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Background: Fat-soluble vitamin E and carotenoids are regarded as being protective against chronic diseases. Little is known about the effect of dietary fat on the bioavailability of these compounds. Objective: The objective of this study was to assess the effect of the amount of dietary fat on plasma concentrations of vitamin E and carotenoids after supplementation with these compounds. Design: During two 7-d periods, 4 groups of 14-15 volunteers received daily, with a low-fat hot meal, 1 of 4 different supplements: vitamin E (50 mg), alpha- plus ß-carotene (8 mg), lutein esters (8 mg lutein), or placebo. The supplements were provided in a low- or high-fat spread supplied in random sequence during either of the 2 experimental periods. Results: As anticipated, plasma concentrations of vitamin E, alpha- and ß-carotene, and lutein were significantly higher in the supplemented groups than in the placebo group. The amount of dietary fat consumed with the hot meal (3 or 36 g) did not affect the increases in plasma concentrations of vitamin E (20% increase with the low-fat spread and 23% increase with the high-fat spread) or alpha- and ß-carotene (315% and 139% with the low-fat spread and 226% and 108% with the high-fat spread). The plasma lutein response was higher when lutein esters were consumed with the high-fat spread (207% increase) than with the low-fat spread (88% increase). Conclusion: Optimal uptake of vitamin E and alpha- and ß-carotene requires a limited amount of fat whereas the amount of fat required for optimal intestinal uptake of lutein esters is higher. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: To gain more insight into the relation between vegetable consumption and the risk of chronic diseases, it is important to determine the bioavailability of carotenoids from vegetables and the effect of vegetable consumption on selected biomarkers of chronic diseases. OBJECTIVE: To assess the bioavailability of beta-carotene and lutein from vegetables and the effect of increased vegetable consumption on the ex vivo oxidizability of LDL. DESIGN: Over 4 wk, 22 healthy adult subjects consumed a high-vegetable diet (490 g/d), 22 consumed a low-vegetable diet (130 g/d), and 10 consumed a low-vegetable diet supplemented with pure beta-carotene (6 mg/d) and lutein (9 mg/d). RESULTS: Plasma concentrations of vitamin C and carotenoids (ie, alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin, and beta-cryptoxanthin) were significantly higher after the high-vegetable diet than after the low-vegetable diet. In addition to an increase in plasma beta-carotene and lutein, the pure carotenoid-supplemented diet induced a significant decrease in plasma lycopene concentration of -0.11 micromol/L (95% CI: -0.21, -0.0061). The responses of plasma beta-carotene and lutein to the high-vegetable diet were 14% and 67%, respectively, of those to the pure carotenoid- supplemented diet. Conversion of beta-carotene to retinol may have attenuated its plasma response compared with that of lutein. There was no significant effect on the resistance of LDL to oxidation ex vivo. CONCLUSIONS: Increased vegetable consumption enhances plasma vitamin C and carotenoid concentrations, but not resistance of LDL to oxidation. The relative bioavailability of lutein from vegetables is higher than that of beta-carotene. Copyright (c) 1999 American Society for Clinical Nutrition [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effects of butter and 2 types of margarine on blood lipid and lipoprotein concentrations were compared in a controlled diet study with 23 men and 23 women. Table spreads, added to a common basal diet, provided 8.3% of energy as fat. Diets averaged 34.6% of energy as fat and 15.5% as protein. Each diet was fed for 5 wk in a 3 x 3 Latin-square design. One margarine (TFA-M) approximated the average trans monoene content of trans fatty acid-containing margarines in the United States (17% trans fatty acids by dry wt). The other margarine (PUFA-M) was free of trans unsaturated fatty acids; it contained approximately twice the polyunsaturated fatty acid content of TFA-M (49% compared with 27% polyunsaturated fatty acids). The tub-type margarines had similar physical properties at ambient temperature. Fasting blood lipids and lipoproteins were determined in 2 samples taken from the subjects during the fifth week of each dietary treatment. Compared with butter, total cholesterol was 3.5% lower (P=0.009) after consumption of TFA-M and 5.4% lower (P< 0.001) after consumption of PUFA-M. Similarly, LDL cholesterol was 4.9% lower (P=0.005) and 6.7% lower (P< 0.001) after consumption of TFA-M and PUFA-M, respectively. Neither margarine differed from butter in its effect on HDL cholesterol or triacylglycerols. Thus, consumption of TFA-M or PUFA-M improved blood lipid profiles for the major lipoproteins associated with cardiovascular risk when compared with butter, with a greater improvement with PUFA-M than with TFA-M. Copyright (c) 1998 American Society for Clinical Nutrition [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Improving the nutrient density of processed foods is one way to bring the global food supply closer to the WHO Sustainable Development Goals. Nutrient profiling (NP) has emerged as the preferred method of monitoring the progress toward product innovation and reformulation. This paper presents PepsiCo Nutrition Criteria (PNC), a new internal NP model that was designed to guide and monitor improvements in nutrient density and overall nutritional quality of foods and beverages. The new PNC NP model assigns food products into four classes of increasing nutritional value, based on the content of nutrients to limit, along with nutrients and ingredients to encourage. The nutrient standards used for category assignment followed those developed by global dietary authorities. Standards are proposed for calories, sodium, added sugars, saturated, and industrially produced trans fats. Also included are minimum values for food groups to encourage, low-fat dairy, and for country-specific gap nutrients. Internal use of the NP model has spurred product changes that are consistent with WHO goals for industry transparency. An audited review of company products showed that 48% met added sugar, 65% met sodium, and 71% met saturated fat goals. By the end of 2020, in the top 26 regions in which products are sold, 48% of the total sales volume of global beverages had 100 kcal or less from added sugars per 355 ml serving representing 80% of beverage volume and over 90% of food volume sold globally. The PNC NP model is not consumer-facing but is specifically intended for internal use to motivate stepwise and incremental product innovation and reformulation. Transparent and published NP models further WHO goals of engaging industry stakeholders in the (re)formulation of processed foods and beverages consistent with public health goals., Competing Interests: DG, RB, JW, and MO'S were full-time employees of PepsiCo Inc. at the time this research was performed. AD was the originator of the Nutrient Rich Food Index, an early NP model, has received grants, contracts, and honoraria from entities both public and private with an interest in nutrient profiling and (re) formulation of foods, and served as a consultant to PepsiCo Inc. for this project., (Copyright © 2021 Greenberg, Drewnowski, Black, Weststrate and O'Shea.)

In experiment 1, normal weight male subjects were provided with three types of breakfast consumed in the Human Appetite Research Unit on separate experimental days 1 week apart. The intensity of hunger, fullness and other subjective feelings were tracked by means of visual analogue rating scales at intervals during the day. Energy and nutrient intakes were measured directly from ad libitum test meals consumed at lunch and dinner. During the rest of the day and until after breakfast the following day, food intake was measured indirectly through weighted food records. The test breakfasts comprised a basic meal 184 1 kJ (440 kcal) and the same meal supplemented with similar amounts of either fat (1515 kJ, 362 kcal) or carbohydrate (1527 kJ, 365 kcal). No differences were detected between the effects of the basic breakfast compared with the fat-supplemented breakfast. The carbohydrate supplement suppressed hunger ratings during a limited period after consumption (the post-ingestive window coinciding with the expected metabolism of carbohydrate. In experiment 2, a direct test of consumption during this post-ingestive window confirmed that the carbohydrate supplemented breakfast suppressed intake but the fat supplement did not. These results demonstrate that carbohydrate and fat can produce quiet different effects on satiety. Under these experimental conditions the supplement of fat produced no detectable effect on the expression of appetite and illustrates how dietary fat could lead to passive over-consumption of energy. However this effect may be modified by the particular pattern of food consumption during the course of a day.

Objective: The increasing consumer interest in health prompted Unilever to develop a globally applicable method (Nutrition Score) to evaluate and improve the nutritional composition of its foods and beverages portfolio., Methods: Based on (inter)national dietary recommendations, generic benchmarks were developed to evaluate foods and beverages on their content of trans fatty acids, saturated fatty acids, sodium and sugars. High intakes of these key nutrients are associated with undesirable health effects. In principle, the developed generic benchmarks can be applied globally for any food and beverage product. Product category-specific benchmarks were developed when it was not feasible to meet generic benchmarks because of technological and/or taste factors., Results: The whole Unilever global foods and beverages portfolio has been evaluated and actions have been taken to improve the nutritional quality. The advantages of this method over other initiatives to assess the nutritional quality of foods are that it is based on the latest nutritional scientific insights and its global applicability., Conclusions: The Nutrition Score is the first simple, transparent and straightforward method that can be applied globally and across all food and beverage categories to evaluate the nutritional composition. It can help food manufacturers to improve the nutritional value of their products. In addition, the Nutrition Score can be a starting point for a powerful health indicator front-of-pack. This can have a significant positive impact on public health, especially when implemented by all food manufacturers.

The objective of this study was to show or to exclude an effect of dietary supplement on rising prostate-specific antigen (PSA) levels. We have studied the effect of a dietary supplement (verum, administered for 6 weeks) containing plant estrogens, antioxidants, including carotenoids, selenium and other putative prostate cancer inhibiting substances in a randomized placebo-controlled double-blind crossover study in 37 hormonally untreated men with prostate cancer and increasing PSA levels. Outcome measures were changes in the rates of change of serum concentrations of total and free PSA and changes in male sex hormone levels. Male sex hormone levels were significantly lower during the verum phase (DHT: -0.11 nmol/L, p = 0.005; testosterone: -1 nmol/L, p = 0.02). Total PSA doubling time was unaffected. Free PSA, which increased during the placebo phase (average doubling time of 68 weeks), decreased during the verum period (average half-life of 13 weeks; p = 0.02). In those men in whom the free androgen index decreased (21 out of 32), a significant decrease in the slopes of both total and free PSA was observed (p = 0.04). Overall total PSA doubling times did not increase significantly during verum. However, the study demonstrates that this dietary intervention reduces DHT and testosterone levels and increases free PSA doubling time (and total PSA doubling time in a relevant subgroup). If future studies confirm that these observations translate into a slowing of disease progression, a dietary intervention may become an attractive option for prostate cancer treatment and prevention., ((c) 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

Excessive consumption of energy and fat increases the risk for obesity. Snacks containing sucrose polyesters (SPE) as a dietary fat replacer are on the market in the United States. SPE products have been shown to lower concentrations of serum carotenoids in short-term studies. Experimental studies on the longer-term effects on health of decreased carotenoid concentrations are lacking. A 1-y randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled parallel trial was performed. Subjects (n = 380) with a habitual low or high fruit and vegetable intake were assigned to the treatments (0, 7, 10 or 17 g/d SPE). SPE was given in the form of spreads, chips or both. The groups were compared for serum carotenoids, vitamins and markers of oxidative damage, eye health, cardiovascular health and immune status. After 1 y, serum lipid-adjusted carotenoids showed the largest decrease in the SPE chips and spread group (17 g/d) compared with the control group [alpha-carotene 33%; beta-carotene 31%, lycopene 24%, beta-cryptoxanthin 18%, lutein 18% (all P < 0.001) and zeaxanthin 13% (P < 0.05)]. Consumption of SPE spread (10 g/d SPE) decreased carotenoid concentrations by 11-29% (all P < 0.05). SPE chips (7 g/d SPE) decreased zeaxanthin (11%), beta-carotene (12%) and alpha-carotene (21%; all P < 0.05). Serum lipid adjusted alpha-tocopherol decreased significantly by 6-8% (all P < 0.001) in all SPE groups. No negative effects were observed on markers of oxidation, eye health, cardiovascular health or immune status. This study shows that decreases in serum carotenoid concentrations do not affect possible markers of disease risk.

Male hamsters (30 per group) were fed five different semi-purified diets ad libitum. The diets, containing 30% of energy (en%) as fat, differed in their dietary fat composition (specified fatty acids exchanged at 10 en%) and were fed for 4 weeks. The five fatty acids compared in mixed triglycerides were elaidic acid (C18:1 9t), vaccenic acid (C18:1 11t), their cis-counterpart oleic acid (C18:1 9c), medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA; C8:0 and C10:0), and palmitic acid (C16:0). Compared with oleic acid, dietary MCFA and palmitic acid tended to increase blood cholesterol levels in the hamsters. The effect of elaidic and vaccenic acid on blood cholesterol did not differ from that of oleic acid. When elaidic acid and vaccenic acids were compared directly, the ratio of LDL/HDL-cholesterol in plasma was significantly higher in hamsters fed vaccenic acid than in those fed elaidic acid, and elaidic acid was incorporated at low levels, but more efficiently than vaccenic acid at the sn-2 position of platelet phospholipids. Biological consequences of this low incorporation are considered unlikely as levels of arachidonic acid (C20:4 n-6) and docosohexaenoic acid (C22:6 n-3) in the platelet phospholipids of all dietary groups did not differ. With respect to the effect on the LDL/HDL-cholesterol ratio, elaidic acid may be preferable to vaccenic acid. We conclude that this animal study does not provide evidence for the suggestion, based on epidemiological observations, that elaidic acid would be more detrimental to cardiovascular risk than vaccenic acid.

Background: Fat-soluble vitamin E and carotenoids are regarded as being protective against chronic diseases. Little is known about the effect of dietary fat on the bioavailability of these compounds., Objective: The objective of this study was to assess the effect of the amount of dietary fat on plasma concentrations of vitamin E and carotenoids after supplementation with these compounds., Design: During two 7-d periods, 4 groups of 14-15 volunteers received daily, with a low-fat hot meal, 1 of 4 different supplements: vitamin E (50 mg), alpha- plus beta-carotene (8 mg), lutein esters (8 mg lutein), or placebo. The supplements were provided in a low- or high-fat spread supplied in random sequence during either of the 2 experimental periods., Results: As anticipated, plasma concentrations of vitamin E, alpha- and beta-carotene, and lutein were significantly higher in the supplemented groups than in the placebo group. The amount of dietary fat consumed with the hot meal (3 or 36 g) did not affect the increases in plasma concentrations of vitamin E (20% increase with the low-fat spread and 23% increase with the high-fat spread) or alpha- and beta-carotene (315% and 139% with the low-fat spread and 226% and 108% with the high-fat spread). The plasma lutein response was higher when lutein esters were consumed with the high-fat spread (207% increase) than with the low-fat spread (88% increase)., Conclusion: Optimal uptake of vitamin E and alpha- and beta-carotene requires a limited amount of fat whereas the amount of fat required for optimal intestinal uptake of lutein esters is higher. 2000;71:-93.

Tomatoes are the main dietary source of lycopene, and the bioavailability of lycopene from tomato paste is higher than that from fresh tomatoes. We investigated systematically the effect of mechanical homogenization and heating on the bioavailability of carotenoids from canned tomatoes. Further, we compared the carotenoid response in triglyceride-rich lipoproteins (TRL) after single consumption with the change in fasting plasma carotenoid concentrations after 4 d of daily consumption. In a split plot design, 17 men and women consumed tomatoes which had received minimal additional heating and 16 others consumed extensively additionally heated tomatoes (1 h at 100 degrees C). These tomatoes were not, mildly or severely homogenized. The tomato products were consumed daily (ca. 22 mg/d lycopene) for 4 d. Eleven participants provided postprandial blood samples on the d 1 and all gave fasting blood samples on d 1 and 4. Homogenization enhanced the lycopene response significantly (P<0.05) both in TRL [mean areas under the curves: 54.9, 72.0 and 88.7 nmol. h/L (SE 11.0) for not, mildly and severely homogenized tomatoes, respectively] and in plasma [mean changes: 0.19, 0.22 and 0.23 micromol/L (SE 0.009), respectively]. Additional heating also tended to enhance the lycopene responses in TRL (P = 0.14) and plasma (P = 0.17). Similar effects to those for lycopene were found for beta-carotene. We conclude that the intactness of the cellular matrix of tomatoes determines the bioavailability of carotenoids and that matrix disruption by mechanical homogenization and/or heat treatment enhances the bioavailability. The carotenoid response in plasma after 4 d intervention can be used to compare the bioavailability of carotenoids from different foods.

Carotenoids are thought to contribute to the beneficial effects of increased vegetable consumption. Various dietary factors have an effect on the bioavailability of carotenoids. The type of food matrix in which carotenoids are located is a major factor. The bioavailability of beta-carotene from vegetables in particular has been shown to be low (14% from mixed vegetables) compared with that of purified beta-carotene added to a simple matrix (e.g., salad dressing), whereas for lutein, the difference is much smaller (relative bioavailability of 67% from mixed vegetables). Processing, such as mechanical homogenization or heat treatment, has the potential to enhance the bioavailability of carotenoids from vegetables (from 18% to a sixfold increase). The amount of dietary fat required to ensure carotenoid absorption seems low (approximately 3-5 g per meal), although it depends on the physicochemical characteristics of the carotenoids ingested. Unabsorbable, fat-soluble compounds reduce carotenoid absorption, and interaction among carotenoids may also result in a reduced carotenoid bioavailability. Research into the functional benefits of carotenoids should consider the fact that the bioavailability of beta-carotene in particular is one order of magnitude higher when provided as a pure compound added to foods than when it is present naturally in foods.

A study was conducted in 12 healthy males and 12 healthy females (mean age 36 years, mean body mass index 24 kg/m2), to determine the effect of a margarine enriched with phytosterol esters on faecal short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and faecal bacterial enzyme activities, viable faecal microflora count, female sex hormones and serum cholesterol concentrations. The study design was a two-period, parallel dosing, randomized, placebo-controlled dietary study. Under controlled dietary conditions, participants consumed 40 g of the control margarine for 21 and 28 consecutive days for males and females, respectively. This was followed immediately by the second part of the study where subjects were equally and randomly allocated to consume daily 40 g of either the control or the test margarine, containing 8.6 g vegetable oil phytosterols (a mixture of beta-sitosterol, campesterol and stigmasterol), also for 21 or 28 days. All females were shown to have a regular menstrual cycle and were on an established method of contraception not involving oral contraceptives. When compared with the control group values, the test group showed a significant reduction in serum total and LDL cholesterol concentrations of 18 and 23% (P < 0.001; P < 0.001) respectively, in faecal lactic acid concentration (P = 0.039) and in serum progesterone levels (P = 0.021). There were no other significant treatment effects. Within each group a number of significant changes occurred compared to baseline. In the test group, faecal lactic acid concentration and the ratio of acetic acid:total SCFA; and the ratio of butyric acid:total SCFA, in the control group were both significantly reduced (P = 0.016). Compared to baseline, azo-reductase activity was significantly reduced in the control group (P = 0.047). Total faecal aerobes (P = 0.028), lactobacilli (P = 0.003) and staphylococci (P = 0.025) content was also significantly reduced in the control group, while in the test group only lactobacilli content was reduced (P = 0.019). Of the significant findings reported in this study, none was considered to be of biological importance except the beneficial reduction in serum total and LDL-cholesterol concentrations. The daily consumption of a margarine enriched with 8.6 g vegetable oil phytosterols did not affect the bacterial profile or the metabolic activities of the gut microflora, nor did it result in biologically relevant effects on serum female sex hormone levels. The margarine enriched with the vegetable oil phytosterols was well tolerated by both male and female volunteers.

A study was conducted in 12 healthy males and 12 females (mean age 36 years) to assess the impact of a margarine enriched with phytosterol esters on faecal concentrations of bile acids and sterols. During the run-in period, volunteers consumed 40 g of a control margarine for 21 consecutive days if male, and for 28 days if female. Half of the volunteers were then randomly allocated to consume the control margarine for another 21 or 28 days, respectively. The remaining subjects consumed 40 g of a margarine containing 8.6 g vegetable oil phytosterol (46% (w/w) beta-sitosterol, 26% campesterol, 20% stigmasterol). Throughout the total study subjects consumed the same diet adjusted for individual energy requirements. The phytosterol ester-enriched spread significantly enhanced faecal neutral sterol concentrations from about 40 mg/g to 190 mg/g dry weight faeces. Faecal neutral sterol metabolites increased from about 30 mg/g to about 50 mg/g. The major parent sterols excreted were cholesterol, sitosterol, campesterol and stigmasterol. Sitosterol, campesterol and stigmasterol comprised 28%, 15% and 12% of the total faecal neutral sterols, reflecting the composition of the sterol enriched margarine. The major sterol metabolites excreted were metabolites formed by, predominantly, oxidation at the 3-position and metabolites saturated at the 5,6 position in a beta-configuration. Faecal secondary bile acid concentration was reduced by vegetable oil sterols from 7.6 mg/g dry faeces to 6.0 mg/g. Consumption of vegetable oil phytosterols slightly but significantly increased the faecal concentration of 4-cholesten-3-one. However, 4-cholesten-3-one concentration remained very low (< 2 mg/g) and in line with values reported in the literature for subjects fed high or low fat diets. No sterol oxides could be detected in the faeces. We conclude that in healthy adult males and females a high intake of vegetable oil phytosterol esters does increase the amount of neutral sterols in the faeces, as expected, but does not result in the increased formation of bile acids or sterol metabolites.

In a 9-week study seventy-six healthy adult volunteers with an average age of 44 (SD 11) years, with baseline plasma total cholesterol levels below 8 mmol/l, received in a balanced, double-blind, crossover design, a total of three different table spreads for personal use. Two spreads were fortified either with free (non-esterified) vegetable-oil sterols, mainly from soyabean oil (31 g sterol equivalents/kg; 0.8 g/d) or sheanut-oil sterols (133 g sterol equivalents/kg; 3.3 g/d). One spread was not fortified (control). Average intake of spread was 25 g/d for 3 weeks. None of the spreads induced changes in blood clinical chemistry or haematology. Plasma total- and LDL-cholesterol concentrations were statistically significantly reduced by 3.8% and 6% (both 0.19 mmol/l) respectively, for the spread enriched with free soyabean-oil sterols compared with the control spread. The spread enriched with sheanut-oil sterols did not lower plasma total- and LDL-cholesterol levels. None of the plant-sterol-enriched spreads affected plasma HDL-cholesterol concentrations. Plasma-lipid-standardized concentrations of alpha- plus beta-carotene were not statistically significantly affected by the soyabean-oil sterol spread in contrast to lipid-standardized plasma lycopene levels which showed a statistically significant decrease (9.5%). These findings indicate that a daily intake of free soyabean-oil sterols as low as 0.8 g added to a spread is effective in lowering blood total- and LDL-cholesterol levels with limited effects on blood carotenoid levels. The lowering in total- and LDL-cholesterol blood levels due to consumption of the vegetable-oil-sterol-enriched spread may be helpful in reducing the risk of CHD for the population.

Background: To gain more insight into the relation between vegetable consumption and the risk of chronic diseases, it is important to determine the bioavailability of carotenoids from vegetables and the effect of vegetable consumption on selected biomarkers of chronic diseases., Objective: To assess the bioavailability of beta-carotene and lutein from vegetables and the effect of increased vegetable consumption on the ex vivo oxidizability of LDL., Design: Over 4 wk, 22 healthy adult subjects consumed a high-vegetable diet (490 g/d), 22 consumed a low-vegetable diet (130 g/d), and 10 consumed a low-vegetable diet supplemented with pure beta-carotene (6 mg/d) and lutein (9 mg/d)., Results: Plasma concentrations of vitamin C and carotenoids (ie, alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin, and beta-cryptoxanthin) were significantly higher after the high-vegetable diet than after the low-vegetable diet. In addition to an increase in plasma beta-carotene and lutein, the pure carotenoid-supplemented diet induced a significant decrease in plasma lycopene concentration of -0.11 micromol/L (95% CI: -0.21, -0.0061). The responses of plasma beta-carotene and lutein to the high-vegetable diet were 14% and 67%, respectively, of those to the pure carotenoid- supplemented diet. Conversion of beta-carotene to retinol may have attenuated its plasma response compared with that of lutein. There was no significant effect on the resistance of LDL to oxidation ex vivo., Conclusions: Increased vegetable consumption enhances plasma vitamin C and carotenoid concentrations, but not resistance of LDL to oxidation. The relative bioavailability of lutein from vegetables is higher than that of beta-carotene.

Palm oil carotenoids are a mixture of alpha- and beta-carotenes, which are used as food colorants. They may also be applied as a functional food ingredient because of the provitamin A activity of alpha- and beta-carotenes and their proposed beneficial roles in the prevention of chronic diseases. This paper discusses the results of an incomplete balanced crossover study with 69 healthy adult volunteers to compare palm oil carotenoids with synthetic beta-carotene in their efficacies to increase plasma levels of carotenoids. Four days of supplementation with natural palm oil carotenoids (7.6 mg/day of alpha-carotene, 11.9 mg/day of all-trans-beta-carotene, 7.5 mg/day of cis-beta-carotene) or synthetic beta-carotene (23.8 mg/day of all-trans-beta-carotene, 4.4 mg/day of cis-beta-carotene), added to a mixed meal, resulted in significant increases in plasma levels of the supplied carotenoids as compared to consumption of a low-carotenoid meal (i.e., 7.2-fold increase in alpha-carotene and 3.5-fold increase in all-trans-beta-carotene following palm oil carotenoids; 6.9-fold increase in all-trans beta-carotene following synthetic beta-carotene). As the carotenoid content differed between the treatments, the relative plasma responses were calculated per milligram of beta-carotene intake. These were similar for the two supplements, suggesting that the presence of alpha-carotene does not affect the bioavailability of beta-carotene from palm oil. It was concluded that 4 days of supplementation with palm oil carotenoids or synthetic beta-carotene improves the plasma beta-carotene status substantially, whereas alpha-carotene is additionally delivered by the palm oil supplement.

The long-term effects of consumption of marine long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) on atherosclerosis in the rabbit were examined. Female Dutch rabbits were fed purified diets, containing 40 energy% total fat, for a period of 2.5 years. To study the dose response relationship between fish oil intake and atherosclerosis, four diets were formulated with fish oil levels being 0, 1, 10 and 20 energy%. A fifth and sixth group were fed an alpha-linolenic acid-(C18:3, n-3) and linoleic acid-(C18:2, n-6) rich diet, respectively. Every 6 weeks, blood samples were taken for determination of clinical chemical parameters, triacylglycerol and total cholesterol levels. Feeding 10 and 20 energy% fish oil containing diets, resulted in an increase of liver enzymes (AST, ALT and ALP). Histological evaluation of the liver also revealed adverse effects of fish oil containing diets. Triacylglycerol blood levels were similar in all groups, and remained constant throughout the study. Total cholesterol levels in blood was significantly lower in the animals fed a linoleic acid-rich diet, as compared with the other five groups. An n-3 long-chain PUFA concentration dependent increase in aorta plaque surface area was observed in the fish oil groups. A significant positive relationship was found between the group mean score for severity of liver pathology and the aorta plaque surface area. These results indicate that the long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in fish oil may be hepatotoxic to the herbivorous rabbit, which may interfere with the outcome of atherosclerosis studies. This finding necessitates the exclusion of liver pathology in experimental studies on atherosclerosis in animal models.

Objective: Assessment of the effect of six months consumption of reduced fat or full fat products on energy intake and body weight, as a function of dietary restraint., Design: A small realistic supermarket in the University departments provided full fat commercial products and their reduced fat alternatives. Volunteers visited the supermarket once a week. Half of them were required to take the reduced fat products, the other half the full fat products. They bought additional products in normal shops., Subjects: Two matched groups (age, genders, body mass index (BMI)), one dietary restrained and one dietary unrestrained, were derived from the total group of 220 healthy men and women. This resulted in four groups differing in dietary restraint and in belonging to the full fat or reduced fat group., Measurements: Energy intake, macronutrient composition of food intake, energy density and weight of food ingested were measured before the run-in period and at 2-4 weeks, three and six months after the start of the study, by controlled food intake diaries., Results: Percentage energy from fat, and energy density changed significantly, according to the reduced or full fat diet, in all subjects. Energy intake and body weight remained constant in the dietary unrestrained on a reduced fat diet and in the dietary restrained on a full fat diet. Energy intake increased significantly, with a trend of body weight increase in the dietary unrestrained on a full fat diet. Body weight decreased significantly, with a trend of decreased energy intake, in the dietary restrained on a reduced fat diet., Conclusion: A reduced fat diet, in combination with unrestrained eating behaviour which resulted in energy intake compensation, contributed to weight maintenance. Weight reduction was the consequence of a reduced fat diet in combination with restrained, non-compensatory eating behaviour. A full fat diet combined with unrestrained eating behaviour led to increased energy intake. Restrained eating behaviour with a full fat diet prevented an increase in energy intake and body weight. Thus dietary restraint compensated for an increase in energy density, whereas dietary unrestraint compensated for a decrease in energy density.

The objective of this study was to investigate the behavioral response to the long term realistic consumption of reduced fat products. During six months, a control group of 103 subjects had free access to about 45 commercially available full-fat products, and a reduced-fat group of 117 subjects had access to the reduced fat equivalents. These experimental products covered about 37% of total energy intake in the control group and 30% of energy intake in the reduced fat group. Other non-experimental food products were bought in regular shops. The results showed that, compared to a baseline measurement before the start of the study, energy intake increased from 10.4 MJ/day to 11.2 MJ/d in the control group, whereas it remained constant at 10.2 MJ/d in the reduced fat group. Fat intake in the control group increased from 99 g/d (35.6en%) to 123g/d (40.6en%), whereas fat intake in the reduced fat group decreased from 95 g/d (34.en%) to 90 g/d (32.7en%). The energy and fat intake from experimental products was lower in the reduced fat group (3.1 MJ/d, 37 g fat/d) than in the control group (4.2 MJ/d, 71 g fat/d). There was some compensatory response in the consumption of experimental products: the ingested amount of experimental products was about 10% higher in the reduced fat group (447 g/d) than in the control group (399 g/d)[t = 2.6; p < 0.01]. There was no compensatory response in the consumption of non-experimental products. Both the control and reduced fat group consumed about 7.1 MJ/d and 53 g fat/d from non-experimental products. It is concluded that long term consumption of reduced fat products leads to a lower energy and fat intake, compared to the consumption of full-fat products.

The hypothesis that tea or dietary lipid-soluble antioxidants reduce atherogenesis by lowering the oxidizability of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) was investigated. Five groups of 20 female New Zealand white rabbits were fed a restricted amount of a high-fat (30 en%) semipurified diet supplemented with cholesterol (0.15%, w/w) for 21 weeks. The vitamin E content of the control diet was 40 mg/kg diet. The animals received either green tea or black tea in their drinking water or vitamin E (200 mg/kg diet) or beta-carotene (20 mg/kg). The serum cholesterol concentrations (in the order of 18-23 mmol/l) were not significantly different between the groups. Vitamin E was substantially increased as compared to controls in vitamin E supplemented animals (3-fold within 8 weeks in plasma and LDL; P < 0.01) and weakly (1.2-fold) by green and black tea (P < 0.05). Green tea consumption tended to reduce aortic lesion formation by 31% (24 +/- 3.2% versus 35 +/- 5.7% for control animals P = 0.11), while black tea, vitamin E and beta-carotene had no effect. This was in contrast to the resistance of isolated LDL to oxidation induced at high copper concentration. Green and black tea induced a 13% and 15% (P < 0.05) prolongation of the lag phase, respectively, with a correspondingly lower oxidation rate, while vitamin E increased the lag phase by 63% (P < 0.01) with a concomitant diminution of the oxidation rate and beta-carotene had no effect. Regression analysis showed that there was no relationship between the extent of atherosclerosis and LDL oxidizability or plasma malondialdehyde as marker of in vivo lipid peroxidation. The results of the present study raise the question whether LDL oxidizability (at least when tested at high induction rate ex vivo) is a primary causal mechanism in atherosclerosis in the cholesterol-fed rabbit. The suitability of the cholesterol-fed rabbit with extreme hypercholesterolaemia as a model to study antiatherosclerotic properties of dietary antioxidants, such as the tested polyphenols, is discussed.

The effect of replacement of fat by nonabsorbable fat on energy intake and on feelings of hunger and satiety was assessed, in normal-weight dietary-restrained (n = 11), dietary-unrestrained (n = 13) and in postobese dietary-restrained women (n = 12), using 2 experimental designs. First, during breakfast and lunch on 2 sequential weekdays, 23 g of dietary fat was replaced by 23 g of a nonabsorbable fat. Second, dietary fat was replaced by a nonabsorbable fat in snacks consumed ad lib during a different week. Fat replacement in meals or in snacks did not result in changes in hunger and satiety ratings throughout the day. Replacement in meals yielded an energy intake reduction of 0.5 MJ/day (not significant) in dietary-unrestrained and in postobese dietary-restrained subjects; this reduction included 44% energy intake compensation. In normal-weight dietary-restrained subjects, energy intake reduction of 0.7 (p < 0.05) MJ/day was observed; this reduction included 22% energy intake compensation. Moreover, fat replacement in meals showed a shift in macronutrient composition from 35-40% energy from fat to 31-32% energy from fat. Replacement in snacks yielded an energy intake reduction of 0.4-0.5 MJ/day (not significant) in normal-weight dietary-restrained subjects and a reduction of 0.6-0.7 (p < 0.05) MJ/day in dietary-unrestrained and in postobese dietary-restrained subjects. In this situation, energy intake from snacks consisted of 48-78% energy from reduced-fat reduced-energy snacks, which implied a replacement of 10-15 g fat by 10-15 g SPE (sucrose polyester) and a shift in macronutrient composition from 35-40 percentage energy from fat to 33-36 percentage energy from fat. These results suggest short-term beneficial effects of fat replacement on energy and fat intake.

Diet-induced thermogenesis was measured during and after a full-fat lunch, an identical but reduced-fat, reduced-energy lunch, and an iso-energetic reduced-fat lunch in 32 normal-weight men and women, age 35-55. Hunger and satiety were scored during and after the lunches, and their relationship to diet-induced thermogenesis was assessed. Diet-induced thermogenesis was relatively higher after the reduced-fat, reduced-energy lunch compared to the full-fat lunch (6.7% vs. 5.2%; p < 0.05). The respiratory quotients were significantly lower after the full-fat lunch than after the 2 reduced-fat lunches (p < 0.05). After the iso-energetic reduced-fat lunch, hunger scores were significantly reduced and satiety scores significantly increased (p < 0.05) until 1800 h. compared to the other 2 lunches. Satiety scores were positively related to the magnitude of diet-induced thermogenesis expressed as an absolute increase in metabolic rate during and after the meal. We conclude that hunger and satiety scores, substrate utilization, and diet-induced thermogenesis showed clear and different short-term responses to diets that differed with respect to the percentage energy from fat and/or the energy content of the meal.

Vitamin E is the major lipid-soluble antioxidant in human subjects and is crucial in protecting polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) against lipid peroxidation. Dietary PUFA have been suggested to inhibit the absorption of vitamin E. The present study in young male rats was designed to investigate the effect of increasing concentrations of dietary linoleic acid on the faecal excretion of vitamin E. The rats were fed on semi-synthetic diets containing two concentrations of fat (59 g/kg diet, 15 energy % (en%) or 131 g/kg, 30 en%) for 3 weeks. Triacylglycerol rich in linoleic acid was added at the expense of triacylglycerol rich in saturated fatty acids to obtain dietary concentrations of 13, 39 or 66 g linoleic acid/kg diet for the high-fat diet (131 g fat/kg) and 12, 24 or 36 g linoleic acid/kg diet for the reduced-fat diet (59 g fat/kg). The results from the present study demonstrate that the faecal excretion of vitamin E was significantly lower in rats fed on diets with high levels of linoleic acid compared with rats fed on lower levels of linoleic acid irrespective of the dietary fat content. The concentration of vitamin E in liver and plasma was significantly lower in animals fed on the highest concentration of linoleic acid compared with those fed on the lowest level. Results from the present study also demonstrate that at the same concentration of linoleic acid, the faecal excretion of vitamin E in rats fed on reduced-fat diets was significantly lower than in rats fed on high-fat diets. Our findings indicate that the apparent absorption of vitamin E is not inhibited by dietary PUFA. Results from the present study also demonstrate that a reduction of dietary fat content from 30 en% to 15 en% does not lower the apparent absorption of vitamin E.

The growing public concern with the adverse effects on health of a high fat intake has led to a proliferation on the market of reduced fat products. However, no consensus exists on the effectivity of reduced fat products to decrease energy intake. The studies that have investigated this topic have included small numbers of subjects, studied under laboratory conditions and over a relatively short period of time. Therefore, we have executed a long-term study in which volunteers had free access to both reduced fat, commercially available products in the laboratory as well as to products obtained from regular shops. We here report the feasibility of such a type of study and the effects of consumption of reduced fat products on blood levels of cholesterol, haemostasis variables, antioxidants and parameters of the immune system. The study was a multicentre parallel comparison trial of six months (so-called MSFAT-study). 241 volunteers received either reduced fat products or full-fat products and the products were clearly labelled as such. Two months before the start of the study, a 1 month adaptation period was executed to optimize the experimental procedures. Food intake was recorded before the start of the adaptation period and 2-4 weeks, 3 months and 6 months after the start of the study. Blood samples were taken before, after 2, 4 and 6 months of the study. In addition, a selection of the reduced fat and full-fat products was sensorically evaluated three times during the study by a subgroup of the volunteers. 220 volunteers completed the study. The reduced fat group consumed on average 46% less fat from the so-called MSFAT-products obtained from the shop at the laboratory than the control group and consumption of these MSFAT-products did not decrease in either of the groups during the time course of the study. The palatability of the reduced fat and full-fat products was similar and as expected, the perceived fattiness of the full-fat products was higher than that of the reduced fat products. No effects were found on blood levels of cholesterol, haemostasis variables, parameters of antioxidant status and immune system characteristics. In conclusion, the experimental manipulation of the fat content of the diet that was achieved and that remained stable throughout the 6 months of the study indicates that this type of set-up is feasible to assess the effects of long-term nutritional intervention in large groups of volunteers under semi-controlled conditions. The regular use of reduced fat products did not positively but also not adversely affect blood cholesterol levels, antioxidant status, haemostasis factors and the body's immune system.

Unlabelled: In a 3-month intervention study 70 women (40 < age < 60; 24 < BMI < 29), randomized into two groups, were supplied ad libitum and free of charge with 1) customary fat-reduced foods (D group) or 2) products with normal fat content (K group). After 6 months without any contact to the volunteers food intake and body weight were controlled., Results: During the intervention period fat intake (by 22 g/d) and total energy intake (by 266 kcal/d) of the volunteers in the D group were significantly lower than in the K group. Fat reduction was not accompanied by a compensative increase in the intake of other nutrients. The weight loss was significant in the D group (1.5 kg) and not significant in the K group (0.7 kg). Between the two groups the difference in weight reduction was not significant. In the follow-up a lowered fat and energy intake had been voluntarily retained in the D group and adopted by most of the individuals in the K group., Conclusion: The consumption of low-fat products lowers the energy and fat intake and may be useful for a long-term weight control and health support.

Objective: Assessment of body composition in relation to the habitual diet and after a six month dietary intervention., Design: After a baseline measurement subjects were randomly assigned to either a group consuming reduced-fat products or a group consuming full-fat products for six months., Subjects: 108 women and 109 men, equally distributed over the age range 19-35 with BMI between 21 and 28, and the age range 36-55 with BMI between 24 and 30., Measurements: Food intake was measured by three day dietary record, body composition by deuterium dilution., Results: At baseline, explained variance of %body fat on age and fat-carbohydrate ratio in the diet together were 17% (P < 0.0001) and 36% (P < 0.0001) for women and men, respectively, and on diet alone 7-8% (P < 0.01) independent of gender. The diet intervention caused on average a change in fat intake and body fat mass in subjects of the reduced-fat group of -5 +/- 29 g/d (P < 0.05) and -0.1 +/- 2.1 kg (ns), respectively, and of +23 +/- 31 g/d (P < 0.0001) and +0.5 +/- 2.3 kg (P < 0.05) in subjects of the full-fat group. The change in the fat content of the diet was positively related to a change in energy intake (fat-carbohydrate ratio: R2 = 0.15, P < 0.0001; g fat: R2 = 0.70, P < 0.0001), the latter explaining 5% of the variation in the change in body fat mass (P < 0.001). Subjects changing the fat content of the diet showed a consequent change in body fat mass only when energy intake changed as well., Conclusion: The fat content of the diet has an effect on body fat as a function of the effect of dietary fat on energy intake.

A study was performed to evaluate long-term (6-month) effects of consumption of full-fat products or reduced-fat products on energy and substrate metabolism. Subjects (age, 19 to 35 years; body mass index [BMI], 21 to 28 kg. m-2) were studied during a 36-hour stay in a respiration chamber, before (16 men) and in the third month (16 men) and sixth month (19 men and 17 women) of the study. The diet intervention caused, on average, a change in fat intake of (mean +/- SE) +23 +/- 31 g/d (P < .001) in the full-fat group and of -5 +/- 29 g/d (P .05) in the reduced-fat group. Twenty-four-hour energy expenditure (EE), sleeping metabolic rate (SMR), diet-induced thermogenesis (DIT), and EE for physical activity (ACT) were not different between the groups. Fat oxidation was significantly (P < .05) increased in the full-fat group and was not different from fat intake. During the 6 months of the study, body mass and fat mass were significantly increased in subjects of the full-fat group, whereas there were no changes in body mass or body composition in subjects of the reduced-fat group. It is concluded that in the long run, avoidance of a diet with full-fat products will promote body weight and fast stability.

A substantial number of people have difficulties in controlling their body weight and energy/fat intake. Fat substitutes may be helpful in solving these problems. We here report the first study on the longer-term effects of the nonabsorbable fat sucrose polyester (SPE) on energy intake in normal-weight subjects. We studied the longer-term (12 days) effects of the consumption of warm meals with normal dietary fat (5.0 MJ, 1,195 kcal) or meals in which 52 g of fat were replaced by the fat replacer SPE (3.1 MJ, 740 kcal) on spontaneous food intake (measured by dietary records), body weight, and gastrointestinal complaints in healthy volunteers in two studies. In the first study the 48 subjects were unaware of the treatment, whereas in the second study the 47 subjects were informed of what they received. In both studies men and women consumed less energy per day during the SPE (11.2 MJ) compared with the fat treatment (12.7 MJ) (P values < 0.0001) for the whole 12-day period. This was accompanied by equivalent changes in body weight. The percentage of energy from fat decreased from 43% during the fat treatment to 32% during the SPE treatment. During the SPE treatment, more gastrointestinal complaints and a higher frequency of defecation were reported. Information about the treatment did not affect. the outcomes. It is concluded that the use of a fat replacer such as SPE helps in reducing fat and energy intake in normal-weight people.

Objective: Dietary fat intake is higher than recommended in most western countries and is associated with the prevalence of cardiovascular diseases, obesity and cancer. The growing public concern about the adverse effects of a high fat intake has led to an increased availability of ¿reduced-fat' products. Consumption of reduced-fat products might be a convenient way to reduce the energy intake. Besides the potential of reduced-fat products to reduce the energy intake, it might change dietary fat intake, both qualitatively and quantitatively, which in turn might also affect oxidative stress, i.e. the anti-oxidant/pro-oxidant ratio. In this paper we present the effects of 6-month consumption of reduced-fat products on body weight, energy, macronutrient and vitamin E intake, concentration of the plasma lipid peroxidation product malondialdehyde (MDA), erythrocyte free radical scavenging enzymes activities (glutathione peroxidase activity (GSH-Px); superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase) as well as plasma fat-soluble anti-oxidative vitamin concentrations (beta-carotene, lycopene and alpha-tocopherol)., Design: A randomized semi-controlled parallel comparison trial of six months, preceded by a one-month adaptation period., Setting: The reduced-fat and full fat products were provided through a realistic shop in order to mimic a ¿free-living' situation., Subjects: Subjects were recruited from respondents on advertisements. Eighty healthy, normal weight (BMI: range 20-30 kg/m2) subjects, aged between 20 and 55y, were selected to participate in this study; 76 subjects completed the study., Interventions: 6 months consumption of either reduced-fat or full-fat products., Results: During the intervention period, consumption of reduced fat products resulted in significantly lower energy intake, in a lower percentage of energy derived from saturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids as well as in lower vitamin E intake, when compared to the control group. Body weight, the ratio polyunsaturated fatty acids/saturated fatty acids, plasma MDA, vitamin concentrations (beta-carotene, lycopene and alpha-tocopherol), and erythrocyte free radical scavenging enzyme activities (SOD, GSH-Px and catalase) were not affected by the intervention., Conclusion: Neither the difference in energy intake, nor the change in dietary fat composition seems to affect the integrity of the antioxidant scavenging capacity, assessed by measuring plasma MDA and antioxidative vitamins (lycopene, beta-carotene and alpha-tocopherol) and erythrocyte free radical scavenging enzymes (SOD, GSH-Px and catalase).