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Background: In general, hypoglycemia is more frequent among the young explaining the higher frequency of impaired awareness of hypoglycemia (IAH) among children and adolescents. Thus the aim of the current study was to assess the frequency of IAH among an Egyptian cohort of children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes and identify the possible association between impaired awareness of hypoglycemia and autonomic neuropathy. Patients and Methods: A cross sectional study recruiting 100 patients with type 1 diabetes for at least 6 months duration and aged less than 18 years old recruited from the Pediatric and Adolescent Diabetes Unit (PADU). Patients with other form of diabetes, cardiac disease, thyroid disease, anemia, other chronic disease, patients with intellectual disabilities or patients taking any medications were excluded from the study. The Gold and Clarke questionnaires were used to assess hypoglycemia awareness among the studied cohort. Cardiac autonomic neuropathy (CAN) was assessed using 15 minutes Holterelectrocardiography (ECG). Results: Among the studied cohort, 42% showed IAH using the Clarke's and Gold's Questionnaires. When assessing CAN, 46% of the studied cohort showed resting tachycardia and patients with resting tachycardia showed significantly longer disease duration. There were no normative heart rate variability parameters values for the Egyptian children that can be used as a reference for diagnosis of cardiac autonomic neuropathy. So we used sex and age matched control group to find specific cutoff values for heart rate variability parameters to diagnose CAN. The results showed that the prevalence of CAN among studied- patients was 88% and there were no significant correlation between CAN and both questionnaires score. 55.7% of CAN patients were aware while 44.3% were unaware. Thus, there were no association between impaired awareness of hypoglycemia and CAN. The results showed that there was significant positive correlation between cardiac autonomic neuropathy (CAN) and diabetic duration more than 5 years. Conclusion: Although there were no association between impaired awareness of hypoglycemia and cardiac autonomic neuropathy, it is important to screen for CAN in patients with IAH, especially that CAN is usually asymptomatic among children with type 1 diabetes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

COVID-19 pandemic continues to be a global health crisis. The gut microbiome critically affects the immune system, and some respiratory infections are associated with changes in the gut microbiome; here, we evaluated the role of nutritional and lifestyle habits that modulate gut microbiota on COVID-19 outcomes in a longitudinal cohort study that included 200 patients infected with COVID-19. Of these, 122 cases were mild and seventy-eight were moderate, according to WHO classification. After detailed explanation by a consultant in clinical nutrition, participants responded to a written questionnaire on daily sugar, prebiotic intake in food, sleeping hours, exercise duration and antibiotic prescription, during the past 1 year before infection. Daily consumption of prebiotic-containing foods, less sugar, regular exercise, adequate sleep and fewer antibiotic prescriptions led to a milder disease and rapid virus clearance. Additionally, data on these factors were compiled into a single score, the ESSAP score (Exercise, Sugar consumption, Sleeping hours, Antibiotics taken, and Prebiotics consumption; 0–11 points), median ESSAP score was 5 for both mild and moderate cases; however, the range was 4–8 in mild cases, but 1–6 in moderate (P = 0·001, OR: 4·2, 95 % CI 1·9, 9·1); our results showed a negative correlation between regular consumption of yogurt containing probiotics and disease severity (P = 0·007, OR: 1·6, 95 % CI 1·1, 2·1). Mild COVID-19 disease was associated with 10–20 min of daily exercise (P = 0·016), sleeping at least 8 h daily, prescribed antibiotics less than 5 times per year (P = 0·077) and ate plenty of prebiotic-containing food. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The uncritical acceptance of Maslow's need hierarchy theory despite the lack of empirical evidence is discussed and the need for a review of recent empirical evidence is emphasized. A review of ten factor-analytic and three ranking studies testing Maslow's theory showed only partial support for the concept of need hierarchy. A large number of cross-sectional studies showed no clear evidence for Maslow's deprivation/domination proposition except with regard to self-actualization. Longitudinal studies testing Maslow's gratification/activation proposition showed no supports and the limited support received from cross-sectional studies is questionable due to numerous measurement problems. The difficulties with testing the theory are discussed and the conceptual, methodological, and measurement problems of the studies reviewed are detailed. The implications of the findings and future directions for research are outlined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article tests the predictive validity of several alternative models of expectancy theory and deals deal with some methodological and measurement problems in expectancy theory. The central theme of expectancy theory is that an individual's behavior is a function of the degree to which the behavior is instrumental for the attainment of some outcomes, and the individual's evaluation of these outcomes. The concept of expectancy as previously used in the literature has dealt with approach motivation, that is, the likelihood that a person will undertake a specific activity or behavior in anticipation of such behavior leading to a specific desired outcome or set of desired outcomes, or avoiding a specific undesired outcome or set of undesired outcomes. The attempted formulation in the literature of the distinction between expectancy and instrumentalities has created conceptual and methodological problems with no offsetting gains as regards the development of the theory. The expectancy theory may work well within restricted domain and enhance the understanding of motivation to work under specified conditions.

The development of expectancy theory is described and 14 alternative models of expectancy are contrasted. It is argued that the essence of the theory in work and motivation is the choice of work behavior. As such, it is shown that the present formulation of theory in industrial and organizational psychology, and consequently the empirical research based on it, ignores the rationality assumptions underlying this choice behavior. Some of these assumptions are specified. It is pointed out that the major constructs of the theory (expectancy and valence) lack the necessary theoretical classification. Several issues in need for further research are discussed. The concept of instrumentality is found to be ambiguous and difficult to operationalize. Finally, it is shown that the typical formulation of the theory is based on optimization choice criteria (maximizing or satisficing) and the empirical validity of these criteria is questioned. Alternative criteria are proposed. The empirical findings in the field are interpreted in light of the discussion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to update an earlier review by two of the authors dealing with the empirical validity of expectancy theory. In the earlier review, 14 studies were discussed and analyzed in light of an integrative model proposed by the authors. In less than two years since the publication of the earlier review the volume of studies dealing with expectancy theory has more than doubled--indicating the great attention given to this theory.

Two forms of the mixed-motive games were employed to test a game theory model of social power. Power is defined as the ability to control the outcome of the other(s) and the personal outcome. A 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design with repeated measures on all factors was employed in two experiments. The base of power, the power strategy of the other, and all the two-way interaction effects were significant, while the magnitude of power showed no significant effect. Power is not effective in generating cooperation, except in the case of competitive coercive power. Unexercised power is effective only in generating defection or exploitation. Cooperative strategy almost always. generates defection under both coercive and reward power. Defective strategy generates defection under reward power and cooperation under coercive power. In order to be effective, power creates inevitable social conflict. If power is distinguished from influence, the study raises serious doubts about the role and effectiveness of social power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In coalition formation under conditions of uncertainty, the probability of coalition success is 0 < p < 1. A Coalition Expected Utility (CEU) model is proposed where coalitions with the highest expected utility are predicted to form. Two experiments were designed to test the CEU model given four of Caplow's triads in the males and in the females. The observed frequencies for both males and females supported the CEU model against Caplow's Minimum Resource Theory (X², p < .001). The partner preferences indicated that the strongest member was the most preferred partner and the weakest member was the least preferred partner (X², p < .001). Males showed a stronger tendency toward risky decisions than females. The CEU model showed a higher predictive validity than three additional deterministic theories of coalition formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The coalition formation paradigm was used to test for the preferences among alternative forms of equity by the males and the females. The first form of equity was equality of outcomes regardless of inputs, the second was proportionality of outcomes according to inputs, and the third was equality of gains after repayment of inputs. The females preferred equality of outcomes in both coalitions among equals and coalitions among unequals. The males preferred equality of gains after repayment of inputs in both deterministic and probabilistic coalition formations. The implications of the findings in three experiments were discussed with regard to both coalition formations and the equity model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]