound can heat a wider and deeper region than sole use, and can reduce the input power of microwaves and ultrasound. This implies that one can reduce the hazards that high power microwaves and ultrasound may bring about. >

For practical applications of wobble motors to MEMS, we have developed a new fabrication technique. This technique is based on assembly-free process and can produce wobble motors with both sufficient mechanical strength and appropriate interface to other devices. This new process features the concentric build-up of layers around a cylindrical substrate and three dimensional bulk structures can be easily produced by microfabrication methods. In this paper, we present the details of this novel fabrication technique and show the experimental results of the fabricated wobble motors.

The dynamical self knowledge allocation method is presented for a distributed intelligent system. The authors apply the method to the cellular robotic system CEBOT, which is one of the distributed systems. They propose a new matrix notation, the knowledge-based structure matrix, to express the communication link and states of the knowledge allocation. They also propose a matrix notation for describing a given task, the task matrix. The efficiency of the dynamical self knowledge allocation method reduces the total system communication information volume. >

The authors propose a novel distributed intelligence system which is based on the concept of a cellular robotic system (CEBOT). This proposed intelligent system has the abilities of learning, reasoning, and self-organizing. This system consists of various kinds of intelligence units called knowledge-cells. By using the knowledge cells and the proposed algorithms, which should be stored in each cell genetically, the system realizes self-organization and self-evolution. In addition to proposing the basic genetic algorithm, the organization of a cell-structured system is numerically analyzed. Some simulations are also shown to demonstrate the self-organizing and self-evolution abilities of the distributed intelligence system. >

'Cellular robotic system (CEBOT)' consists of many units called 'cells'. CEBOT is required to be able to carry out many different tasks under various surroundings. The authors propose a new kind of distributed intelligent system which is based on the concept of CEBOT. This intelligent system proposed has the abilities of learning, reasoning, and self-organizing. Similar to the hardware structure of CEBOT, this system consists of various kinds of 'intelligence' units called 'knowledge-cells'. By using the knowledge-cells and the proposed algorithms, the system which can generate task procedures is realized. To estimate the efficiency of this system, a search space based on the theory of probability is described. >

Deals with a method of construction of complicated systems based on cells having simple functions. This system is called a cellular robotic system (CEBOT). CEBOT is a kind of a distributed intelligence system which has been considered as one of the next generation artificial intelligence system. Each cell has its own knowledge and database. Each cell can carry out tasks by using its own knowledge and other cells' knowledge. So knowledge allocation must be considered to be optimal due to the intelligent communication. The authors propose the communication system of CEBOT and one method of the communication evaluations based on the communication information calculated from the proposed communication protocol. A concept of the sensitivity for transferring knowledge to the other cell is also described. Some simulation results on estimation of knowledge allocation by minimizing the communication information capacity and the sensitivity are reported. >

A knowledge allocation method for distributed intelligent system system is proposed and applied the method to the cellular robotic system CEBOT distributed systems. A new matrix notation is proposed to express the communication link and states of the knowledge allocation, knowledge based structure matrix. A notation for describing a given task is also proposed. The efficiency of the method, which the amount of system information communication is shown by simulations. It is concluded that the proposed knowledge allocation method is applicable to general distributed systems. >

The authors propose an optimal structure decision method which can determine cell type, arrangement, degree of freedom, and link length. It can be used for fixed-base and mobile-base manipulators, so that universal/modular manipulators can be made. Simulation results show the differences in evaluation for different candidates and tasks and also demonstrate that the structure decision method works efficiently. With respect to the software structure, optimal knowledge allocation is one of the most important issues for CEBOT. The authors propose a method of optimal knowledge allocation based on the amount of communication among cells. Communication among cells for the control proposed is described. >

Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) instabilities, such as kink and sausage instabilities, appeared on the gas-puff z-pinch plasma during the pinching process prevent spatial stability of hot spots, which are high energy density plasma regions produced by those instabilities on the z-pinch plasma column locally. Spatial stabilization of hot spots in the axial direction is very important to have practical applications. In this study, radius and velocity of the inwardly tilted gas-puff z-pinch plasma during the compression and efficiency of energy conversion were analyzed theoretically by solving one dimensional snowplow model (1D-SPM) and circuit equations which considered inductive pulsed power generator. Those results were compared with experimental results measured with framing photograph of the pinching plasma. Efficiency of energy conversion of an input energy supplied from the inductive pulsed power generator into kinetic energy of the z-pinch plasma and final pinching velocity of the plasma exceeded that in comparison with fast bank method. These results received benefit from the fast and large pinching current transferred from the inductive pulsed power generator.

An inductive pulsed power generator which has copper wire fuses used as an opening switch has been developed at Kyushu University (Japan) as the power source of a gas-puff Z-pinch. The inductive pulsed power generator has a capacitor of 11 /spl mu/F and 19.8 kJ as a primary energy source and can supply a driving current with a rise time of about 200 ns to the gas-puff Z-pinch plasma. Experiments with fast bank and inductive pulsed power methods are performed to investigate the characteristics of gas-puff Z-pinch plasmas. The obtained results show that the intensity of soft X-rays decreases gradually with a delay time which is the time difference between the beginning of the coil current from a gas-puff actuator and that of generator current in both methods. From the observation of hot spots recorded with two pin-hole cameras arranged at right angles to each other, it is found that the hot spots tend to align on the central axis between electrodes with increase of the rising rate of plasma current. The behavior of imploding cylindrical plasma depend on the rising rate of plasma current. Especially, sausage instability in the pinching plasma along the axis becomes predominant in the case of higher rising rate of current by the inductive pulsed power method, and the faster current leads to spatially-confined distributions of hot spots appearance shot to shot.

Objective: Eosinophils from patients with hypereosinophilic syndrome (HES) showed augmented release of leukotriene C4 (LTC4) by stimulation with A23187. In the present study, we investigated the involvement of cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2) in this phenomenon.¶Methods: Eosinophils from normal and HES donors (2.5 × 106 cells/ml) were incubated with A23187 (0.03–3 μM) for 60 min in the presence or absence of a cPLA2 inhibitor, AACOCF3. The LTC4 released from eosinophils was measured by enzyme immunoassay. Distribution of cPLA2 and 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) proteins within the eosinophils were detected by Western immunoblotting.¶Results: The level of LTC4 released from the HES eosinophils by stimulation with A23187 was higher than that from normal eosinophils. The A23187-induced LTC4 release was inhibited by AACOCF3 in a dose-dependent manner. The amounts of cPLA2 seemed to be increased in the non-stimulated HES eosinophils by an analysis of immunoblotting. To be noticed was that cPLA2 was detected as a phosphorylated and membrane-bound form in the HES eosinophils, but not in the normal eosinophils. In contrast, localization of 5-LO within the eosinophils under A23187 stimulation was not different between normal and HES donors, while the amounts of 5-LO also seemed to be increased in the HES eosinophils.¶Conclusions: These results suggest that cPLA2, increased and activated (phosphorylated and membrane-translocated) in vivo, is involved in the augmented release of LTC4 from the HES eosinophils.

Nerve conduction blocks (NCBs) in Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) are frequently found at the distal terminals, proximal segments, and common entrapment sites of peripheral nerves. NCBs at distal terminals and proximal segments are considered to be due to vulnerability of the sites to the humoral factors of GBS because of relative blood-nerve barrier deficiencies. In contrast, it is not clear whether NCBs at common entrapment sites in GBS are due to a vulnerability to humoral influences or to direct mechanical compression injuries. We report a case of a 22-year-old man with GBS. His electrophysiologic examination revealed NCBs at multiple common entrapment sites. All conduction blocks rapidly disappeared after plasmapheresis, in parallel with clinical improvement. The patient was ambulatory throughout the clinical course, suggesting that his common entrapment sites remained free from compression injuries. Rapid improvement by plasmapheresis suggested that there were no demyelinative histologic changes in the NCB sites. Such NCBs may be caused by some humoral factor that is removed by plasmapheresis. Therefore, the common entrapment sites in our patient may have been especially vulnerable to the humoral factor of GBS.

Group IIA phospholipase A2 (PLA2), a secretory low-molecular-weight PLA2, may play a critical role in the process of gallbladder mucosal inflammation in multiple cholesterol stones, which in turn may produce biliary pronucleating proteins as well as mucin. On the other hand, ursodeoxycholate (UDC) decreases biliary levels of various pronucleating proteins, possibly because of its membrane-protective effects on the inflamed gallbladder mucosa. To elucidate that beneficial effect of UDC, the expression levels of low-molecular-weight PLA2s, group IIA PLA2 (PLA2-IIA), and group V PLA2 (PLA2-V), and mucin core polypeptide genes in the gallbladders were studied for UDC-treated patients and untreated patients with multiple cholesterol stones. Furthermore, the results were correlated with alterations in biliary composition. With long-term administration of UDC, the PLA2-IIA protein mass (2.7 +/- 0.5 vs. 5.0 +/- 0.4 ng/mg x protein [mean +/- SEM]; P.01) and steady-state mRNA level, as well as the PLA2-V mRNA level, were significantly decreased in the gallbladders, where the prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) level was concomitantly decreased (190.7 +/- 27.9 vs. 393.6 +/- 55.3 pg/mg x protein; P.01). In the gallbladder bile, the immunoradiometrically determined PLA2-IIA levels were significantly decreased in the UDC-treated patients (43 +/- 4 ng/dL; P.01) in comparison with untreated patients (78 +/- 6 ng/dL). Significant decreases were similarly found for total protein, mucin, and free arachidonate concentrations, as well as nucleation activity in the bile. The degree of the changes was found to be rather small in solitary stones. In contrast to the decreased mucin concentration, however, there were no significant changes in the expression levels of mucin core polypeptide genes (MUC1-MUC6) between the UDC-treated and untreated patients. Long-term UDC administration was observed to lower the increased PLA2-IIA protein mass and mRNA level, as well as the PLA2-V mRNA level, in the gallbladders of patients with multiple cholesterol stones, which in turn may be of therapeutic importance in improving the gallbladder mucosal inflammation. Effects of UDC on secretory low-molecular-weight PLA2s as inflammatory mediators may relate to the reported efficacy of UDC treatment in cholesterol gallstone disease.