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Accurate characterization of high numerical aperture aspheric microlenses currently is a nonstandard procedure that remains an open challenge. Here, we present and discuss a characterization method based on interferometric and point spread function measurements performed in transmission by a high-resolution interferometric microscope. In particular, we show that a single phase measurement performed under fixed testing conditions can be processed in a simple way that yields wavefront aberration as well as surface topography for plano-convex microlenses with arbitrary asphericity. This approach simultaneously allows both fabrication process optimization and optical quality testing for microlenses with different optical functions without heavy modification of the testing setup. For illustration, we present the case of a microlens with a numerical aperture of ∼ 0.4 .

Tolerancing is an important step toward the fabrication of high-quality and cost-effective lens surfaces. It is critical for wafer-level optics, when up to tens of thousands microlenses are fabricated in parallel and whose surfaces cannot be formed individually. However, approaches developed for macro-optics cannot be directly transposed for microlenses because of differences in fabrication and testing techniques. In particular, microlens surfaces are usually limited to conical surfaces. Here, we study the connection between the microlens optical performance and the form of its surface, suggesting surface form representations suited for tolerancing purposes. Then, we compare them with common representations for tolerancing real optical systems. Measured surface forms of microlenses are also provided to make the tolerancing procedure realistic. In addition, we propose term definitions for micro-optics, complements to typical terms for macro-optics, to ease the communication between optical designers and manufacturers. Based on the results presented in this paper, guidelines are proposed for tolerancing microlenses. We suggest applying them as a first step toward a more effective and comprehensive tolerancing procedure.

In proximity mask aligner photolithography, diffraction of light at the mask pattern is the predominant source for image shape distortions such as line end shortening and corner rounding. One established method to mitigate the impact of diffraction is optical proximity correction. This method relies on a deliberate sub-resolution modification of photomask features to counteract such shape distortions, with the goal to improve pattern fidelity and uniformity of printed features. While previously considered for masks featuring only rectangular shapes in horizontal or vertical orientation, called Manhattan geometries, we demonstrate here the capabilities of computational mask aligner lithography by extending optical proximity correction to non-Manhattan geometries. We combine a rigorous simulation method for light propagation with a particle-swarm optimization to identify suitable mask patterns adapt to each occurring feature in the mask. The improvement in pattern quality is demonstrated in experimental prints. Our method extends the use of proximity lithography in optical manufacturing, as required in a multitude of micro-optical devices. (C) 2019 Optical Society of America under the terms of the OSA Open Access Publishing Agreement

The wafer-level production of Fused Silica microlens arrays is limited by systematic process non-uniformities. The common molten resist-reflow process with subsequent dry-etching allows for manufacturing of microlens arrays on 200 mm wafers. A thorough process review yielded one free parameter. By switching from the geometrical lens description via radius of curvature and conic constant to a functional assessment via the optical design figure of merit we can describe microlens via their optical quality for the intended application with one parameter for a wide variety of cases. Leveraging these points we show improvements on the uniformity of microlens arrays by a factor of 2 for Fused Silica microlens arrays bigger than 100 mm by 100 mm.

Characterizing the surface of microlenses by optical profilers has the important advantages of measurement speed, flexibility and automation. Nevertheless, the accuracy of such characterization is limited by error occurring in non-flat measurements. Here, we propose a method that uses multiple measurements of a single reference ball combined with a machine learning algorithm that fits the experimental data to correct the measurements. The success of the method is demonstrated by showing that the residual error after correction reaches 20 nm RMS. Such results extend greatly the quality of microlens characterization by optical profilers.

The uniformity of large microlens arrays in Fused Silica is governed by the production process. It comprises photolithographic patterning of a spin-coated layer of photoresist on a 200mm wafer with a molten resist reflow process and subsequent dry etching. By investigating systematic influences throughout the production process we show how to steer the lens production process with a single degree of freedom to improve the uniformity of the final microlens array. To enable this we describe the optical performance of microlenses with only one parameter: the principal aberration component. It is the result of principal component analysis of the chosen optical merit function. We present the case of manufactured microlens arrays with element sizes > 100 mm x 100 mm where uniformity was improved by a factor of 2. (C) 2019 Optical Society of America under the terms of the OSA Open Access Publishing Agreement

Mask-aligner lithography is a technology used to transfer patterns with critical dimensions in the micrometer range from below 1 micron for contact printing to a dozen of microns in proximity printing. This technology is widely used in the fabrication of MEMS, micro-optical components, and similar fields. Traditionally, the light sources used for mask-aligners are high-pressure mercury arc lamps, which emit in the UV rang of the spectrum with peaks at 365 nm, 405 nm and 435 nm, respectively the g-, h- and i- lines. These lamps suffer from several disadvantages (inefficient, bulky, dangerous), which makes alternatives interesting. In recent years, high power UV LEDs at the same wavelengths appeared on the market, opening the door to new illumination systems for mask-aligners. We have developed a modular 250 W LED-based illumination system, which can advantageously replace a 1 kW mercury arc lamp illumination. LEDs, arranged in a 7×7 grid array, are placed in the entrance apertures of individual reflectors, which collimate the individual irradiation to an output angle of 10°. A subsequent fly’s eye integrator homogenizes the illumination in the mask plane. It is followed by a Fourier lens, superimposing the individual channels in the mask plane, and a field lens to ensure telecentric illumination. This multisource approach allows the shaping of the source by switching individual illumination channels, determining the illumination angles and the spatial coherence in the mask plane. This concept can be used, for example, to do source-mask optimization. Compared to mercury arc lamp illumination, our system is simultaneously more efficient, compact, versatile, economic and sustainable. In our contribution, we present the design of the system as well as lithographic test prints done with different illumination patterns.

A new method for calibrating optical scanning profilometers is presented. Especially adapted to spherical and aspherical profile measurements, it shows an increase of accuracy bigger than one order of magnitude for radius of curvature measurements. Calibration of vertical scaling is obtained with a reduction of its uncertainty by a factor larger than 2, which also demonstrates the advantage of this method for any surface measurements. Using commercially available reference balls, this method is easily implementable.

During the fabrication process of microlenses, characterization is essential for two purposes: evaluate the optical quality of the element and provide surface information feedback for process optimization. However, no technique can fulfill these two objectives at the same time. Interferometry is used for quality evaluation and optical profilometry for process optimization. In order to address this problem, we propose to use a high resolution interference microscope to characterize microlenses. The focusing capacity can be directly measured by recording the field near the focal spot at different wavelengths. Information about the microlens surface can also be retrieved. All this is illustrated for the front focus of a fused-silica microlens.

We introduce a novel industrial grade 193nm continuous-wave laser light source for proximity mask-aligner lithography. A diode seed laser in master-oscillator power-amplification configuration is frequency-quadrupled using lithiumtriborate and potassium-uoro-beryllo-borate non-linear crystals. The large coherence-length of this monomodal laser is controlled by static and rotating shaped random diffusers. Beam shaping with imaging and non-imaging homogenizers realized with diffractive and refractive micro-optical elements is compared in simulation and measurement. We demonstrate resolution patterns offering resolutions

We present a mask-aligner lithographic system operated with a frequency-quadrupled continuous-wave diode laser emitting at 193 nm. For this purpose, a 772 nm diode laser is amplified by a tapered amplifier in the master-oscillator power-amplifier configuration. The emission wavelength is upconverted twice, using LBO and KBBF nonlinear crystals in second-harmonic generation enhancement cavities. An optical output power of 10 mW is achieved. As uniform exposure field illumination is crucial in mask-aligner lithography, beam shaping is realized with optical elements made from fused silica and CaF2 featuring a diffractive non-imaging homogenizer. A tandem setup of shaped random diffusers, one static and one rotating, is used to control speckle formation. We demonstrate first experimental soft contact and proximity prints for a field size of 1 cm2 with a standard binary photomask and proximity prints with a two-level phase mask, both printed into 120 nm layers of photoresist on unstructured silicon substrates.

Mask aligners are lithographic tools used to transfer a pattern of microstructures by shadow printing lithography onto a planar wafer. Contact lithography allows us to print large mask fields with sub-micron resolution, but requires frequent mask cleaning. Thus, contact lithography is used for small series of wafer production. Proximity lithography, where the mask is located at a distance of typically 30–100 μm above the wafer, provides a resolution of approximately 3–5 μm, limited by diffraction effects. Proximity lithography in mask aligners is a very cost-efficient method widely used in semiconductor, packaging and MEMS manufacturing industry for high-volume production. Micro-optics plays a key role in improving the performance of shadow printing lithography in mask aligners. Refractive or diffractive micro-optics allows us to efficiently collect the light from the light source and to precisely shape the illumination light (customized illumination). Optical proximity correction and phase shift mask technology allow us to influence the diffraction effects in the aerial image and to enhance resolution and critical dimension. The paper describes the status and future trends of shadow printing lithography in mask aligners and the decisive role of micro-optics as key enabling technology.

We present and discuss Talbot mask-aligner lithography, relying on a continuous wave laser emitting at 193nm for the illumination. In this source, a diode laser at 772nm is amplified by a tapered amplifier in master-oscillator power-amplifier configuration and frequency-quadrupled in two subsequent enhancement cavities using lithium triborate and potassium fluoro-beryllo-borate nonlinear crystals to generate the emission at 193 nm. The high coherence and brilliance of such an illumination source is predestined for plane wave mask-aligner illumination, crucial in particular for high-resolution lithographic techniques such as Talbot lithography and phase-shift masks. Talbot lithography takes advantage of the diffraction effect to image periodic mask features via self-replication in multiples of the Talbot distance behind the photomask when exposed by a plane wave. By placing a photoresistcoated wafer in one of the Talbot planes, the mask pattern is replicated in the resist. Periodic patterns with diverse shapes are required for wire grid polarizers, diffraction gratings, and hole arrays in photonic applications as well as for filters and membranes. Using an amplitude mask with periodic structures, we demonstrate here with such a technique sub-micron feature sizes for various designs at a proximity gap of 20 µm.

In Earth Observation instruments, observation of scenes including bright sources leads to an important degradation of the recorded signal. We propose a new concept to remove dynamically the bright sources and then obtain a field of view with an optically enhanced Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR). Micro-Opto-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MOEMS) could be key components in future generation of space instruments. MOEMS-based programmable slit masks will permit the straylight control in future Earth Observation instruments. Experimental demonstration of this concept has been conducted on a dedicated bench. This successful first demonstration shows the high potential of this new concept in future spectro-imager for Earth Observation.

Multi-object spectroscopy (MOS) is a powerful tool for space and ground-based telescopes for the study of the formation and evolution of galaxies. This technique requires a programmable slit mask for astronomical object selection. We are engaged in a European development of micromirror arrays (MMA) for generating reflective slit masks in future MOS, called MIRA. The 100 x 200 μm2 micromirrors are electrostatically tilted providing a precise angle. The main requirements are cryogenic environment capabilities, precise and uniform tilt angle over the whole device, uniformity of the mirror voltage-tilt hysteresis and a low mirror deformation. A first MMA with single-crystal silicon micromirrors was successfully designed, fabricated and tested. A new generation of micromirror arrays composed of 2048 micromirrors (32 x 64) and modelled for individual addressing were fabricated using fusion and eutectic wafer-level bonding. These micromirrors without coating show a peak-to-valley deformation less than 10 nm, a tilt angle of 24° for an actuation voltage of 130 V. Individual addressing capability of each mirror has been demonstrated using a line-column algorithm based on an optimized voltage-tilt hysteresis. Devices are currently packaged, wire-bonded and integrated to a dedicated electronics to demonstrate the individual actuation of all micromirrors on an array. An operational test of this large array with gold coated mirrors has been done at cryogenic temperature (162 K): the micromirrors were actuated successfully before, during and after the cryogenic experiment. The micromirror surface deformation was measured at cryo and is below 30 nm peak-to-valley.

Due to the relatively large number of optical Earth Observation missions at ESA, this area is interesting for new space technology developments. In addition to their compactness, scalability and specific task customization, optical MEMS could generate new functions not available with current technologies and are thus candidates for the design of future space instruments. Most mature components for space applications are the digital mirror arrays, the micro-deformable mirrors, the programmable micro diffraction gratings and tiltable micromirrors. A first selection of market-pull and techno-push concepts is done. In addition, some concepts are coming from outside Earth Observation. Finally two concepts are more deeply analyzed. The first concept is a programmable slit for straylight control for space spectro-imagers. This instrument is a push-broom spectroimager for which some images cannot be exploited because of bright sources in the field-of-view. The proposed concept consists in replacing the current entrance spectrometer slit by an active row of micro-mirrors. The MEMS will permit to dynamically remove the bright sources and then to obtain a field-of-view with an optically enhanced signal-to-noise ratio. The second concept is a push-broom imager for which the acquired spectrum can be tuned by optical MEMS. This system is composed of two diffractive elements and a digital mirror array. The first diffractive element spreads the spectrum. A micromirror array is set at the location of the spectral focal plane. By putting the micro-mirrors ON or OFF, we can select parts of field-of-view or spectrum. The second diffractive element then recombines the light on a push-broom detector. Dichroics filters, strip filter, band-pass filter could be replaced by a unique instrument.

This paper summarizes the results of an EU project called ACTION: ACTive Implant for Optoacoustic Natural sound enhancement. The project is based on a recent discovery that relatively low levels of pulsed infrared laser light are capable of triggering activity in hair cells of the partially hearing (hearing impaired) cochlea and vestibule. The aim here is the development of a self-contained, smart, highly miniaturized system to provide optoacoustic stimuli directly from an array of miniature light sources in the cochlea. Optoacoustic compound action potentials (oaCAP) are generated by the light source fully inserted into the unmodified cochlea. Previously, the same could only be achieved with external light sources connected to a fiber optic light guide. This feat is achieved by integrating custom made VCSEL arrays at a wavelength of about 1550 nm onto small flexible substrates. The laser light is collimated by a specially designed silicon-based ultra-thin lens (165 um thick) to get the energy density required for the generation of oaCAP signals. A dramatic miniaturization of the packaging technology is also required. A long term biocompatible and hermetic sapphire housing with a size of less than a 1 cubic millimeter and miniature Pt/PtIr feedthroughs is developed, using a low temperature laser assisted process for sealing. A biofouling thin film protection layer is developed to avoid fibrinogen and cell growth on the system.

Shaping of light fields behind amplitude and phase masks the basis the lithographic structure reproduction. The aerial image or better the intensity distribution defines the resolution of the structure to be printed. Contrast is the main parameter and to achieve high contrast feature phase plays an important role. In our contribution we discuss the phase and intensity evolution of light fields behind different structures serving the same aim: correcting extensive corner rounding for proximity lithography. To do so we analyze the intensity characteristics behind in a binary mask having high resolution Optical Proximity Correction (OPC) at different proximity gaps and include phase evolution. The corner correction represent a two dimensional problem which is difficult to handle with simple rule based approaches. Implementation of small amplitude structures leads to sharp phase changes. The analysis has been done with an instrument called High Resolution Interference Microscopy (HRIM), a Mach - Zehnder interferometer that gives access to three dimensional phase and amplitude images.

The application of laser light sources for illumination tasks like in mask aligner lithography relies on non-imaging optical systems with multi-aperture elements for beam shaping. When simulating such systems, the traditional approach is to separate the beam-shaping part (incoherent simulation) from dealing with coherence properties of the illuminating laser light source (diffraction theory with statistical treatment). We present an approach using Gaussian beam decomposition to include coherence simulation into ray tracing, combining these two parts, to get a complete picture in one simulation. We discuss source definition for such simulations, and verify our assumptions on a well-known system. We then apply our approach to an imaging beam shaping setup with microoptical multi-aperture elements. We compare the simulation to measurements of a similar beam-shaping setup with a 193 nm continuous-wave laser in a mask-aligner configuration.

The purpose of this study was to determine solutions of 3D wafer level assembly for M(O)EMS structures. Validation of the concept will be done by realizing the assembly of a micro mirrors array which is at the present time assembled at chip level with silver glue (assembly and electrical interconnection). The actual bonding surface is around 5x8 μm2 and the release of mirrors is done before assembly. In this study we will first identify a wafer bonding solution that is compatible with the release process and later applying it to the mirror bonding design in order to verify the compatibility. Two bonding processes were identified as good candidate for this application: Au/Si eutectic and Au/Au thermocompression bonding. For the two processes, a preliminary study was realized to determine bonding parameters, design possibility (minimum bonding surface, density, pitch size) and compatibility with release process (SiO2 etching).

A process for the deposition of a solid layer onto a liquid is presented. The polymer poly-di-chloro-para-xylylene, also known as Parylene C, was grown on low vapour pressure liquids using the conventional low pressure chemical vapour deposition process. A reactor was built and a process developed to enable the deposition of Parylene C at atmospheric pressure over high vapour pressure liquids. It was used to deposit Parylene C over water among others. In all cases Parylene C encapsulated the liquid without influencing its initial shape. The results presented here show also that the Parylene C properties are not affected by its growth on liquid templates and the roughness of the Parylene C surface in contact with the liquid during the deposition is extremely low.

An experimental thermal characterization method is developed for high thermal conductivity thin films. The method utilizes Ta/Pt resistors on microfabricated free-standing thin film structures both for heating and temperature monitoring at different positions on the structures. The steady-state temperature at the heater and the sensor positions are monitored as a function of the power dissipated by the heater under vacuum environment, and the thermal conductivity is estimated by comparing these results to FEA and/or analytical models. The developed method is used to characterize the thermal conductivity of various different CVD diamond films of different grain sizes and films thicknesses. The measured thermal conductivity values range from 15 W/m·K to 300 W/m·K, which are at least one order of magnitude lower than that of natural diamond. It is also shown that the thermal conductivity of such films in the in-plane direction increases with increasing grain size and film.

Various metrology techniques for refractive microlenses and microlens arrays (MLAs) are reviewed in order to investigate the limitations and strength of each technique. Manufacturing relies more on lens profile measurements which provide the radius of curvature (ROC) and the conic constant rather than aberrations and the focal properties which are more useful indications for users. The goal of this study is to set up stable and repeatable characterization and metrology routines for micro-optics manufacturing.

We review various metrology techniques for the characterization of refractive microlenses and microlens arrays (MLAs). The limitations and strength of each technique are analyzed. The goal is to obtain more stable and repeatable metrology routines for micro-optics manufacturing. This analysis comprises both techniques for the characterization of individual microlenses and the analysis of a very large number of microlenses in array configurations. Metrology of spherical and aspherical lens profiles, surface properties, aberrations, Strehl ratio, and focal properties will be presented.

We investigate the Gouy phase anomaly of light in the focus of refractive plano-convex microlens arrays by using longitudinal-differential (LD) interferometry and a finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) simulation. We put emphasis on determining the amount of the Gouy phase shift for the line focus of the cylindrical lens and the point focus of the spherical lens. We discuss additional phase structures caused by diffraction, which lead to the discrepancy from the conventional Gouy phase shift.

In this paper, a novel 1×4 optical switch has been developed based on the DRIE vertical mirror technology. Three microactuated vertical silicon mirrors and five tapered/lensed fibers were employed to perform the 1×4 switch function. The comb actuators drive the mirrors linearly into the optical path due to the electrostatic force. The tilted mirror with an angle of 22.5° made the layout of the mirrors and optic fibers more compact. Finite element method (FEM) modeling on the linear comb actuator was implemented to verify the design. Deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) process was employed to fabricate the mirrors, combs and U-grooves on a SOI wafer. A satisfactory yield (up to 70%) was achieved during the microfabrication due to the compactness of the single photomask process. The prototype of the optical switch was packaged and systematically characterized in terms of bonding properties, optical performance including insertion loss, return loss, cross talk, and switch time. The design and microfabrication has been demonstrated to be successful. The packaging technique can be utilized in the similar category of optical MEMS devices. The optical performance of our switch exhibits the great promise in the application of optical networks.

A new method for realizing three-dimensional structures based on the standard silicon-on-insulator microelectromechanical systems is developed using vertically buckled bridges as structural elements. The vertical displacement, profile of the bridge, and obtainable accuracy of the displacement are examined. Using the lateral dimension control of the bridge and the supporting beams, the vertical positioning is realized based on the planer photolithography. As a demonstration, a vertical comb drive actuator is prepared and its performance is examined.

Multi-object spectroscopy (MOS) is a powerful tool for space and ground-based telescopes for the study of the formation and evolution of galaxies. This technique requires a programmable slit mask for astronomical object selection. We are engaged in a European development of micromirror arrays (MMA) for generating reflective slit masks in future MOS, called MIRA. MMA with 100 × 200 μm2 single-crystal silicon micromirrors were successfully designed, fabricated and tested. Arrays are composed of 2048 micromirrors (32 x 64) with a peak-to-valley deformation less than 10 nm, a tilt angle of 24° for an actuation voltage of 130 V. The micromirrors were actuated successfully before, during and after cryogenic cooling, down to 162K. The micromirror surface deformation was measured at cryo and is below 30 nm peak-to-valley. These performances demonstrate the ability of such MOEMS device to work as objects selector in future generation of MOS instruments both in ground-based and space telescopes. In order to fill large focal planes (mosaicing of several chips), we are currently developing large micromirror arrays integrated with their electronics.

The paper presents a new concept of a micromachined integrated sensor for combined atomic force/near-field optical microscopy. The sensor consists of a microfabricated cantilever with an integrated waveguide and a transparent near-field aperture tip. The advantage compared to the fiber-based near-field tips is the high reproducibility of the aperture and the control of the tip–sample distance by the AFM-channel. The aperture tip is fabricated in a reliable batch process which has the potential for implementation in micromachining processes of scanning probe microscopy sensors and therefore leads to new types of multifunctional probes. For evaluation purposes, the tip was attached to an optical fiber by a microassembly setup and subsequently installed in a near-field scanning optical microscope. First measurements of topographical and optical near-field patterns demonstrate the proper performance of the hybrid probe.

International audience; A micromirror array composed of 2048 silicon micromirrors measuring 200 x 100 mu m(2) and tilting by 25 degrees was developed as a reconfigurable slit mask for multi-object spectroscopy (MOS) in astronomy. The fill factor, contrast, and mirror deformation at both room and cryogenic temperatures were investigated. Contrast was measured using an optical setup that mimics a MOS instrument, and mirror deformation was characterized using a Twyman-Green interferometer. The results indicate that the array exhibited a fill factor of 82%, a contrast ratio of 1000:1, and surface mirror deformations of 8 nm and 27 nm for mirrors tilted at 298 K and 162 K, respectively. (c) 2013 Optical Society of America

Next generation of multi-object spectrographs (MOS) in astronomy will use MEMS-based programmable slit masks. Large micromirror arrays with 2048 tiltable micromirrors were fabricated using bulk and surface micro-machining, and wafer level bonding for the assembly. Micromirror size is 100μm × 200 μm and they exhibit very good surface flatness. Mirror architecture as well as a large mechanical tilt angle of 25° lead to a high contrast device, in the order of 1000:1, large enough for objects and background rejection in the MOS field of view. Finally, the micromirrors could be successfully actuated before, during and after cryogenic cooling at 162K.

We study experimentally and theoretically the electromagnetic field in amplitude and phase behind ball-lenses across a wide range of diameters, ranging from a millimeter scale down to a micrometer. Based on the observation, we study the transition between the refraction and diffraction regime. The former regime is dominated by observables for which it is sufficient to use a ray-optical picture for an explanation, e.g., a cusp catastrophe and caustics. A wave-optical picture, i.e. Mie theory, is required to explain the features, e.g., photonic nanojets, in the latter regime. The vanishing of the cusp catastrophe and the emergence of the photonic nanojet is here understood as the refraction limit. Three different criteria are used to identify the limit: focal length, spot size, and amount of cross-polarization generated in the scattering process. We identify at a wavelength of 642 nm and while considering ordinary glass as the ball-lens material, a diameter of approximately 10 µm as the refraction limit. With our study, we shed new light on the means necessary to describe micro-optical system. This is useful when designing optical devices for imaging or illumination.

International audience; We have fabricated and characterized fully programmable diffraction gratings consisting of 64 silicon micro-mirrors. The mirrors are 700 mu m long and 50 mu m wide with a fill factor of 90%. They are actuated electrostatically and move down by 1.25 mu m while showing negligible crosstalk and bowing as small as 0.14 mu m over 700 mu m. Extinction ratio up to 100 has been achieved by adjusting only 3 adjacent micro-mirrors. The gratings could operate either as light modulators up to 5 mu m or spectra generators up to 2.5 mu m. (C) 2012 Optical Society of America

In addition to their compactness, scalability and specific task customization, optical MEMS could generate new functions not available with current technologies and are thus candidates for the design of future space instruments. Most mature components for space applications are the Digital Mirror Device (DMD) from Texas Instruments (TI), the micro-deformable mirrors, the Programmable Micro Diffraction Grating and the tiltable micro-mirrors. Among 20-30 MEMS-based payloads concepts, two concepts are selected. The first concept is a programmable slit for straylight control for space spectro-imagers. This instrument is a push-broom spectro-imager for which some images cannot be exploited because of bright sources in the field-of-view. The proposed concept consists in replacing the current entrance spectrometer slit by an active row of micro-mirrors. The MEMS will permit to dynamically remove the bright sources and then to obtain a field-of-view with an optically enhanced signal-to-noise ratio. The second concept is a push-broom imager for which the acquired spectrum can be tuned by optical MEMS. This system is composed of two diffractive elements and a TI’s DMD component. The first diffractive element spreads the spectrum. A micro-mirror array is set at the location of the spectral focal plane. By putting the micro-mirrors ON or OFF, we can select parts of field-of-view or spectrum. The second diffractive element then recombines the light on a push-broom detector. Dichroics filters, strip filter, band-pass filter could be replaced by a unique instrument.

Multi-object spectroscopy (MOS) is a powerful tool for space and ground-based telescopes for the study of the formation and evolution of galaxies. This technique requires a programmable slit mask for astronomical object selection. We are engaged in a European development of micromirror arrays (MMA) for generating reflective slit masks in future MOS, called MIRA. The 100 x 200 mu m(2) micromirrors are electrostatically tilted providing a precise angle. The main requirements are cryogenic environment capabilities, precise and uniform tilt angle over the whole device, uniformity of the mirror voltage-tilt hysteresis and a low mirror deformation. A first M MA with single-crystal silicon micromirrors was successfully designed, fabricated and tested. A new generation of micromirror arrays composed of 2048 micromirrors (32 x 64) and modelled for individual addressing were fabricated using fusion and eutectic wafer-level bonding. These micromirrors without coating show a peak-to-valley deformation less than 10 nm, a tilt angle of 24 degrees for an actuation voltage of 130 V Individual addressing capability of each mirror has been demonstrated using a line-column algorithm based on an optimized voltage-tilt hysteresis. Devices are currently packaged, wire-bonded and integrated to a dedicated electronics to demonstrate the individual actuation of all micromirrors on an array. An operational test of this large array with gold coated mirrors has been done at cryogenic temperature (162 K): the micromirrors were actuated successfully before, during and after the cryogenic experiment. The micromirror surface deformation was measured at cryo and is below 30 nm peak-to-valley.

Next-generation astronomical instrumentation for ground-based and space telescopes could use MOEMS devices. Among them, Multi-Object Spectrographs (MOS) are the major instruments for studying primary galaxies and remote and faint objects. A promising solution for the object selection system is the use of MOEMS devices such as micromirror arrays (MMA) which allow the remote control of the multi-slit configuration in real time. We are engaged in a European development of MMA for generating reflective slit masks. Prototypes of MMA with 2048 individually addressable micromirrors made of single-crystal silicon were successfully designed, fabricated and tested. 100×200μm2 micromirrors can be tilted by electrostatic actuation yielding 24° mechanical tilt-angle. The micromirrors were successfully actuated before, during and after cryogenic cooling at 162K. Line-column addressing for individual mirrors has also been demonstrated. We were also engaged in a technical assessment of using a 2048 × 1080 DMD from Texas Instruments for space applications. For a MOS in space, the device should work in vacuum and at low temperature. Our tests reveal that the DMD remains fully operational at -40°C and in vacuum. A 1038 hours life test in space survey conditions, Total Ionizing Dose radiation, thermal cycling and vibrations/shocks have also been successfully completed. These results do not reveal any show-stopper concerning the ability of the DMD to meet environmental space requirements. These developments and tests demonstrate the full ability of this type of components for space instrumentation, especially in multi-object spectroscopy applications.

We show a laser beam shaping device made of a deformable continuous reflective membrane fabricated over a scanning stage. The combination of two actuator schemes enables shaping and smoothing of a laser beam with a unique compact device. It is designed to shape an input laser beam into a flat top or Gaussian intensity profile, to support high optical load and to potentially reduce speckle contrast. One single electrode is needed to deform the whole membrane into multiple sub-reflecting concave elements. The scanning stage is used simultaneously to smooth out the remaining interference patterns. The fabrication process is based on SOI wafer and parylene refilling to enable the fabrication of a 100 % fill factor 5 by 5 mm(2) deformable membrane. Applications for such device are laser machining and laser display.

A novel technology is presented for arrays of vertical flaps as optically modulating elements which are actuated electrostatically to horizontal position at low voltages of 30-50V. One application is a reflective display exhibiting a contrast ratio of 1:95. We will also show a) shutters for transmissive devices in an array configuration and b) switchable gratings. A large variety of flap geometries are fabricated such as flat reflective, grating, lens or grid shape. Poly-Si refill of thin high aspect-ratio trenches followed of dry etching of the surrounding material is used to fabricate the flaps suspended by torsion beams.

We have fabricated and characterized a Fully Programmable Micro-Diffraction Grating (FPMDG) with 64 silicon micro-mirrors for spectral shaping in the visible and near-infrared wavelength range. The FPMDG arrays of 50μm and 80μm wide and 700μm long silicon micro-mirrors have been fabricated in a process based on anodic bonding of an 8μm-SOI wafer and a borosilicate glass wafer. The detrimental bending of the micro-mirrors during electrostatic actuation has been minimized through separation of the mechanical and optical sections of the device. Flexures incorporating serpentine structures have been used to reduce the actuation dependence on length and thickness. Independent addressing of the micro-mirrors with negligible cross-talk and with bending of the micro-mirrors smaller than 0.14μm over 700μm have been demonstrated.

We present an in-detail description of the design, simulation, fabrication, and packaging of a linear micromirror array specifically designed for temporal pulse shaping of ultrashort laser pulses. The innovative features of this device include a novel comb-drive actuator allowing both piston and tilt motion for phase- and amplitude-shaping, and an X-shaped laterally reinforced spring preventing lateral snap-in while providing high flexibility for both degrees of freedom. (C) 2011 American Institute of Physics. [doi:10.1063/1.3606440]

We have fabricated and characterized fully programmable MEMS diffraction gratings with long, low-stress, low cross-talk and optically flat micro-mirrors, which can be vertically displaced up to 0.7μm.

A high fill-factor, dual-axis micromirror array with novel spring and actuator design is developed for high thermal load applications. Each pixel can attain an omnidirectional mechanical DC rotation angle of +/- 4 degrees.

We present a dynamic laser beam shaper than can generate smooth flat top and gaussian intensity profiles. It consists of a 100% fill factor membrane, supported by beams or posts, that deforms in a shape similar to a concave linear or 2D microlens array. The dynamic and tunable focal lengths allow to change the diffusion angle or to switch between flat top or gaussian output optical profiles. The whole array is fabricated over a rotating stage that enables the averaging of the interference effects caused by the array. Experiments showed that an angle of only 0.18° smooth the interferences to a contrast of 0.04. Optical simulations were performed to design the device. A first prototype using a magnetic scanner was tested to validate the simulations. Fabrication of the rotating stage and the membrane was accomplished using surface and bulk micromachining using parylene trench refilling.

A new kind of high contrast, MEMS-based reflective display system is being developed. The system consists of light reflective flaps on an optically absorptive surface. The novelty is that the flaps are in vertical position at their rest state. They can be electrostatically turned to horizontal state. A trench refilling technique on a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafer is used to fabricate the torsional polysilicon flaps. Low voltage and low power is required for actuation. With the same process also novel shutter and flap structures can be fabricated.

A new kind of MEMS reflective display is being developed having high contrast and reflectivity, better than on printed paper. The system is based on novel vertical flaps, which can be electrostatically turned by 90° to horizontal position. After fabrication, the poly-silicon flaps are vertical to the wafer surface and on the top suspended by torsion beams. In this state the pixel is black, incoming ambient light passes by the flaps and is absorbed by an underlying absorptive layer. When the flaps are turned to horizontal position light is reflected back and the pixel gets white. A self-aligning four masks bulk microfabrication process is employed, which uses poly-silicon filling of high aspect-ratio cavities. Parylene was also employed as flap material. Thanks to auto stress-compensation the flaps are not deformed due to intrinsic stresses. Low actuation voltages down to 20V can be achieved

Shaping light with microtechnology components has been possible for many years. The Texas Instruments digital micromirror device (DMD) and all types of adaptive optics systems are very sophisticated tools, well established and widely used. Here we present, however, two very dedicated systems, where one is an extremely simple MEMS-based tunable diffuser, while the second device is complex micromirror array with new capabilities for femtosecond laser pulse shaping. Showing the two systems right next to each other demonstrates the vast options and versatility of MOEMS for shaping light in the space and time domain.