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Unidad de excelencia María de Maeztu MdM-2015-0552 Most of the literature on the causes of tropical deforestation has focused on the proximate and distal causes. However, research exploring the psychological drivers of deforestation, i.e., motivations, is still scant despite being crucial to understand the processes of land-use change and individual decision making within social-ecological systems. We studied the combined effect of structural and individual causes of deforestation, with particular emphasis on motivations, for a sample of rural households in Colombia's foremost tropical deforestation frontier. We implemented a new instrument based on self-determination theory to measure five different types of motivations to protect the forests: intrinsic, guilt/regret, social, extrinsic motivations, and amotivation (lack of motivation). Our findings show that, controlling for the structural and household drivers widely identified in the deforestation literature, intrinsic motivations positively correlate with less self-reported deforestation. Also, amotivated people and those with extrinsic motives, such as expected payments for conservation, are more likely to deforest. Our results show that motivations can explain variation in land-use decisions and thus should be considered when designing, implementing, and evaluating conservation policies aiming to halt deforestation.

To address concerns about the negative impacts of food supply chains in forest regions, a growing number of companies have adopted policies to influence their suppliers' behaviors. With a focus on forest-risk food supply chains, we provide a systematic review of the conservation and livelihood outcomes of the mechanisms that companies use to implement their forest-focused supply chain policies (FSPs)—certifications, codes of conduct, and market exclusion mechanisms. More than half of the 37 cases that rigorously measure the outcomes of FSP implementation mechanisms find additional conservation and livelihood benefits resulting from the policies. Positive livelihood outcomes are more common than conservation additionality and most often pertain to improvements in farm income through increases in crop yields on coffee and cocoa farms that have adopted certifications or codes of conduct. However, in some cases certifications lead to a reduction in net household income as farmers increasingly specialize in the certified commodity and spend more on food purchases. Among the five cases that examine conservation and livelihoods simultaneously, there is no evidence of tradeoffs or synergies—most often an improvement in one type of outcome is associated with no change in the other. Interactions with public conservation and agricultural policies influence the conservation gains achieved by all mechanisms, while the marketing attributes of cooperatives and buying companies play a large role in determining the livelihood outcomes associated with certification. Compliance with the forest requirements of FSP implementation mechanisms is high, but challenges to geospatial monitoring and land use related selection biases limit the overall benefits of these policies. Given the highly variable methods and limited evidence base, additional rigorous research across a greater variety of contexts is urgently needed to better understand if and when FSPs can be successful in achieving synergies between conservation and livelihoods., Environmental Research Letters, 16 (3), ISSN:1748-9326, ISSN:1748-9318

espanolEste articulo presenta un analisis del trabajo docente visto desde la intervencion del coaching como potencializador del aprendizaje en los estudiantes, como una metodologia de autoobservacion y evolucion personal, de nuevas maneras de relacionamiento en los entornos educativos y del interes mostrado por los estudiantes en este metodo de ensenanza. La prueba fue aplicada sobrediez estudiantes con edades entre 14 y 17 anos, del grado decimo de escolaridad basica secundaria. EnglishThis article presents an analysis of teaching processes from the intervention of coaching as enhancer of students’ learning, as a strategy of selfobservation and personal evolution, of new waysof interacting in educational environments, and of the interest in this teaching method shown by students. The test was applied on ten students who are between the ages of 14 and 17, and who are in tenth grade of high school.

The purpose of this paper is to present an analysis of the academic literature addressing Sustainable Supply Chain Management (SSCM) practices in developing countries. A systematic literature review method was adopted; selected papers were reviewed from 2000 to 2016 that matched our inclusion criteria. Common themes across the literature were identified covering four factors regarding the adoption of SSCM: drivers, barriers, mechanisms and outcomes. A conceptual model integrating these factors and based on institutional theory was advanced to explain the adoption of sustainability practices along supply chains in developing countries. The paper concludes by identifying gaps in the literature that require further research on this topic, particularly for the context of developing countries. To the best of our knowledge this is the first paper reviewing the existing research on SSCM in developing countries that includes both social and environmental dimensions.

In this special issue, we explore the challenges and opportunities arising with respect to normative goals of shifting production and international trade in agriculture towards greater sustainability. Private voluntary sustainability standards have experienced substantial growth in various global markets, reaching 40% of global coffee production, 25% of cocoa, and 15% of palm oil1. Given the rapid expansion of private standards, whether third-party certifications, corporate codes of conduct (Vermeulen 2010), or ‘newer’ regulatory approaches such as multi-stakeholder initiatives, public-private partnerships, and efforts to develop new sustainable business models, it is important to consider what such approaches offer. All of these approaches are seeking to contribute, at differing levels of ambition, towards a sustainability transition.

The chocolate market is experiencing a wave of market differentiation thanks to the emergence of the bean-to-bar movement. Cacao is seeing both a rise in demand for mass markets and a process of market bifurcation into more specialized, high-quality products for wealthy urban consumers. For the specialized market, the quality and origin of the beans are important attributes. Direct trading between chocolate makers and famers seeks to promote the conservation of rare cultivars and traditional agroforestry systems, while lifting farmers out of poverty. Here we assess whether these alternative configurations of the global value chain truly offer smallholders new opportunities, beyond the traditional intensification or marginalization pathways that are generally offered to them. We conducted detailed socio-economic and biophysical surveys with a sample of farms in three of the largest cacao producing provinces of Ecuador. Our results show that, even though smallholders lack the assets needed to join mainstream commodity markets, they have been able to capitalize on the qualities of their traditional varieties to access niche markets. Through strong cooperatives, the knowledge held by buyers about what constitutes a high-quality bean has been transferred to farmers. A unique natural capital may provide smallholders with rewarding pathways to develop their agriculture, exploiting new market opportunities offered by globalization. Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment

Specialty coffee markets that recognize coffee-quality price premiums can improve business conditions for smallholders and promote agro-ecological practices. We studied the Relationship Coffee Model (RCM), a business model that supports long-term partnerships between coffee buyers and smallholders based on product quality. We examined how biophysical conditions and production practices affect smallholders’ ability to participate in this model. Furthermore, we considered common unobservable variables driving growers’ participation such as farm soil quality and connection to social networks. In turn, we evaluated key environmental, socio-economic and technological outcomes, including tree and bird population diversity. Our estimations indicated that RCM participants employed more sustainable resource management practices, had better access to credit and were more informed and optimistic about the coffee business. However, we did not find significant farm-gate price differences. Increased adoption of organic farming and shade-grown systems to elevate coffee quality can stimulate sustainable business strategies. Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment

Global trade in niche commodities has increased the influence of consumers' choices on land use change and livelihoods in developing rural areas. New niche commodity markets for fine cocoa—produced by old tree varieties frequently grown in shaded agroforestry systems—create more direct linkages between producers and buyers. We explored the socioeconomic and environmental outcomes for cocoa smallholders that participated in direct trade relations compared with smallholders that sold through mainstream markets. Household interviews were conducted with cocoa smallholders in northern Ecuador. Biodiversity conditions at farm level were monitored for 75% of surveyed households. Using a counterfactual based on genetic matching, we found that smallholders engaged in direct trade (a) captured superior prices for cocoa sales; (b) had greater access to agricultural training, technical assistance, and improved social networks; and (b) applied more nature‐friendly management practices, compared with smallholders selling through mainstream markets. However, a strong overlap between direct trading practices and organic certification made attribution of environmental benefits difficult. This overlap likely explained why farmers engaged in direct trade used more organic fertilizers and less herbicide. Shade level and plant species richness and abundance in plantations were unrelated to market participation. Additional qualitative analyses suggest that certification facilitates engagement in direct trade and that some direct buyers request certification. This study provides insights on the potential of developing value chain innovations for high‐quality commodity trade. The success of value chain innovations hinges on the competitiveness of farmers' cooperatives and involvement of governments, nongovernmental organizations, and private actors.

The interactions between climate and land‐use change are dictating the distribution of flora and fauna and reshuffling biotic community composition around the world. Tropical mountains are particularly sensitive because they often have a high human population density, a long history of agriculture, range‐restricted species, and high‐beta diversity due to a steep elevation gradient. Here we evaluated the change in distribution of woody vegetation in the tropical Andes of South America for the period 2001–2014. For the analyses we created annual land‐cover/land‐use maps using MODIS satellite data at 250 m pixel resolution, calculated the cover of woody vegetation (trees and shrubs) in 9,274 hexagons of 115.47 km2, and then determined if there was a statistically significant (p, The interactions between climate and land‐use change are dictating the distribution of flora and fauna and reshuffling biotic community composition around the world. In the Andes of South America, we found a net increase in woody vegetation above 1000 m. While climate change has likely contributed to this increase, especially at higher elevations, land‐use change is the primary factor altering the contemporary distributions of many species.

Private investments to address environmental issues are perceived as a powerful engine of sustainability. For the agri-food sector, multiple instruments have been developed to green supply chains. Yet little is known about the underlying process and conditions under which green sourcing concerns lead to the adoption of specific sustainability instruments among agri-food companies. This study: i) offers a synthesis of the most commonly used instruments agri-food companies adopt to promote sustainability in their supply chains; ii) proposes an analytical framework to elucidate how those decisions are made, based on the competitive environment in which firms operate—with respect to location of their raw materials, technologies available to their suppliers, leverage over upstream suppliers, and end-markets’ characteristics; and iii) presents seven case-studies illustrating the decision-making process leading to the adoption of a specific instrument by a particular company. Companies that do not have sustainable technologies available to improve their environmental practices but operate in highly sensitive places are better off taking their operation somewhere else. But companies with available cleaner technologies, effective law enforcement and control over the supply chains, as well as a brand to protect, can capitalize on their environmental efforts by introducing strict standards, such as third-party certifications. Enforcement of social and environmental regulations at countries of origin is a key factor that deters companies form adopting very strict standards, even if they have a brand value to enhance. The multiplication of private labels and initiatives are, in most cases, not driven by a desire to disorient the consumer, but rather by a careful consideration of the complex conditions under which agri-food supply chains operate. With minor adaptations, the framework could be applied to other economic sectors that have environmental impacts, from mining and energy-generating industries, to apparel, and electronics.

Zero-deforestation commitments are a type of voluntary sustainability initiative that companies adopt to signal their intention to reduce or eliminate deforestation associated with commodities that they produce, trade, and/or sell. Because each company defines its own zero-deforestation commitment goals and implementation mechanisms, commitment content varies widely. This creates challenges for the assessment of commitment implementation or effectiveness. Here, we develop criteria to assess the potential effectiveness of zero-deforestation commitments at reducing deforestation within a company supply chain, regionally, and globally. We apply these criteria to evaluate 52 zero-deforestation commitments made by companies identified by Forest 500 as having high deforestation risk. While our assessment indicates that existing commitments converge with several criteria for effectiveness, they fall short in a few key ways. First, they cover just a small share of the global market for deforestation-risk commodities, which means that their global impact is likely to be small. Second, biome-wide implementation is only achieved in the Brazilian Amazon. Outside this region, implementation occurs mainly through certification programs, which are not adopted by all producers and lack third-party near-real time deforestation monitoring. Additionally, around half of all commitments include zero-net deforestation targets and future implementation deadlines, both of which are design elements that may reduce effectiveness. Zero-net targets allow promises of future reforestation to compensate for current forest loss, while future implementation deadlines allow for preemptive clearing. To increase the likelihood that commitments will lead to reduced deforestation across all scales, more companies should adopt zero-gross deforestation targets with immediate implementation deadlines and clear sanction-based implementation mechanisms in biomes with high risk of forest to commodity conversion., Global Environmental Change, 54, ISSN:0959-3780, ISSN:1872-9495

Garrett and Rueda analyse the drivers of food systems globalisation and the ways in which increasingly global and homogeneous consumption practices are creating new couplings between places of consumption and production. The authors present recent data on food consumption trends and then describe the changes in demographics, economies, information flows, and energy policies that explain such trends. Using the lens of telecoupling, they then analyse how changes in consumption are influencing demand for land and production practices in distant regions and how these telecouplings between distal socio-ecological systems of production and consumption, as they become more visible, are giving rise to feedback mechanisms in the form of environmental and social governance.

The globalization of food systems has created new challenges for sustainability governance. Voluntary certification schemes, or eco-labels, have emerged as the primary mechanism to improve production practices in complex commodity supply chains. However promising, these programs are difficult to assess in practice, and evidence of their effectiveness is mixed. In the oil palm sector, the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) has become the standard for sustainable production but there has been no evaluation of whether certification actually improves social and environmental practices on farms. To our knowledge, this study provides the first farm-level assessment of certification programs in the oil palm sector by focusing on RSPO and Organic (IFOAM) certified smallholders in Magdalena, Colombia. We conducted field surveys to evaluate management practices using a case-control pair-wise matching approach and non-parametric tests to assess outcome variables between certified and non-certified groups. We found evidence for better environmental practices among certified producers including the substitution of synthetic fertilizers with organics, less agrochemical use, and larger areas of farms being set-aside for conservation. Socio-economic outcomes were mixed, with certified producers paying higher wages, but employing fewer workers due to lower yields. Price premiums were an important motivation for smallholders to both join and remain in certification schemes. In the degraded oil palm landscapes of Colombia and elsewhere in Latin America, certification standards could be improved by including provisions for increased habitat restoration on plantations and smallholder plots. We find that certification is making progress but is not a panacea for transforming the industry. Going forward, new strategies should be sought in tandem with certification to overcome smallholder informality, enhance inclusion, and capture more value in sustainable supply chains.

Globalization and commodity exports have a long history in affecting land use changes and land rights on the tropical forest frontier. This paper reviews a century of social and environmental discourse around land issues for four commodities grown in the humid tropics—rubber, cocoa, oil palm and bananas. States have exercised sovereign rights over land and forest resources and the outcomes for deforestation and land rights of existing users have been quite varied depending on local institutional contexts and political economy. In the current period of globalization, as land use changes associated with tropical commodities have accelerated, land issues are now at center stage in the global discourse. However, efforts to protect forests and the rights of local communities and indigenous groups continue to be ad hoc and codification of minimum standards and their implementation remains a work in progress. Given a widespread failure of state directed policies and institutions to curb deforestation and protect land rights, the private sector, with the exception of the rubber industry, is emphasizing voluntary standards to certify sustainability of their products. This is an important step but expectations that they will effectively address concerns about the impact of tropical commodities expansion might be too high, given their voluntary nature, demand constraints, and the challenge of including smallholders. It is also doubtful that private standards can more than partially compensate for long standing weaknesses in land governance and institutions on the forest frontier.

In this paper we analyze how new actors, interests, and resources become salient to food system governance and how the domain of food system governance transforms as a result. Specifically, we focus on how the boundaries of food systems are redefined and new institutions are developed through the explicit recognition of distal interactions and feedbacks - telecoupling - operating in the food system space. Telecoupling can stimulate new forms of governance, such as the development of codes of conduct and certification schemes, with positive impacts on food and livelihood security; when ignored, telecouplings can exacerbate undesirable social and ecological outcomes in linked systems. We present a typology of telecoupled food systems, highlighting three dimensions of distance that can be present in systems that become telecoupled: social, institutional, and physical. We use that typology to explore the evolution of telecoupling and governance change in two case studies. We associate the tendency for changes in governance that occur in each case with the nature of "distance" in the systems in question: whether the systems are distal in terms of social and/or institutional ties, or in the resource base, or some combination of all three dimensions of distance. The challenge of overcoming distance is not the only issue that affects the possibility of governance change; the cases illustrate that the cultural and economic conditions of the connected systems, the agency of actors involved, and their political and social relations and networks all come to play in enabling governance transformation in telecoupled systems.

Land use is regulated through various mixes of command-and-control interventions that directly affect land use via land use restrictions, and other public interventions that indirectly affect land use via agricultural, forestry, trade or macro-economic policies. More recently, coalitions of public and private actors have designed market-based and/or demand-led policy instruments to influence land use—e.g., eco-certification, geographical indications, commodity roundtables, moratoria, and payments for environmental services. These innovative instruments fall along a continuum of state involvement and interact with traditional public forms of land use regulation, leading to “hybrid” interventions. This article reviews emerging evidence on the effectiveness of the main instruments used to promote sustainable land use, and explores interactions between the new demand-led interventions and formal regulatory public policies. Although there are still insufficient rigorous studies evaluating the effectiveness of hybrid instruments, available evidence suggests some positive direct and indirect benefits. Hybrid instruments combine elements from both private and public regulatory systems, in innovative and effective ways. We propose a typology to characterize potential interactions between instruments that regulate land use. It links various types of interactions—i.e., complementarity, substitution, and antagonism—to the various stages of regulatory processes—i.e., agenda setting, implementation, and monitoring and enforcement. We give examples of governments endorsing certifications or using certification to support their own policies; governments creating enabling conditions for hybrid instruments to mature, allowing for wider adoption; and private instruments reinforcing public regulations or substituting for missing or weak governance. In some cases, governments, NGOs and corporations compete and may hinder each other's actions. With favourable institutional and governance contexts, well-designed hybrid public-private instruments can be effective. More systematic evaluation could boost the effectiveness of instruments and enhance synergistic interaction with traditional public land-use policy instruments to achieve incremental benefits as well as longer-term transformative outcomes in land-use protection.

Eco-certification of agricultural commodities offers an appealing option to promote more sustainable practices among smallholders, increase agricultural value, and lift farmers out of poverty through better market access. This study evaluates whether coffee cultivation is associated with changes in forest cover and forest fragmentation and whether the Rainforest Alliance eco-certification program has led to enhanced tree cover and greater landscape connectivity in the Colombian eastern Andes. Based on satellite imagery, geo-referenced coffee parcels and a pair–case comparison, we show that coffee-growing regions have larger areas in forest, larger forest patches, and better connectivity among patches than non-coffee areas. These differences, however, do not seem to be accentuated over time, except for dense forest cover in the coffee-growing region. The latter has increased since the introduction of a certification program that requires protection of forest remnants and riparian vegetation. Moreover, certified farms in the study area have increased the amount of tree cover on their plots significantly more than non-certified ones. Our study design, therefore, detects additionality in the impact of certification on tree cover increase: in a region with overall increase in tree cover, certified farms contributed significantly more to that trend than non-certified farms. This study presents the first evaluation of the impacts of certification in cultivated landscapes at the ecosystem level, detectable by Earth observation satellites.

Market trends are becoming prominent forces shaping local landscapes. The increasing demand for high-quality and sus- tainable coffees is driving land-use decisions among Colombian farmers. A value chain analysis shows that farmers who sell to differen- tiated markets significantly captured a larger portion of the value added and faced lower volatility than mainstream producers. Consequently, regions apt for producing differentiated coffees experienced the greatest increase in area planted. Tracing the value chain reveals how land use decisions increasingly depend on the pressures and opportunities created by global markets, with detectable impacts on livelihoods and landscapes.

The southern Yucatan has been identified as a deforestation hot spot. Land-change studies document the extent of forest loss at a regional scale, and case studies provide insights into the drivers of deforestation at the household level. Those studies have paid minimal attention to sub-regional analysis, especially to discrete land-management units above the household level. This analysis of upland forest change addresses the range of variation in deforestation among 96 ejidos (communal lands) and the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, the two dominant land-tenure and land-management units in the region. Satellite imagery, census, and land-tenure data are used to establish the extent and location of deforestation patterns, and multivariate techniques are employed to identify biophysical and socioeconomic variables that explain such patterns. Results show that, for the 1984–1993 period, deforestation in the southern Yucatan was not as prevalent as implied by its hot spot designation. Three clusters of deforestation are identified. A logistic regression analysis establishes that size of forest holdings, population growth, and location in the precipitation gradient correlate with ejidos that experienced higher deforestation rates than the rest of the land-tenure units. For the 1993–2000 period, conservation programs and changes in the economic context of this “hollow frontier” contributed to reduce deforestation rates and extent. This analysis illustrates the spatio-temporal heterogeneity of much tropical forest change and caution that it should bring to simple formulations of modeling this change and prescribing policies to control it.

Environmental Research Letters, 8 (4), ISSN:1748-9326, ISSN:1748-9318

"Eco-certification of food and other agricultural products has been promoted as a way of making markets work for sustainability. Certification programs offer a price premium to producers who invest in more sustainable practices. The literature on the impacts of certification has focused primarily on the economic benefits farmers perceive from participating in these schemes. These benefits, however, are often subject to price variability, offering only a partial explanation of why farmers join and stay in certification programs. We evaluated the potential of the Rainforest Alliance certification program to foster more resilient social-ecological systems in the face of globalization. Using the case of Santander, Colombia, and a pair-based comparison of 86 households to effectively produce a robust counterfactual, we showed that certification provides important environmental benefits, while improving the well-being of farmers and their communities. Furthermore, the study showed that price premiums are only one of many elements defining the success of certification, particularly important for motivating farmers to join, but less so to explain retention and upgrading. The case of Colombian coffee growers illustrates how the connections between local social-ecological systems and larger global forces can produce more sustainable livelihoods and land uses."