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Voting is considered an inherent right of citizenship in modern democracies, an idea originating in Enlightenment ideology but not automatically achieved in practice. In the past, proposals to expand the franchise to include nonproperty-holding white men were quite controversial, so the concept of suffrage for women and people of color was an even more radical suggestion given their putative lack of rational capacities. Dominant gender roles confined women to the domestic sphere while husbands or other male kinfolk represented their political interests, and challenging these ideas was difficult. Even when women gained voting rights, these were frequently partial (allowing participation in some elections but not others), restricted by marital status, education, property qualifications, and race, and did not automatically grant other civil rights. Winning full suffrage required hard work by determined women—it was never a “gift”—and success was the result of multiple factors. These include: (1) educational advances; (2) the growing presence of women in the workforce and trade unions; (3) the increasing political sophistication and mobilization of women in clubs and reform organizations; (4) affiliations between suffragists and progressive reform movements; (5) fluid political environments in territories, provinces, and colonies; (6) the adoption of direct action techniques; and (7) transnational activism, although these relationships could be problematic. Keywords: citizenship; democracy; feminism; women; Americas; Eastern Asia; Europe

PurposeThe growing trends in talent migration, which in the extreme lead to brain drain, in step with an increasing female participation in labor markets and migration flows, set challenges for both business and governments managing these processes. In this vein, it is proposed that macro talent management (MTM) is effective in managing the above-mentioned macro-level issues. The purpose of this paper is to identify and compare the determinants of talent migration with respect to gender and to analyze the role that talent management (TM) practices may play in the migration of diverse talent groups (male and female) within the Russian context.Design/methodology/approachAnticipating the possible differences in talent migration determinants between men and women and using data from 557 Russian graduates, considered to be high-potential talents, the authors found that these determinants converge.FindingsMale and female talent migration intentions in Russia are influenced by the same industry and individual push factors as well as family reasons, confirming that women are acting as independent economic migrants rather than tied movers. Moreover, the authors identified that talents in our sample evaluate highly the possibility of TM practices to change their migration intentions, and that female talents are more sensitive and responsive in this regard. Therefore, the TM system in the emerging economies' context, in particular Russia, is important for increasing the share of women in the workforce, in particular in leadership positions.Originality/valueThe study's results are important as they provide evidence on the gendered dimension of talent migration in particular in terms of the gendered assessment of talent migration determinants. Moreover, the study shows the positive role of TM in managing talent flows at the country level, in particular the ability of TM practices to attract talents to local organizations and, hence, retain them in a country.

College-educated women in the workforce are discovering a latent interest in and aptitude for computing motivated by the prevalence of computing as an integral part of jobs in many fields as well as continued headlines about the number of unfilled, highly paid computing jobs. One of these women's choices for retraining are the so-called coding boot camps that teach programming skills through intensive multi-week courses. This article reports on a qualitative research study focused on the Silicon Valley area of California. We used social cognitive career theory (SCCT) to investigate the larger context surrounding women entering computing professions through boot camp learning sites, including: the environment of a booming technology workforce, boot camps as learning settings , the characteristics of women who attend boot camps, how retraining at a coding boot camp influence women's computing self-efficacy and outcome expectations , and the performance attainments of women at boot camps. Interview data was collected from 14 women who had attended boot camps—first before graduating from the boot camp and again after six months in the workforce. To contextualize the computing ecosystem, we conducted single interviews with 6 boot camp organizers/curriculum developers, 7 industry hiring managers, and 14 university computer science faculty. To provide a contrast with women at boot camps, we interviewed 5 women who majored in computer science at the university and with 17 men who had attended boot camps. Structural data coding and analysis was done focused on the SCCT mechanisms of environment, person inputs, learning experiences, self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and performance attainments. Findings here demonstrate that training at a boot camp can be the catalyst for college-educated women to attain computing jobs and careers, although these entry-level jobs may be a compromise to the goal of a software development job and are unlikely to lead to a job at large, well-known, established technology companies.

Child care centres in many developed countries have expanded exponentially due to the increased participation of women in the workforce. Consequently, children are spending long hours in child care settings, and hence the issue of quality of provision has come under scrutiny. Given the vulnerable age of children, particularly those birth to 3 years, researchers investigated parents’ views of a primary caregiving system in Singapore, which is an approach that aims to foster children’s holistic growth and development. Within the system, three to four infants are cared for, in the main, by one caregiver within an early childhood educational setting and supported by a team of other staff. Parents were asked specifically about their level of satisfaction with the primary caregiving system and were also asked about their level of understanding. Findings showed that 49% of the sample were satisfied and 51% were very satisfied. In relation to the second question three major themes emerged in the qualitative data from responding parents—meeting children’ needs, supporting safe and secure relationships, and improving home school communication. As primary caregiving is not used widely in Singapore it is deemed important to disseminate findings to policy makers and practitioners working in child care centres. Given the importance of primary caregiving and its application in many other countries, the findings have relevance internationally. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

BACKGROUND In contrast to the historical experience of Western welfare states, where social and family policies help create more integrated public-private spheres, marketization in China has presented a case of sphere separation. This phenomenon has important implications for the dynamics of gender inequality in economic transition. OBJECTIVE This article examines how family status is associated with women's career mobility in reform-era urban China and the impact of family on women's career choices across different reform stages. METHOD Based on retrospective data from the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) in 2008, we adopt discrete-time logit models to examine the effects of marriage and childbearing on women's upward mobility, the risk of labor market exit, and how the effects vary over time. RESULTS Chinese women in the workforce are adversely affected by marriage and having dependent children. They are more likely than men to experience (involuntary, in particular) job exit to fulfill their roles as wives and mothers and less likely to move up in the career ladder. This pattern is more prominent as the economic reform proceeds. CONCLUSION Marketization has adversely affected Chinese women's career outcomes by increasing work-family tension after the work unit (danwei) system and socialist programs that supported working women were scrapped. CONTRIBUTION This study is one of the few empirical studies to attempt to explain the widening gender gap in China's job market from the perspective of family using the two-sphere separation framework. The framework originated in Western family studies but has been adapted to suit the context of urban China.

Perempuan memiliki peran yang penting baik di keluarga maupun masyarakat. Peningkatan peran perempuan dalam angkatan kerja menunjukkan semakin tingginya motivasi perempuan untuk bekerja karena pendidikan yang semakin baik. Secara umum seseorang akan meminimalkan waktu perjalanannya. Namun, 28 persen komuter di Jabodetabek menempuh perjalanan 90 menit atau lebih. Padahal, pola perjalanan perempuan relatif lebih singkat karena adanya tanggung jawab rumah tangga. Perjalanan durasi panjang yang dilakukan terus menerus dapat berakibat buruk bagi kehidupan, dan perempuan lebih berisiko terkena efeknya. Permasalahan ini perlu diteliti lebih lanjut untuk mengetahui karakteristik apa yang mendorong pekerja komuter perempuan melakukan perjalanan durasi panjang. Metode yang digunakan adalah regresi probit biner. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian diketahui bahwa tingkat pendidikan, tingkat pendapatan, moda transportasi dan status kepemilikan rumah memengaruhi secara positif perjalanan durasi panjang. Negara perlu memperhatikan kesejahteraan penduduknya tak terkecuali perempuan. Dengan penelitian ini diharapkan dapat memberikan pertimbangan solusi agar perempuan dapat melakukan perjalanan lebih singkat sehingga dampak perjalanan durasi panjang dapat diminimalkan dan tetap mampu memberikan manfaat yang maksimal untuk keluarga dan pekerjaannya.

Does the adoption of information and communication technologies (ICTs) lead to better and more inclusive women representation in the workforce? We explore this question for India- a developing economy characterized by strong patriarchal norms and gender-based discrimination in the workforce. Using the World Bank Enterprise Survey of 2014, we examine the effect of computerization, email usage and Internet services on three aspects of female representation- total female representation, representation across the hierarchy of workforce and quality of female representation. Using instrumental variable estimation models, we find that ICT adoption has a positive effect on the total share of women in the workforce. A deeper analysis reveals that the positive effect of ICTs on female employment is limited to the share of females in the highly skilled workforce. In contrast, it does not affect the female share in the low or unskilled workforce. This indicates that ICT adoption has a semi-polarization effect on women. We also find that ICT adoption is associated with better quality females in the workforce. Both rises in demand for skilled people and a women-friendly work environment drive these results. The overall findings establish the effective role of ICTs in enhancing women’s representation in the workforce.

Even though equality has been described as a simple concept, its meanings and principles have not been properly understood by the public. Similar treatment might not have a value of neutrality because, once the right to equality is related to and enforced by laws, its objectivity and impartiality can be challenged. The Malaysian government is making progress towards a safer and more equal environment for women and girls following the proposed new or amended legislation. These includes the anti-stalking law, the Sexual Harassment Act, and ending child marriage. Furthermore, the establishment of a Select Committee on Rights and Gender Equality in Parliament have been considered as a good step forward for equality. Indeed, implementation of policies such as childcare facilities in government offices as well as encouraging the private sector to follow suit are good moves towards creating more opportunities and encouraging the participation of women in the workforce. This paper explores the conceptual understanding of ‘equality’ globally and from the perspective of Islamic jurisprudence. This reflection is in line with Islamic belief that needs to reform the understanding of society based on the suggestion of Al-Quran and Islamic scholars. With this interpretation, this paper will explore Malaysia’s progress in empowering women and gender equality. Finally, this paper will suggest a way forward for Malaysia to empower women that have been marginalized and subordinated.

This paper offers for the first time a global picture of gender discrimination by the law as it affects women's economic opportunity and charts the evolution of legal inequalities over five decades. Using the World Bank's newly constructed Women, Business and the Law database, we document large and persistent gender inequalities, especially with regard to pay and treatment of parenthood. We find positive correlations between more equal laws pertaining to women in the workforce and more equal labor market outcomes, such as higher female labor force participation and a smaller wage gap between men and women. (JEL D63, J16, J31, J71, J78, K31, K38)

PurposeThis research addresses how companies develop a process of transformation to a more family responsible behaviour and the role that women play in this process. This paper aims to propose a model in which a female workforce is seen as contributing to the development of the family responsible firm. The model includes two paths for transformation, the supportive work–family culture and the managerial strategy for work–family using a mediation model. The analysis was performed in a sample of 1,048 Spanish firms.Design/methodology/approachThe hypotheses are tested using Baron and Kenny’s (1986) mediated regression technique, the Sobel’s test (1982) and a bootstrap re-sampling with 5,000 and 10,000 iterations to determine the significance of the mediation.FindingsThe results confirm the impact of the proportion of women in the workforce on organizational culture and managerial strategy, factors that lead to a real increase in the accessibility of work–family policies. The mediation effect is total.Research limitations/implicationsLimitations stemming from the survey used and from the cross-sectional data.Practical implicationsThe role of women, the culture and managers in promoting work–family policies appears clear. The need for the active reinforcement of the supportive work–family culture in companies and managerial strategy, diffusion, planning and involvement are all key factors in the development of work–family policies.Social implicationsGovernments and society as a whole should urge firms to use all means at their disposal to guarantee the formal adoption of work–family policies.Originality/valueResearch that analyses the way in which work–family culture and the managerial strategy for work–family generate change does not usually incorporate the female component of the labour force as an explanatory element.

PurposeGlobal gender diversity and equality indexes have been developed to promote gender diversity and equality at the country level, but it is difficult to see how those indexes are applied to organizations on a daily basis. The purpose of this study is to examine the application of environmental, social and governance (ESG) measures for gender diversity and equality at the organizational level in a Korean context.Design/methodology/approachBased on the institutional theory, the authors reviewed ESG measures for gender diversity and equality of women funds in four countries (USA, Canada, UK and Japan) and examinedThe Women Fundin Korea through document analysis and interviews.FindingsESG measures in four countries’ women funds mainly assessed the percentage of women in the workforce, on boards and in leadership positions. InThe Women Fund, gender diversity indicators consider the ratio of female to male employees, while gender equality indicators take into account gaps of male and female salaries and positions. This study’s impact analysis indicates that the companies invested in byThe Women Fundhad higher return on assets and return on equity than those without the fund.Research limitations/implicationsAlthough women funds explored in this study exemplify the use of ESG measures to apply global gender diversity and equality indexes at the organizational level, research is needed to examine ESG measures and women funds and their associations. Possible topics include what needs to be measured in ESG, who should be involved, how ESG measures should be applied, what outcomes of using ESG measures would ensue in organizations and how ESG measures relate to regional and global gender diversity.Practical implicationsIn promoting ESG measures that apply global gender diversity and equality at the organizational level, human resource development practitioners, as change agents, can help organizations develop socially responsible and ethical behaviors and transform organizational culture, practice and systems, which may influence organizations’ long-term survival and development as well as financial performance.Social implicationsAs the government’s support and policies guide and drive firms to develop and implement initiatives and programs, the launch and implementation of gender diversity and equality at the organizational level in the form of women funds require a certain level of collaboration between the government and the private sector.Originality/valueThis study on the application of ESG measures for global gender diversity and equality at the organizational level in the form of women funds is timely to engage organizations in dialogue regarding what needs to be done to promote women’s participation and leadership roles in organizations in Korea and other countries.

This article reviews the female labour force participation rates (LFPR) of Jewish and Arab women in Israel from 1955 to 2017. One finding of the review is that the female Jewish LFPR are very high,...

Purpose This paper reports an exploration of changing the legitimacy judgments of Emirati women employees in the UAE’s public sector. This paper aims to fill the research gap on gender at employee, rather than managerial level, a topic that has already generated considerable research. Design/methodology/approach Data derived from semi-structured interviews with 29 Emirati women working in the public sector is analyzed using NVivo 12 to identify their attitudes to, and experience of, participating in the workforce. Findings Interview narratives reveal that women not only consider that they have the right to enhanced professional status but also view this as exerting a positive impact on their personal lives. Research limitations/implications It is suggested that this emerging sense of entitlement to work may be traced to the early political endorsement of women in the UAE workforce, underscoring the value of political and judicial agendas that contribute to female legitimacy and their rigorous implementation. Originality/value This study highlights the imperative of political goodwill and equitable legislation, as well as the need to assess Islamic values versus patriarchal biases in relation to women in the workforce.

According to UNICEF, in 2013 there were 136,700,000 live births, but only about 32.6% of these babies received breast milk exclusively. In developing countries, only about 39% of mothers breastfeed exclusively. Indonesia has targetted for 80% exclusive breastfeeding. However, it has not been achieved. A large number of women in the workforce and the unavailability of breastfeeding facilities are among the factors influencing the low coverage of exclusive breastfeeding in Indonesia. In addition, maternal knowledge is also a contributing factor for exclusive breastfeeding practices This study aims to analyze the relationship between the availability of lactation facilities and maternal knowledge with exclusive breastfeeding. The execution of this research was conducted quantitatively with the descriptive research type. The design of this study is case-control. The study’s population were female factory workers who had babies in Sidoarjo District. The sample size is 42 case samples and 42 control samples. The research sample was taken using a simple random sampling technique. The data was retrieved through survey methods with questionnaires. The results of the study show that there is no relationship between knowledge and exclusive breastfeeding (p = 0.200) and there is a relationship between the availability of lactation facilities and exclusive breastfeeding (p = 0.049). Mothers who work in factories with lactation facilities have a 2.667 times greater opportunity to give exclusive breastfeeding to their babies than mothers without access to lactation facilities (OR = 2.667). The researchers suggest factories to provide lactation facilities and visitation activities by the local health office.Keywords: Exclusive breastfeeding, Lactation facilities, Mother's knowledge

This paper analyzes national and global statistical data and reports to investigate the status of women in the workforce subsequent to the 2020-2021 COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, identify issues, and propose a path forward. The disproportionate adverse effects of the pandemic included higher unemployment rates among women and greater job losses within female dominated industries and women owned businesses as compared with men, and health challenges heightened by pandemic-related stresses. Further, the responsibility for compensating for the sudden removal of accessible childcare services which followed school and daycare disruptions and closings nationwide, overwhelmingly fell to women—whether they were single or married. Some analysts report that the pandemic served to reassert the unequal division of labor in the household between men and women. Researchers have posited that the pandemic’s impact will retard women’s progress in the workforce for decades if not generations. Strategies for counteracting these effects must entail targeted measures focused on promoting women’s re-entry in the workforce including: the normalization of flexible work schedules to foster a more balanced home and work-life for women, increased family leave for mothers and fathers, more quality and affordable childcare as well as more onsite childcare facilities to meet employees’ needs.

As a work–life balance policy, maternity leave is a key organizational tool in recruiting and retaining women in the workforce. In the absence of a universal paid maternity leave in the U.S. new pa...

Recently, the phenomenon of gender equality and representation of women in top managerial positions is one of the heightened issues. Although, there is substantial advancement in the presence of women in the workforce, yet the representation of women is limited upper echelons of the organizations. The main aim of present research is to seek the association between perception of glass ceiling and interpersonal conflict with mediating role of self-efficacy and moderating role of masculinity. Cultural norms play a vital role to construct beliefs regarding gender inequalities. A recent study on gender inequalities and Glass Ceiling has suggested for a further investigation on the aforesaid topic in different context. Research methodology is aimed at highlighting the adopted design for the current research by explaining the significance of implied research design in the light of prior researches. In a cross-sectional study, data were collected using a questionnaire from 316 female employees working in different organizations across Pakistan. Results indicate that Glass Ceiling perception is significantly related with interpersonal conflict and self-efficacy. Similarly, the mediating role of self-efficacy was also established between Glass Ceiling perceptions and interpersonal conflict and moderating role of masculinity was also established. Results are discussed with implications both for theory and industry. The current study has focused on mediation of self-efficacy and moderation of masculinity.

PurposeWhile women perform as well as their male counterparts at work, women are drastically underrepresented in the onboarding process to senior leadership. The link between occupational self-efficacy and the role it may play in how men and women make decisions about work has not been done. The purpose of this study is to examine potential differences of occupational self-efficacy, career aspirations and work engagement between women and men.Design/methodology/approachOnline surveys were created and sent out as emails and on social network sites including Facebook, Twitter and LinkedIn.FindingsFindings indicate that occupational self-efficacy has positive effect on career aspirations of women in the workplace. Further, there was no statistically significant difference between occupational self-efficacy and work engagement between men and women. However, men were found to have statistically significantly higher career aspirations than women do.Research limitations/implicationsWhile men and women do not differ in occupational self-efficacy or work engagement, men do have higher career aspirations than women do. Although women may believe they can accomplish challenging tasks in the workplace, it does not mean this belief is acted upon.Practical implicationsThe study highlights the importance of occupational self-efficacy and its relation to career aspirations. Individuals who are high in occupational self-efficacy may set their own path in advancing within their career. However, individuals who are low or moderate in occupational self-efficacy may require further encouragement and development using additional resources as a catalyst for advancement guidance. While no differences were found between men and women in occupational self-efficacy, human resource practitioners should develop those individuals who are low or moderate in occupational self-efficacy with coaching, training and/or mentoring to build leadership capacity, increase self-efficacy and career-planning acumen.Social implicationsMen and women behave differently when seeking career advancement and in their career aspirations. For men, advancement is linked to performance whereas women use a multi-pronged approach focusing on preparing for career success and building role competency. Differences in strategy for advancement mean men will actively engage in behaviors to advance even when they do not have the knowledge or experience to perform in the new role. Conversely, women seek to feel competent in a work role prior to seeking it out. Finding ways to mentor women toward higher self-efficacy for their next career advancement will benefit organizations overall.Originality/valueResearch examining the role of occupational self-efficacy and its relation to career aspirations does not exist in comparing men and women.

The weight of occupational risk on women in addition to men, is on their fecundity. NIOSH lists disorders of reproduction as one of the top ten leading work-related diseases and injuries. Nevertheless, women in the workforce is increasing and in healthcare, females make up the majority. This research is to observe the occurrences of adverse pregnancy outcomes among female healthcare workers in relation to their work schedules and its significance in relation to non-healthcare workers. A cross-sectional study was carried out using a questionnaire with 469 respondents; 339 healthcare and 130 non-healthcare workers, reporting 564 pregnancies. In this study, adverse pregnancy outcomes among female healthcare workers is significantly higher than non-healthcare workers. There are no significant findings between healthcare and non-healthcare workers with respect to the types of adverse pregnancy outcomes and the work schedule. However, from the respondents’ lifetime pregnancy outcome, we find that complete miscarriage occurred more frequently among healthcare workers who work on shift. Healthcare workers do experience a higher risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes, commonly occurring among those who work on shiCross-Sectional Studyft/on-call.

In the information technology (IT) industry, women constitute only 33% of employees at the entry level and 17% at the leadership level. In this article, we outline the status of women in the workforce and discuss issues that affect their participation, with a specific focus on the IT sector. We claim that U.S. corporations can influence gender diversity in the IT industry by leveraging their relationships with IT suppliers. To this end, we propose the application of Nudge Theory during the strategic sourcing of IT services. We begin our narrative by describing the current state of gender diversity initiatives. Then, we detail gender diversity initiatives in the sourcing process as revealed by a survey on the topic related to IT suppliers. We then briefly define Nudge Theory and provide examples of this theory as applied to an organization’s supplier base. Finally, we present the details of our recommendation, which suggests that sourcing groups should include questions regarding women’s participation in the IT supplier’s workplace during competitive market events. We conclude with a call to action and a call to research.

Empowering women is a critical issue in developing nations. Even though women are an integral part of any society, yet their involvement in decision making by the use of their active contribution in economic activities is shallow. Women empowerment and economic development are interlinked, where on the one hand, development alone can play a significant role in driving down inequality between women and men while on the other hand empowering women can benefit development. This paper explores the role of women in the workforce for the economic development of the country in different States.

Level of postsecondary schooling and field of study remain significant markers of social stratification. However, the extent to which these various types of postsecondary schooling influence the labor market outcomes of recent male and female graduates is unknown. Drawing on data from Statistics Canada’s 2013 National Graduates Survey, we examine the employment status and gender gap in earnings among recent Canadian male and female graduates at different levels of postsecondary education and various fields of study, three years after graduation. The findings indicate substantial gender disparities in employment status across all types of postsecondary education. The gender gap in earnings is highest among trades and community college graduates, but effectively disappears for graduates with earned doctorate degrees. With respect to field of study, the gender wage gap is smallest among liberal arts graduates and largest among graduates with math-, computer science-, or engineering-related credentials. The policy implications associated with these findings should be of interest to international researchers as pay equity among men and women in the workforce remains a priority for all OECD countries.

Maternity leave is not federally guaranteed or paid in the United States. Although there has been an increase of women in the workforce, federal maternity leave policy has not changed since the adoption of the Family and Medical Leave Act in 1993. The subjective quality of this maternity leave is likely an important component of what mothers perceive to be decent work. However, no scholars have developed measurements examining mothers’ subjective experiences of the quality of their maternity leave. Therefore, the goal of the current research was to develop scales measuring six domains of quality of maternity leave: time off, flexibility, coworker support, discrimination, microaggressions, and benefits (e.g., pay, health care, disability insurance). In two studies with diverse samples of working, adult mothers, we provide evidence for the factor structure, validity, and internal consistency of the Quality of Maternity Leave Scales.

Participation of women in the workforce is crucial for any economy to optimally utilize the potential of its full human capital. However, according to the Global Gender Gap Report (2016) by...

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore the experiences of working women in a male-dominated country (Morocco) and unveil the unique challenges and everyday gender-bias they face, the psychological impact of the perceived gender-bias and, finally, identify a variety of coping strategies or combatting mechanisms affecting their motivation and retention in the workplace. Design/methodology/approach Empirical evidence was obtained using a qualitative research method. The Critical Incident Technique (CIT) was used to collect incidents recalled by women in the select institution reflecting their perceptions of their managers’ ineffective behaviors towards them and the impact of these behaviors. The critical incidents were inductively coded, and behavioral statements were derived from the coded data. Findings The qualitative data analysis led them to structure the data according to two theme clusters: The perceived gender-bias behaviors (Covert and evident personal and organizational behaviors) and Psychological impacts resulting from the perceived bias. These behavioral practices included abusive behaviors, unfair treatment, bias and lack of recognition. The psychological impact elements involved decreased productivity, depression, anxiety and low self-esteem. Practical implications Understanding these experiences can facilitate the identification of strategies geared towards the retention of women in the workforce, and Moroccan organizations can develop and implement strategies and policies that are geared towards eliminating gender-bias in the workplace and to retaining and motivating women who remain ambitious to work in male-dominated environments and cultures. Originality/value This paper provides evidence that sufficient organizational mechanisms to support women in male-dominated environments are still unavailable, leaving them to find the proper coping mechanisms to persevere and resist.

The construction industry is a very complex and intricate system of players which requires the cooperation and communication of all involved parties to produce a successful end project. The technical research aims to identify delays within the construction industry to create an inclusive guideline for companies to engage with in order to generate project plans and schedules with greater efficiency for future endeavors. In order to adequately understand and improve the efficiency of the construction workforce today, a comparison to the model of the diverse workforce during World War II (WWII) will be used as the STS research topic. By performing this case study as compared to women in the industry today, an evaluation of gender inequalities over the two time periods can be evaluated, and the root cause of these discriminations may also be identified. Delays within the construction industry can be detrimental to numerous players involved, including a loss of money, positive relationships, time, etc. The technical research seeks to provide insight into delay causation and prevention for Hourigan, a general contracting and construction firm. This work focuses on the analysis of scheduling data and project teams’ input from three medium-sized construction projects recently completed by Hourigan, referred to by the projects A, B, and C. These data sets were interpreted using statistical analyses to assess correlations between owner, designer, or contractor-related delays. Interviews with the project team for each Hourigan project were also conducted to obtain qualitative data regarding specific delay events. As discovered from the statistical analysis, the main causes of delay for Project A were found to be the owner and designer; for Project B the designer and subcontractors; and for Project C the subcontractors, materials, and external factors. Across the three projects, over 60% of the days of delay entitled Hourigan to financial responsibility regardless of the source. In order to address the three repeating sources of delays (owner, designer, and subcontractor), recommendations have been created for Hourigan to follow in the future to avoid similar delay types from occurring. In order to avoid the issue of subcontractor inadequacy in the future, an internal rating system within Hourigan would be useful to keep a log of subcontractors' performance, as well as a required work portfolio and references to ensure reliability and work quality. Next, for the designer, it is critical that the contractor go through the design documents as early as possible in the project life-cycle in order to bring up any issues with the drawings before the actual activity is performed. Lastly, the biggest issue in terms of the owner was the delay in decision making procedures, which could be resolved by building days into the planned schedule to account for changes in the owner's court. It is believed that these recommendations will greatly help Hourigan to deviate from further delays in the future. In the early 1940s, the disappearance of available working men due to their commitment to WWII caused employers who previously discriminated against hiring women to suddenly open their doors to meet production needs. With this new arrival of women, gender discrimination was a major issue. Extensive research of the required role of women in the engineering workforce as compared to today was performed in order to help determine a reasoning behind the profound lack of women in STEM today, and its possible origin. The general hypothesis at the beginning of the researching phase was that gender discrimination is one of the root causes for the underrepresentation of women in this field, and was further proved true. Women were discriminated against in similar manners during World War II and present day, negatively affecting women’s job performance. Discrimination has harvested a space where these individuals feel less accepted or welcomed, limiting their possibility to be more creative and take risks within the workforce. Without the American women of World War II, the place for women engineers in society today would be largely lessened. These women were concrete examples of how valuable and advantageous their abilities are, and demonstrated their benefit through multiple avenues during the war. Due to their advancement for women in general in the workforce, they deserve far more recognition and appreciation than previously given. Although challenging, the women of WWII paved the way to provide space for women in present day to enter into STEM fields. These women should be recognized for their contribution not only to the American war effort, but also for their advancement of diversity within the industry. In order to continue this advancement in present day, more aid and education should be given to women at an early academic stage in order to encourage and support their entrance into a STEM field.

Europe has gradually consolidated its integration of the gender dimension in the field of research and innovation. Institutional structures have shown that the development of gender diversity policies have improved the conditions of equality between women and men. However, the representation of women in the workforce is still an everyday and universal concern. This article analyses the position of women in academic research. For this purpose, the evolution of the participation of women in research and innovation projects in the context of higher education is observed, taking the University of the Basque Country, Spain, as a case study. In order to evaluate the situation of women in research and innovation projects, the authors analyse a database with 75,864 records of projects collected between 2007 and 2018. The analysis confirms that a more balanced participation has been achieved between women and men in research and innovation teams and in project management structures. However, it also shows that gender diversity should continue to be a priority, in addition to its integration in science and technology financing programmes. Knowing this reality can be useful to promote the intensive development of public policies and to contribute towards the effort to improve the statistics of women’s participation in science.

In Japan, the reason why there are few women leadership role models is that the employment system and the social schemes accept this situation. Although an increasing number of companies have proclaimed gender equality, the reality is that many companies have superficial systems and policies on their books that have not been utilized in practice. The employment system has a significant impact on women in the workforce. It is critical to improve the employment system to enhance gender equality in the labor market. In this chapter, we examine the current situation of the employment system and the ways in which women are impacted by the system from a leadership development perspective based on the literature. More specifically, we discuss the barriers and challenges focusing on two areas. One is the traditional membership form that is widely used in Japan compared with the job form commonly used in Europe and U.S. Another is the two-career track employment system: sogo-shoku (promotion track) and ippan-shoku (non-promotion track), with the majority of women choosing the later track that restricts their opportunity to pursue their career and promotion. We discuss women’s career choice as hi-seisyainn (non-regular employee, including contract or part-time positions) with limited promotion opportunities as well. Considering these systems’ perspectives, this chapter concludes with implications for future practice and research, including proposed strategies for systems’ reforms.

Since the 2000s, there has been a growing movement in Japan to review ways of working. Recently, companies have been making efforts to create “better work environments” in the name of work–life balance, diversity management, and work style reform. The focus of many such efforts is the active participation of women in the workforce. In post-war Japanese companies, the main focus of human resource management has been primarily focused on the work styles of male employees, who are less hesitant to work long hours. Thus, reviewing the work styles that have been supported to date is essential to create a workplace in which female workers can actively participate. In the wake of the growing movement to review work styles in Japan is a declining birth rate and an ageing population. This is particularly severe in rural areas, where there is an outflow of people to urban areas. An important factor contributing to the declining birth rate (which leads to an ageing population) is the reality of long working hours typical for Japan’s regular white-collar workers—the focus of this study.

Population aging is a phenomenon happening on a global level. It is estimated that the global population of people ages 60 and over will increase 56% between now and 2030. This global trend impacts people who are caring for older adults, particularly those who are working. Given that over half of all informal caregivers are women, it is important to better understand the impact caregiving has for people at all ages and at different stages of the life course, especially as for women in the workforce. Women in the workforce face significant disadvantages in career advancement and retention due to caregiving responsibilities, especially related to unexpected health needs of an aging parent or family member. These caregiving responsibilities can include instrumental yet unpaid activities both inside and outside the home (i.e., assistance with activities of daily living as well as general coordination of community services or medical care). Lack of supportive employment can lead to burnout, loss of professional identity, and even early retirement. Women may also experience physical and mental health concerns, general exhaustion, and difficulty in functioning due to balancing caregiving and market work roles. This chapter will explore global research trends and future considerations regarding vocational, workplace, and economic policy for aging women as elder caregivers.

The conventional 40-hour workweek has been a fixture of the American workplace for almost a century. Standard working hours of nine-to-five, Monday-to-Friday, are customary even for workers exempted from overtime under the federal Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (FLSA). But the traditional 40-hour workweek is no longer a fit for the modern family or the modern worker. It is time for its demise. In the decades since passage of the FLSA, the influx of women in the workforce and the growth of exempt knowledge work have rendered the traditional 40-hour workweek both needlessly restrictive, in the case of work-life conflict, and effectively meaningless, in the case of the information age worker who labors 24/7. The recent revolution in remote work, precipitated by the COVID-19 pandemic, auspiciously permits a new approach to working hours, especially for exempt, “remote-ready” workers—that is, white-collar workers engaged in cognitive labor, who have the proven capacity to work offsite. Where exempt, remote-ready workers are already widely expected to work outside of so-called office hours, they should not be beholden to keep regular office hours, too. We should release them from the false confines of nine-to-five, for more fluid integration of work and life. By amending the FLSA regulations to make scheduling freedom a condition of white-collar exemption, and restricting employers from setting hours of work for this cohort, we could productively disrupt the outdated workweek for all.

Menstrual leave is an employment policy that allows individuals to take additional paid or unpaid leave from work during menstruation. In recent years, it has been attracting increasing global media and public attention. The motivation behind the promotion of the policy is typically benign, and it is often positioned as being a progressive development in women’s health and rights in the workplace. This chapter argues that the rationale behind this policy makes several exaggerated and incorrect assumptions about the nature, and prevalence of menstrual cycle-related symptoms in the working population. Moreover, menstrual leave policies could reflect, and contribute to, unhealthy and discriminatory practices against women in the workforce. Indeed, sex-specific employment policies such as menstrual leave can easily, albeit unintentionally, reinforce unhelpful and inaccurate societal myths that position ‘all women’ as weaker, less reliable, or more expensive employees than men. The chapter thus concludes that in order to support and improve menstrual health and gender equality in the workplace, it is better to focus on the working conditions and rights of all employees, plus access to good quality reproductive health information and medical treatment, if required.

This chapter provides an updated profile of women in management and leadership positions in Israel and some of the challenges they face. It analyzes the broader Israeli society and context, highlighting the socio-political, historical and cultural developments that have shaped the scope and nature of women's representation in management. The chapter begins with a description of recent trends in the women's labour force in Israel, and issues related to education. It focuses on three groups of women managers, directors and entrepreneurs as illustrations of the different challenges women face in the public, private and non-government organizations (NGO) spheres. The chapter summarizes legislation and initiatives aimed at enhancing the role of women in the workforce. It concludes by considering the paradox of the duality of women's opportunities in management given the persistent military conflict in Israel, and the duality that arises when regional traditional familial roles and attitudes clash with the developed and westernized culture that coexists in the country.

The world of technology is transitioning fast as a result of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (‘the 4IR’). The digital revolution is not only making fundamental changes to how we live, but it is also having a profound impact on how we conduct business. The global market is adapting to new trends and faster turnaround times, and all sectors, including the energy and extractives sector (oil and gas, and mining sectors), will be forced to adapt to the transition. This change aligns with the clean energy developments and the global move to transition to a low-carbon economy which is characterized by technological advancements. The world is gradually discovering new things to do with technology, as its potential is beginning to be embraced. The present COVID-19 pandemic, for example, has altered the way we use technology, with many people spending more time online, thus creating the impetus to fast track the implementation of the 4IR. These changes will affect gender inclusivity and the future of work. Apart from the above issues, this chapter examines: why it is essential to include women in the workforce and along the different value chains, the need for automation in the extractives sector and how it will affect how we work. Lastly, the proposed solutions to address the challenges of gender disparity and promote inclusivity in the energy and extractives sector will be explored from the perspectives of the different role players in this sector, i.e. the public sector/governments; the private sector, including business entities; and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO’s).

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New Zealand is popularly perceived as a laid back place where individuals might choose to live to enjoy a slower paced life style. However, the reality is that New Zealanders work some of the longest days and the most hours per annum in the OECD. In this article, it is argued that existing legal mechanisms for limiting work time are rooted in increasingly obsolete work patterns premised on strong unions and a workforce of permanent full-time employees who are supported by an unpaid female workforce who carry the burden of reproductive care work. However, in New Zealand, as elsewhere, these legal mechanisms have been undermined by de-unionisation, the emergence of precarious work and the growing numbers of women in the workforce. Consequently, the ability of workers to limit their work time has been significantly compromised. In the final part of the article, it is suggested that a Guaranteed Basic Income could, given the changing nature of work, be a more effective and flexible mechanism for controlling working time than current law.