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It is currently unresolved whether control, or its lack, over mind wandering contributes to its associations with creativity. Mind wandering and mindfulness are seen as opposing constructs concerning the ability to remain undistracted and, at the same time, appear to have a complex relationship with one another and with creativity. This study investigated the influence of control on novelty and usefulness of thought content during mind wandering in everyday life, controlling for mindfulness, creativity, and momentary mood. One thousand twenty-five thought probes of 41 healthy young adults were collected over the course of one week. The mindfulness facet acting with awareness and higher originality predicted less mind wandering. Acting with awareness also predicted higher, but nonreactivity to inner experience and creative production lower, momentary control. Momentary control was lower among women than men and positively associated with usefulness, but not novelty, of thoughts. Creativity did not moderate these associations. Habitual spontaneous mind wandering predicted lower usefulness and novelty of thoughts. These results highlight the need to distinguish controlled and uncontrolled mind wandering and the facets of mindfulness in this field of inquiry. Future research should focus on the contents and processes of mind wandering to further disentangle its adaptive and maladaptive consequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The contributions of latitude and ethnicity in the determination of cross‐society differences in digit ratios are unclear. In India, different castes (endogamous groups) have been living in the same areas (villages or towns) for the last 1500 years and, therefore, these groups may have different gene pools without a latitude‐related difference component. Thus, in the present study, we studied the effect of caste on digit ratios. We also studied the effects of sex, birth season, and family income on digit ratios. Methods: We selected a sample of 301 college students (age: M = 19.9 years, SD = 2.63) in Muzaffarnagar city of western Uttar Pradesh, India, and asked participants for information regarding their birth month, religion, caste, and monthly family income. We measured participants' dorsal and palmar digit lengths (of all fingers, except the thumb, in both hands) using vernier calipers of 0.01 mm accuracy. Results: Other backward castes (intermediate castes) had longer digit lengths than general castes (upper castes), scheduled castes (lower castes), and Muslims. However, there was no difference in digit ratios of caste groups (scheduled castes vs. other backward castes vs. general castes vs. Muslims) or specific castes (Chamar‐Jatav vs. Jat vs. Pandit‐Tyagi). Winter‐born women had lower left dorsal 2D:4D and 3D:4D ratios than summer‐born women. Family income was related to higher dorsal 2D:4D and 3D:4D ratios among women. Moreover, in dorsal digit ratios, sex difference (men < women) occurred in digit ratios constituting digit 5, whereas, in palmar digit ratios, sex difference occurred in digit ratios constituting digit 2. Conclusions: The present study suggests that endogamy‐led genetic difference in ethnic/caste groups is not a determinant, whereas birth season (i.e., the exposure to sunlight) and family income might be determinants of digit ratios. In addition, compared to palmar digit ratios, dorsal digit ratios are better markers of sexual dimorphism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationship between lower socioeconomic status (SES) and religiousness is well known; however, its (psychological mediation) mechanism is not clear. In the present study, we studied the mediation role of intolerance of uncertainty (IU; a personality measure of self-uncertainty) in the effect of SES on religiousness and its dimensions (i.e., believing, bonding, behaving, and belonging), in two different samples (students sample, N = 868, and community sample, N = 250), after controlling the effects of factors like age, sex, handedness, and self-reported risk-taking. The results showed that IU mediated the effects of lower family income and lower caste status (in students' sample only) on religiousness and its dimensions; higher caste status had a direct effect on religiousness (and its dimensions), and; among the sub-factors of IU, only prospective IU affected religiousness. Thus, along with showing that IU is a mediator of the effects of lower family income and lower caste status on religiousness, the present study supports the contention that religiousness is a latent variable that varied factors can independently initiate. Moreover, the present study suggests a nuanced model of the relationship between the hierarchical caste system and religiousness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Because self-report hand preference measures are limited to investigating cognitive aspects of manual laterality, valid, easy-to-administer and economic behavioural methods are needed for capturing the motoric component of handedness. Therefore, this study introduces the Handedness Index Practical Task (HI20) and tests it in a sample of 206 students (Mage = 23.79 years, SDage = 3.01 years), half of whom were self-specified left-handers. After confirming good reliabilities at the subscale and total scale levels, k-means cluster analysis allowed an empirically based partitioning of test subjects into left- (n = 72), mixed- (n = 23) and right-handers (n = 111). To validate this categorization and the HI20 index, data were compared with the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory (EHI), EHI-short, HI22 and hand grip strength. The congruency between the HI20 clusters and alternative categorizations ranged from 95.6% to 84.0%, while the clusters explained large portions of variance in grip strength differences. The HI20 sub- and total scores showed strong correlations with other measures of lateral preference. Altogether, the freely available HI20 emerges as a reliable and valid alternative for behavioural handedness assessment, whose power lies in explaining differential hand use patterns and enabling fine-grained examinations of handedness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous evidence suggests that benefits of mindfulness‐based interventions (MBIs) may depend on individuals' baseline trait mindfulness (BTM) levels. This meta‐analysis investigated moderating effects of BTM on changes in mental health outcomes and trait mindfulness in randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of MBIs. A total of 177 primary studies (total N = 13,486), comparing the treatment effects of MBIs against active, treatment‐as‐usual (TAU) and waitlist control groups, were synthesised via three‐level meta‐analysis. Lower BTM was associated with larger changes in mental health outcomes (B = −0.14, 95% CI [−0.21, −0.06], p < .001) and trait mindfulness (B = −0.09 [−0.16, −0.02], p = .009) in MBIs and active controls combined. These associations were significantly larger than from those in TAU and waitlist controls. Moderating effects were less tangible for changes in trait mindfulness in MBIs and active controls individually and less tangible in various sensitivity analyses which, however, were confounded by client type across the RCTs. Individuals low in BTM may, by a small effect size, benefit more from MBIs and active control interventions. BTM may thus affect the evaluation of treatment efficacy. MBIs and active interventions could be offered specifically to persons low in BTM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present meta-analyses investigated the widely used contingent-capture protocol. Contingent-capture theory postulates that only top-down matching stimuli capture attention. Evidence comes from the contingent-capture protocol, in which participants search for a predefined target stimulus preceded by a spatial cue. The cue is typically uninformative of the target's position but either presented at target position (valid condition) or away from the target (invalid condition). The common finding is that seemingly only top-down matching cues capture attention as shown by a selective cueing effect (faster responses in valid than invalid conditions) for cues with a feature similar to the searched-for target only, but not for cues without target-similar feature. The origin of this "contingent-capture effect" is, however, debated. One alternative explanation is that intertrial priming—the priming of attention capture by the cue in a given trial by attending to a feature-similar target in the preceding trial—mediates the contingent-capture effect. Alternatively, the rapid-disengagement account argues that all salient stimuli capture attention initially, but that the disengagement from non-matching cues is rapid. The present meta-analyses shed light on this debate by (a) identifying moderators of the size of reported contingent-capture effects (64 experiments) and (b) analyzing pure (blocked) versus mixed presentation of different targets as well as summarizing results of published intertrial priming studies (12 experiments) in the contingent-capture protocol. We found target-singleton versus non-singleton status and pure versus mixed presentation of different targets to be reliable moderators. Furthermore, results indicated the presence of publication bias. Otherwise, the contingent-capture theory was supported, but we discuss additional factors that must be taken into account for a full account of the results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Psychological measurement and theories face a constant proliferation of allegedly new constructs and scales, leading to numerous semantic overlaps between these. Additionally, common-method variance can be responsible for construct overlap, which itself can be influenced by respondents' affectivity and mood. The construct of mindfulness may also be affected by such phenomena, as its boundaries are not yet clearly defined and because it shows noticeable conceptual overlap with other constructs, like the Big Five, emotion regulation, or mental health. This study examined semantic and sentiment similarities between widely used scales assessing mindfulness (FFMQ, FFMQ-S, KIMS, MAAS), the Big Five (NEO-PI-R, NEO-FFI, BFI), emotion regulation (ERQ, CERQ, PANRS), and mental health (SCL-90, BSI-53, BSI-18, STAI, PANAS, BDI-2, PSS, PSWQ). Construct overlap was assessed via latent semantic analysis, sentiment analysis, and a qualitative content analysis. Mindfulness scales showed high construct overlap among each other (semantic and sentiment similarity: 0.93 and 0.63) and the Big Five (0.85 and 0.64), as well as substantial construct overlap with emotion regulation (0.84 and 0.51) and mental health scales (0.74 and 0.42). These findings suggest that semantic and sentiment similarities contribute to the high correlations of mindfulness measures with these other measures observed in extant research. • Mindfulness shows conceptual overlap with other constructs. • Semantic and sentiment similarities of item content may be responsible for this. • Similarities are high with Big Five, emotion regulation, and mental health scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlight • Confirmatory factor analysis indicated support for the 4-factor structure of SPQ-G. • Other models (2- and 3-factor models) had poorer fit indices. • Partial measurement invariance was obtained across migrational group and sex. • Non-migrants had higher Cognitive-Perceptual scores than German migrants. Abstract The Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ) is a widely-used self-report instrument for the assessment of schizotypal personality traits. However, the factor structure of scores on English and non-English translations of the SPQ has been a matter of debate. With little previous factorial evaluation of the German version of the SPQ (SPQ-G), we re-assessed the higher-order factor structure of the measure. A total of 2,428 German-speaking adults from Central Europe (CE) and the United Kingdom (UK) completed the SPQ-G. Confirmatory factor analysis – testing proposed 2-, 3-, and 4-factor models of SPQ-G scores – indicated that the 4-factor solution had best fit. Partial measurement invariance across cultural group (CE and UK) and sex was obtained for the 4-factor model. Further analyses showed CE participants had significantly higher scores than UK participants on one schizotypal facet. These results suggest that scores on the SPQ-G are best explained in terms of a higher-order, 4-factor solution in German migrant and non-migrant adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Humor and mental health are interconnected as is evidenced by a large number of studies. However, associations are only small and inconsistent as the operationalization of humor poses a methodological challenge. The Humor Styles Questionnaire (HSQ) differentiates four humor styles that might be beneficial or harmful to mental health. The aim of the present study was to meta‐analytically aggregate studies using the HSQ to assess the associations of different humor styles with four areas of mental health (self‐esteem, life satisfaction, optimism, depression). An extensive electronic database literature search identified 37 studies that reported correlations between the HSQ scales and the four areas of mental health in 45 independent samples (total N = 12,734). In total, 16 meta‐analyses were conducted. Moderating effects of participant age, sex, and geographic region were examined via subgroup analyses and meta‐regression. Humor styles differed in terms of their associations with mental health. Health‐promoting humor styles were overall positively correlated with mental health (small‐to‐medium effect sizes). Self‐defeating humor was overall negatively correlated with mental health. Aggressive humor was overall unrelated with mental health. Moderator analyses suggested geographic differences (Eastern vs. Western samples) and sex differences for some of these associations. Fostering specific humor styles may be beneficial for mental health. In addition, observing the habitual use of humor styles might help therapists to develop a better understanding of their clients. Differences in the utilization and the correlates of humor styles in Eastern and Western societies, and sex differences, need to be addressed in future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the familial transmission of handedness, footedness, eyedness, earedness, and of underlying sidedness in a sample of adults ( n = 592 families; 1528 individuals in total), using multi-item inventories and probabilistic methods for preference classification. Our results corroborate three classes of lateral preferences and of sidedness each, right, mixed, and left. Consistent with genetic studies, we obtained evidence of parent-of-origin and sex-of-children effects, suggesting important roles of maternal mixed preferences and of paternal left preferences. Further, parental age at conception predicted mixed preferences in the child. We recommend a trichotomous classification of lateral preferences also in future studies, and to intensify research into the genetic bases of footedness, eyedness and earedness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Combined heredity of surnames and physique, coupled with past marriage patterns and trade-specific physical aptitude and selection factors, may have led to differential assortment of bodily characteristics among present-day men with specific trade-reflecting surnames (Tailor vs. Smith). Two studies reported here were partially consistent with this genetic-social hypothesis, first proposed by Bäumler (1980). Study 1 (N = 224) indicated significantly higher self-rated physical aptitude for prototypically strength-related activities (professions, sports, hobbies) in a random sample of Smiths. The counterpart effect (higher aptitude for dexterity-related activities among Tailors) was directionally correct, but not significant, and Tailor-Smith differences in basic physique variables were nil. Study 2 examined two large total-population-of-interest datasets (Austria/Germany combined, and UK: N = 7001 and 20532) of men’s national high-score lists for track-and-field events requiring different physiques. In both datasets, proportions of Smiths significantly increased from light-stature over medium-stature to heavy-stature sports categories. The predicted counterpart effect (decreasing prevalences of Tailors along these categories) was not supported. Related prior findings, the viability of possible alternative interpretations of the evidence (differential positive selection for trades and occupations, differential endogamy and assortative mating patterns, implicit egotism effects), and directions for further inquiry are discussed in conclusion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Flynn effect (rising intelligence test performance in the general population over time and generations) varies enigmatically across countries and intelligence domains; its substantive meaning and causes remain elusive. This first formal meta-analysis on the topic revealed worldwide IQ gains across more than one century (1909–2013), based on 271 independent samples, totaling almost 4 million participants, from 31 countries. Key findings include that IQ gains vary according to domain (estimated 0.41, 0.30, 0.28, and 0.21 IQ points annually for fluid, spatial, full-scale, and crystallized IQ test performance, respectively), are stronger for adults than children, and have decreased in more recent decades. Altogether, these findings narrow down proposed theories and candidate factors presumably accounting for the Flynn effect. Factors associated with life history speed seem mainly responsible for the Flynn effect’s general trajectory, whereas favorable social multiplier effects and effects related to economic prosperity appear to be responsible for observed differences of the Flynn effect across intelligence domains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research has shown that forest plots are a gold standard in the visualization of meta-analytic results. However, research on the general interpretation of forest plots and the role of researchers' meta-analysis experience and field of study is still unavailable. Additionally, the traditional display of effect sizes, confidence intervals, and weights have repeatedly been criticized. The current work presents an online statistical cognition experiment in which a total of 279 researchers with experience in meta-analysis from 36 countries evaluated conventional forest plots and two novel versions of forest plots, namely, thick forest plots and rainforest plots. The results indicate certain biases in the interpretation of forest plots, especially with regard to heterogeneity, the distribution of weights, and the theoretical concept of confidence intervals. Although the two novel displays (thick forest plots and rainforest plots) are associated with slightly longer viewing times, they are at least as well-suited and esthetically and perceptively pleasing as the conventional displays while facilitating the correct and exhaustive interpretation of the meta-analytic information. Furthermore, it is advisable to combine conventional forest plots with distribution information of the individual effects, make confidence lines more visually striking, and to display a background grid in the graph. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Belief in conspiracy theories has been associated with a range of negative health, civic, and social outcomes, requiring reliable methods of reducing such belief. Thinking dispositions have been highlighted as one possible factor associated with belief in conspiracy theories, but actual relationships have only been infrequently studied. In Study 1, we examined associations between belief in conspiracy theories and a range of measures of thinking dispositions in a British sample ( N = 990). Results indicated that a stronger belief in conspiracy theories was significantly associated with lower analytic thinking and open-mindedness and greater intuitive thinking. In Studies 2–4, we examined the causational role played by analytic thinking in relation to conspiracist ideation. In Study 2 ( N = 112), we showed that a verbal fluency task that elicited analytic thinking reduced belief in conspiracy theories. In Study 3 ( N = 189), we found that an alternative method of eliciting analytic thinking, which related to cognitive disfluency, was effective at reducing conspiracist ideation in a student sample. In Study 4, we replicated the results of Study 3 among a general population sample ( N = 140) in relation to generic conspiracist ideation and belief in conspiracy theories about the July 7, 2005, bombings in London. Our results highlight the potential utility of supporting attempts to promote analytic thinking as a means of countering the widespread acceptance of conspiracy theories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Individuals' moving behavior (e.g., residential mobility) is an emerging topic in many scientific disciplines. One specific aspect is the distance between parents and their children (i.e., parent-child proximity). Although determinants and moderators of parent-child proximity can be manifold, we concentrated on the psychological concepts self-esteem and affect by assessing explicit (i.e., conscious) and implicit (i.e., automatic) aspects. Besides well-known correlates of moving behavior (e.g., education), we found that participants ( N = 1,765; cross-sectional design) with high positive explicit affect and low negative implicit affect moved further away from their parents' homes. Therefore, parent-child proximity may not be only based on fundamental sociocultural and socioeconomic needs (e.g., income, family bonds), but also on automatic psychological aspects, such as implicit affect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research on socially aversive personality traits has increasingly been concerned with establishing common elements between these constructs and recently has introduced the dark factor of personality (D). However, investigations into D have not yet considered the role of vulnerable narcissism. Drawing on a discovery-replication sample approach with two large samples (total N > 2400), we present two studies on the relation of vulnerable narcissism with D. Study 1 investigated the factorial structure of popular measures of Dark Triad Traits exploratorily, while Study 2 tested the obtained structures with confirmatory factor analysis and fitted a D-factor model on the data. We show that the Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale is not a unidimensional measure, but is better represented by two weakly correlated factors, sensitivity towards judgment and egocentricity. Only egocentricity had a salient loading on D, which suggests that egocentricity, but not sensitivity towards judgment, should be considered a dark trait. We discuss the implications of these findings for organizational and industrial psychology, particularly with regards to leadership narcissism and possible clinical-subclinical differences in vulnerable narcissism, especially concerning the relationship of egocentricity and D. • Investigations into D have not considered the role of vulnerable narcissism. • We present factor-analytic results with a discovery-replication sample approach. • Vulnerable narcissism, as measured with the HSNS, consists of two factors. • One of these factors, egocentrism, loads on D and thus appears to be a dark trait. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) have a positive effect on biomarkers of inflammation and stress in patients with psychiatric disorders and physical illnesses. Regarding subclinical populations, results are less clear. The present meta-analysis addressed the effects of MBIs on biomarkers in psychiatric populations and among healthy, stressed, and at-risk populations. All available biomarker data were investigated with a comprehensive approach, using two three-level meta-analyses. Pre–post changes in biomarker levels within treatment groups (k = 40 studies, total N = 1441) and treatment effects compared to control group effects, using only RCT data (k = 32, total N = 2880), were of similar magnitude, Hedges g = −0.15 (95% CI = [−0.23, −0.06], p < 0.001) and g = −0.11 (95% CI = [−0.23, 0.001], p = 0.053). Effects increased in magnitude when including available follow-up data but did not differ between type of sample, MBI, biomarker, and control group or duration of the MBI. This suggests that MBIs may ameliorate biomarker levels in both psychiatric and subclinical populations to a small extent. However, low study quality and evidence of publication bias may have impacted on the results. More large and preregistered studies are still needed in this field of research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Empathy enables us to understand the emotions of others and is an important determinant of prosocial behavior. Investigating the relationship between mindfulness and empathy could therefore provide important insights into factors that promote interpersonal understanding and pathways that contribute to prosocial behavior. As prior studies have yielded only inconsistent results, this study extended previous findings and investigated for the first time the associations of two important factors of mindfulness (Self-regulated Attention [SRA] and Orientation to Experience [OTE]) with two commonly proposed components of empathy (cognitive empathy and affective empathy). Using a community sample of N = 552 German-speaking adults, the two mindfulness factors were differentially associated with cognitive and affective empathy. SRA correlated positively with cognitive empathy (r = 0.44; OTE: r = 0.09), but OTE correlated negatively with affective empathy (r = − 0.27; SRA: r = 0.11). This negative association was strongest for one specific aspect of affective empathy, emotional contagion. Revisiting previously reported mediating effects of emotion regulation, we found that emotional awareness mediated the associations with both components of empathy, but only for SRA. Together, these findings imply that mindfulness benefits the cognitive understanding of others' emotions via two distinct pathways: by promoting emotional awareness (SRA) and by limiting the undue impact of others' emotions on oneself (OTE). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Across 177 countries around the world, the Failed State Index, a measure of state vulnerability, was reliably negatively associated with the estimates of national intelligence. Psychometric analysis of the Failed State Index, compounded of 12 social, economic, and political indicators, suggested factorial unidimensionality of this index. The observed correspondence of higher national intelligence figures to lower state vulnerability might arise through these two macro-level variables possibly being proxies of even more pervasive historical and societal background variables that affect both. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphs are an essential part of scientific communication. Complex datasets, of which meta-analyses are textbook examples, benefit the most from visualization. Although a number of graph options for meta-analyses exist, the extent to which these are used was hitherto unclear. A systematic review on graph use in meta-analyses in three disciplines (medicine, psychology, and business) and nine journals was conducted. Interdisciplinary differences, which are mirrored in the respective journals, were revealed, that is, graph use correlates with external factors rather than methodological considerations. There was only limited variation in graph types (with forest plots as the most important representatives), and diagnostic plots were very rare. Although an increase in graph use over time could be observed, it is unlikely that this phenomenon is specific to meta-analyses. There is a gaping discrepancy between available graphic methods and their application in meta-analyses. This may be rooted in a number of factors, namely, (i) insufficient dissemination of new developments, (ii) unsatisfactory implementation in software packages, and (iii) minor attention on graphics in meta-analysis reporting guidelines. Using visualization methods to their full capacity is a further step in using meta-analysis to its full potential. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Across the 10 westerly and 6 easterly states of Germany, better-than-average school-end grades, taken as a proxy for intelligence, corresponded to higher regional suicide rates. This finding adds to similar evidence from other countries (Austria, Belarus, British Isles, Denmark, Netherlands, and USA), suggestive of positive ecologic (group-level) associations between indicators for cognitive ability and suicide prevalence, whilst offsetting prior inconclusive evidence for Germany from Voracek (2006) on the same question. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extending cross-national and intranational studies on possible aggregate-level associations between personality dimensions and suicide prevalence, this study examined the associations of the Big Five personality factors and suicide rates across 32 regions of the Russian Federation. Failing to replicate one key finding of similar geographic studies, namely, a correspondence of higher suicide rates with lower Agreeableness and Conscientiousness (i.e., higher Psychoticism) scores, higher suicide rates corresponded to higher Agreeableness scores. This effect was obtained with one available data source (regional-level Big Five ratings based on the National Character Survey), but not with another (based on the NEO-PI-R measure). All in all, regional suicide rates across Russia were dissociated from regional variation in personality dimensions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Even small group-mean differences (whether combined with variance differences or not) or variance differences alone (absent mean differences) can generate marked and sometimes surprising imbalances in the representation of the respective groups compared in the distributional tail regions. Such imbalances in group representation, quantified as tail ratios, have general importance in the context of any threshold, susceptibility, diathesis-stress, selection, or similar models (including the study of sex differences), as widely conceptualized and applied in the psychological, social, medical, and biological sciences. However, commonly used effect-size measures, such as Cohen's d, largely exploit data information around the center of distributions, rather than from the tails, thereby missing potentially important patterns found in the tail regions. This account reviews the background and history of tail ratios, emphasizes their importance for psychological research, proposes a consensus approach for defining and interpreting them, introduces a tail-ratio calculator, and outlines future research agenda. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Voracek (2009) reported that suicide rates in the American states were negatively associated with the mean neuroticism scores of residents in those states. In the present study, state rates of suicidal ideation and attempted suicide were not found to be associated with any state scores for the Big Five personality traits, suggesting that lethal and non-lethal suicidal behavior may have different ecological correlates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a study that tested the hypothesis that men's greater endorsement of sexist attitudes and objectification of women would be associated with their own drive for muscularity. Associations between oppressive beliefs, operationalized as sexist attitudes and objectification of others, and a range of beauty ideals and practices among women was reported. A desire for more muscular physique associated with oppressive beliefs held by men was concluded.

Individuals like their name letters more than non-name letters. This effect has been termed the Name Letter Effect (NLE) and is widely exploited to measure implicit (i.e. automatic, unconscious) self-esteem, predominantly by means of the Initial Preference Task (IPT). Methodological research on how to best administer the IPT is, however, scarce. In order to bridge this gap, the present paper assessed the advantages and disadvantages of different types of IPT administrations with two meta-analyses ( k = 49; N = 11,514) and a follow-up experiment ( N = 449). As a result, a new type of administration is recommended which (1) treats the effects of the first and the last name initials separately, (2) uses a duplicate administration for reliability reasons, (3) uses the likability as well as the attractiveness item wording and (4) exploits not only letters but also numbers (i.e. birthday number effect) to measure implicit self-esteem. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Three new studies (N= 132, 623, 1112) did not yield hypothesized associations between digit ratio (2D:4D), an assumed negative correlate of prenatal testosterone, and psychometrically measured sex-role orientation (positive association with femininity, negative ones with masculinity and masculinity-femininity difference scores) among heterosexuals of either sex. Meta-analysis of the pertinent literature (N= 6311, 28 studies from 10 countries, 46% unpublished) showed only men’s (but not women’s) left-hand (but not right-hand) 2D:4D reliably related as expected (positively) to femininity. This effect was tiny (0.14% attributable variance) and possibly non-robust (crucially dependent on one large study included). Hence, the cumulative evidence does not support systematic, robust, noteworthy within-sex correlations between 2D:4D and the masculinity/femininity personality dimensions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The sexually differentiated second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) is currently frequently utilized in individual differences research as a putative indicator of the masculinizing brain organization effects of prenatal testosterone. This preamble introduces the journal special issue on this theme, entitled “Digit ratio (2D:4D) and individual differences research”. Notes regarding the background, history, and recent progress of 2D:4D research are provided, and the background of the special issue and the contents of its 11 research articles are briefly summarized. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Purpose: This cross-cultural study investigated the prevalence of suicidal behavior and attitudes towards suicide and reactions to suicidal individuals in 320 Austrian and 326 Turkish medical students. Methods: Data were collected using a self-report questionnaire consisting of sections on demographic information, suicidal behavior, current mood, religiosity, attitudes towards suicide, and reactions to suicidal individuals. Results: More Austrian (37.8%) than Turkish (27.3%) students reported life-time, past 12-month, or current suicidal ideation, while more Turkish (6.4%) than Austrian (2.2%) students reported life-time or past 12-month suicide attempts. Austrian students had more permissive and liberal attitudes towards suicide, while those of Turkish students were more rejecting. Conversely, attitudes of Turkish medical students towards an imagined suicidal close friend were more accepting than those of Austrian medical students. Comparisons of suicidal versus nonsuicidal students showed that those reporting suicidal ideation or suicide attempts generally were more accepting of suicide and viewed suicide as a solution to a greater extent than the nonsuicidal group. Conclusion: The findings suggest that cultural factors play a role in observed country differences in suicidal ideation and behavior and in attitudes towards suicide and reactions to suicidality among Austrian and Turkish medical students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Generational changes of intelligence test performance in the general population (the Flynn effect) have been observed all over the world since the early 1940s. These changes are known to be country- and intelligence test domain-specific. To investigate whether such IQ gains are observable in three distinct domains of intelligence (verbal reasoning, spatial ability, mathematical reasoning) in German-speaking individuals, we examined a mixed-sex sample of 449 university students in a cross-sectional design. We assessed students’ IQs on three original (standardized in 1970) and revised subscales (standardized in 2000) of a widely used German intelligence test battery, thus allowing investigation of test score changes over a time span of 30years. Participants scored significantly higher on all subscales of the original test. Additionally, we observed higher performance of men than of women on all subscales, but only little evidence for sex differences regarding test score gains. In all, the Flynn effect appears to be progressive, robust, largely sex-independent, and intelligence domain-specific in respect to the magnitude of gains in German-speaking individuals. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background: Generational IQ gains in the general population (termed the Flynn effect) show an erratic pattern across different nations as well as across different domains of intelligence (fluid vs crystallized). Gains of fluid intelligence in different countries have been subject to extensive research, but less attention was directed towards gains of crystallized intelligence, probably due to evidence from the Anglo-American sphere suggesting only slight gains on this measure. In the present study, development of crystallized intelligence in the German speaking general population is assessed. Methodology/Principal Findings: To investigate whether IQ gains for crystallized intelligence are in progress in Germanspeaking countries, two independent meta-analyses were performed. By means of a cited reference search in ISI Web of Science, all studies citing test manuals and review articles of two widely-used salient measures of crystallized intelligence were obtained. Additionally, the electronic database for German academic theses was searched to identify unpublished studies employing these tests. All studies reporting participants mean IQ or raw scores of at least one of the two measures were included in the present analyses, yielding over 500 studies (>1,000 samples; >45,000 individuals). We found a significant positive association between years of test performance and intelligence (1971-2007) amounting to about 3.5 IQ points per decade. Conclusions/Significance: This study clearly demonstrates that crystallized IQ gains are substantial and of comparable strength as Flynn effects typically observed for measures of fluid intelligence in Central Europe. Since mean IQ was assessed in a large number of small, non-representative samples, our evidence suggests a remarkable robustness of these gains. Moreover, in both meta-analyses strength of gains was virtually identical. On the whole, results of the present study demonstrate a pervasive and generalizing Flynn effect in German-speaking countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Two studies examined beliefs about the personality of male butchers and hunters and the factuality of such beliefs. These professions’ daily routines involve killing animals and handling their carcasses, acts that could be facilitated by specific personality constellations. Study 1 (102 raters) evidenced perceptions of higher aggressiveness and masculinity of butchers/hunters and higher self-esteem (hunters only), as compared with average men. In contrast, Study 2 found little evidence for the factuality of such beliefs, based on multi-method personality assessments in a case-control design of 96 men (23 and 25 dyads including one butcher or hunter, matched with same-generation, other-occupation friends or relatives). Only implicit, but not explicit, aggressiveness (measured with an Implicit Association Test) was higher in butchers/hunters than in controls. Both masculinity (whether measured unobtrusively [digit ratio, 2D:4D] or explicitly) and self-esteem (whether measured implicitly [name-letter effect] or explicitly) were comparable for butchers/hunters and controls. Lower self-reported conscientiousness, extraversion, and openness in butchers/hunters than controls were not generalizable to informant reports of these Big Five dimensions. Discussion focuses on the merits of utilizing belief-factuality contrasts, controlled designs, and multi-method assessments in personality research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various research findings, mostly from Anglo-American countries, evidence the medical profession to be strongly familial and further suggest that a medical family background may be associated with study success in medical undergraduates. This study explored the familial aggregation of the medical profession among 1-year cohort samples of medical and psychology students in Austria. Whereas physicians only amount to about 0.4% of the total Austrian population, 45.8% of final-year medical students reported any and 25.6% a first-degree medical relative. Male students more likely had physicians in their family than female students and both sexes more likely had male than female medical relatives. Male final-year medical students with first-degree medical relatives were significantly younger than those without, thus indicating faster study progress in this group. Physicians also ran in the families of psychology students, as did psychologists and psychotherapists. Implications of these findings, study limitations, and avenues for future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The transient enhancement of performance on spatial tasks in standardized tests after exposure to the first movement “allegro con spirito” of the Mozart sonata for two pianos in D major (KV 448) is referred to as the Mozart effect since its first observation by . These findings turned out to be amazingly hard to replicate, thus leading to an abundance of conflicting results. Sixteen years after initial publication we conduct the so far largest, most comprehensive, and up-to-date meta-analysis (nearly 40 studies, over 3000 subjects), including a diversity of unpublished research papers to finally clarify the scientific record about whether or not a specific Mozart effect exists. We could show that the overall estimated effect is small in size (d =0.37, 95% CI [0.23, 0.52]) for samples exposed to the Mozart sonata KV 448 and samples that had been exposed to a non-musical stimulus or no stimulus at all preceding spatial task performance. Additionally, calculation of effect sizes for samples exposed to any other musical stimulus and samples exposed to a non-musical stimulus or no stimulus at all yielded effects similar in strength (d =0.38, 95% CI [0.13, 0.63]), whereas there was a negligible effect between the two music conditions (d =0.15, 95% CI [0.02, 0.28]). Furthermore, formal tests yielded evidence for confounding publication bias, requiring downward correction of effects. The central finding of the present paper however, is certainly the noticeably higher overall effect in studies performed by Rauscher and colleagues than in studies performed by other researchers, indicating systematically moderating effects of lab affiliation. On the whole, there is little evidence left for a specific, performance-enhancing Mozart effect. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Voracek, M., Pum, U. & Dressler, S. G. (2009). Investigating digit ratio (2D:4D) in a highly male-dominated occupation: The case of firefighters. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 51, 146–156. Second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D), a widely studied putative marker for masculinization through prenatal androgen exposure, is lower (more masculinized) in athletes than in general population controls, and athletes with lower 2D:4D have higher sporting success. Occupations differ markedly in perceived masculinity and actual maleness (sex ratios), but these givens have not yet been picked up and utilized in 2D:4D research. Accordingly, this study extended existing accounts on 2D:4D in athletes to a novel approach: 2D:4D and possible relationships to a variety of candidate variables (demographic, fertility-related, psychological, and other) were investigated in firefighters, a highly male-dominated occupation. Contrary to expectation, 2D:4D in firefighters ( N = 134) was not lower than in local male population controls. Lower 2D:4D corresponded to lower service ranks. Replicating previous findings either unequivocally or partly, lower 2D:4D was associated with larger family size, later sibling position, left-handedness, and higher scores in the disinhibition component of sensation seeking. Not replicating prior evidence, 2D:4D was unrelated to body-mass index, offspring sex ratio, and sporting performance level. Novel findings included low 2D:4D in those with low relationship satisfaction and in cigarette smokers, especially among heavy smokers. Absolute finger length, a positive correlate of pubertal-adolescent androgen levels, was also considered. This marker showed negative associations with relationship consensus and satisfaction and positive ones with perceived quality of relationship alternatives and the experience seeking component of sensation seeking. The merits of this additional marker, relative to 2D:4D, for supplementing studies of possible sex-hormonal effects on personality and directions for future inquiry along these lines are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sexually differentiated digit ratios of the hand (2D:4D and other) are currently widely studied, owing to their presumed role as a retrospective diagnostic window into prenatal androgen action. This study was only the second one (following McFadden & Shubel, 2002) to examine all 6 possible finger-length ratios (excluding the thumb) and all 10 possible toe-length ratios (including the big toe). Data from a sample of 59 male and 69 female Austrian adults (M age =27 yr., SD = 7.9) were collected. Replicating the prior study, the majority of toe-length ratios exhibited significant sex differences, which was similar to finger-length ratios, but of weaker effect size. Ipsilateral correlations of toe-length and finger-length ratios were largely absent, except for those of corresponding or adjacent length ratios of the right body side among women. However, these associations were directionally opposite, such that among women, feminized finger-length ratios corresponded to masculinized toe-length ratios. Foot preference (among both sexes) and wearing of toe rings (among women) were not correlates of toe-length ratios. Discussed are implications of these findings for digit ratio research, along with ideas for further inquiry on this topic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Previously reported associations between low (male-typical) digit ratio (2D:4D), a putative pointer to prenatal testosterone exposure, and high (male-typical) sensation seeking have been inconsistent across studies (alternately present for men, women, either sex, or neither). Addressing this question again in three new studies (N =198, 188, 1118) produced similarly erratic findings. Meta-analysis of the entire literature (13 studies with nearly 3000 individuals, including unpublished accounts) showed that the current cumulative evidence does not support any negative correlations between 2D:4D and sensation seeking traits. The only significant meta-analytical finding was for right-hand 2D:4D and the experience seeking facet of sensation seeking in both sexes, but this effect accounted for merely 0.4% attributable variance, and moreover was directionally opposite to expectation (i.e., a positive correlation). Discussed are inherent limitations of narrow-scoped approaches (such as via 2D:4D) for elucidating the biological bases of individual difference variables with evidentially intricate neurochemical underpinnings (such as sensation seeking). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Multifaceted evidence (family, twin, adoption, molecular genetic, geographic, and surname studies of suicide) suggests genetic risk factors for suicide. The migrant study design is also informative in this context, but underused. In particular, immigrant studies of suicide with a continental European host country are unavailable. The correspondence of suicide prevalence among 22 immigrant groups in Austria (1970–2006) with those of the homelands during the same period was analyzed. Immigrant and homeland suicide rates were significantly positively associated. Controls for age of suicide victim, immigrant group size, national pride, and quality of life in the homelands left the finding essentially unchanged. This correspondence of immigrant and country-of-birth suicide rates is consistent with the assumption of population differences in the prevalence of genetic risk factors for suicide, for which there is emerging evidence. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Replicating the majority finding from prior related studies of European countries, regional IQ estimates and suicide rates in Italy were positively correlated; the association was retained with application of controls for regional affluence. Directions for further inquiry into aggregate-level associations of cognitive-ability indicators and suicide risk within nations are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Findings regarding within-sex associations of digit ratio (2D:4D), a putative pointer to long-lasting effects of prenatal androgen action, and sexually differentiated personality traits have generally been inconsistent or unreplicable, suggesting that effects in this domain, if any, are likely small. In contrast to evidence from Wilson's important 1983 study, a forerunner of modern 2D:4D research, two recent studies in 2005 and 2008 by Freeman, et al. and Hampson, et a!. showed assertiveness, a presumably male-typed personality trait, was not associated with 2D:4D; however, these studies were clearly statistically underpowered. Hence this study examined this question anew, based on a large sample of 491 men and 627 women. Assertiveness was only modestly sexually differentiated, favoring men, and a positive correlate of age and education and a negative correlate of weight and Body Mass Index among women, but not men. Replicating the two prior studies, 2D:4D was throughout unrelated to assertiveness scores. This null finding was preserved with controls for correlates of assertiveness, also in nonparametric analysis and with tests for curvilinear relations. Discussed are implications of this specific null finding, now replicated in a large sample, for studies of 2D:4D and personality in general and novel research approaches to proceed in this field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The determination of paternity is important due to the possibility of cuckoldry and the subsequent squandering of male reproductive effort. Men may be attuned to prevalence rates of cuckoldry in the local environment to assess risk. However, women may have an enhanced ability to assess paternity and may have superior insight into women’s sexual infidelity. Accordingly, this study examined subjective estimates of human non-paternity (HNP), the discrepancy between social/legal versus genetic paternity. The hypothesis was that women would provide higher estimates of HNP than men. A sex difference in the hypothesized direction was observed across four community samples of Austrian adults (totalling 763 men and 795 women), with women overall providing higher HNP estimates than men (14.5% vs. 9.1%). Furthermore, key demographic variables impacted HNP estimates for both sexes: individuals who were unmarried, childless, currently unpartnered, or currently in a romantic relationship of a shorter duration provided higher HNP estimates than their counterparts, thus suggesting that such estimates might be attuned to mating effort and strategies, as well as relationship quality and investment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Familial resemblance in the second- to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D), a proxy for prenatal androgen action, was studied in 1,260 individuals from 235 Austrian families. In agreement with findings from twin studies of 2D:4D, heritability estimates based on parent- child and full-sib dyad similarity indicated substantial genetic contributions to trait expression (57% for right hand, 48% for left hand 2D:4D). Because twin studies have found nonadditive genetic as well as shared environ- mental effects on 2D:4D to be negligible or nil, these family-based estimates in all likelihood reflect the narrow-sense (additive genetic) heritability of the trait. Directional (right-minus-left) asymmetry in 2D:4D was only weakly heritable (6%). The pattern of same-sex and different-sex parent-child and full-sib correlations yielded no evidence for X-linked inheritance. This is surprising, considering evidence for associations of male 2D:4D with sensitivity to testosterone (functional variants of the X-linked androgen receptor gene). 2D:4D was particularly strongly heritable through male lines (father-son and brother-brother correlations), thus raising the possibility that Y-linked genes (such as the sex-determining region SRY) might influence 2D:4D expression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Partly replicating findings from several cross-national studies (of Lester and of Voracek) on possible aggregate-level associations between personality and suicide prevalence, state-level analysis within the United States yielded significantly negative associations between the Big Five factor of Neuroticism and suicide rates. This effect was observed for historical as well as contemporary suicide rates of the total or the elderly population and was preserved with controls for the four other Big Five factors and measures of state wealth. Also conforming to cross-national findings, the Big Five factors of Agreeableness and Extraversion were negatively, albeit not reliably, associated with suicide rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Preliminary evidence suggests that within-sex individual variation in the length ratio of the index finger to the ring finger (2D:4D), a putative marker of prenatal androgen levels, may be more strongly or consistently related to implicit measures (Implicit Association Test, IAT) than to corresponding explicit (self-report) measures of candidate personality traits. The underlying logic is that the non-introspective TAT may reflect earlier and inaccessible experiences, whereas introspective self-reports reflect more recent and necessarily accessible experiences. Associations of 2D:4D and absolute finger length (a marker of pubertal-adolescent androgen levels) with implicit versus explicit aggression measures (TAT vs. Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire and a feeling thermometer) were examined in two samples with identical procedures (Ns= 244 and 233). Attesting to procedural validity and data typicality, several experiments of related research were replicated in both samples, including sex differences in 2D:4D and theory compliant interrelations among psychometric measures. However, no theory compliant, reliable, or replicable associations of 2D:4D or finger length with implicit or explicit aggression measures resulted. These nil findings cast doubt on hypothesized advantages of implicitly (over explicitly) measured target traits for 2D:4D research. More generally, they add to a growing number of replication failures in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Associations of paranormal and superstitious beliefs with digit ratio (2D:4D) and absolute finger length (putatively indexing prenatal and pubertal-adolescent androgen levels, respectively), fluctuating asymmetry (FA; indexing developmental instability), and body measures at birth (indexing non-optimal fetal growth) were examined in a sample of 1118 adults. Higher (feminised) 2D:4D correlated with stronger beliefs in men, even when controlled for age, education, adult height and weight, and birth length and weight. Shorter (feminised) finger length correlated with more superstition among women, but not when controlled for the same covariates. Finger FA was unrelated to beliefs in both sexes. Shorter birth length (in men and women) and lighter adult weight (in women) were associated with stronger beliefs. Effects of 2D:4D on men’s beliefs were weak (1–3% attributable variance), but commensurable with those of known non-biological belief correlates (age: 1%; education: 2%). This evidence may be informative for narrowing down possible developmental pathways of paranormal and superstitious beliefs. Propensities contributing to sex and individual differences in these beliefs probably arise in utero, may partly be due to prenatal testosterone and other prenatal programming effects, but less likely due to pubertal-adolescent androgen action or developmental instability. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A scientometric analysis of modern research on the second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D), a widely studied putative marker for prenatal androgen action, is presented. In early 2009, this literature totalled more than 300 publications and, since its initiation in 1998, has grown at a rate slightly faster than linear. Key findings included evidence of publication bias and citation bias, incomplete coverage and outdatedness of existing reviews, and a dearth of meta-analyses in this field. 2D:4D research clusters noticeably in terms of researchers, institutions, countries, and journals involved. Although 2D:4D is an anthropometric trait, most of the research has been conducted at psychology departments, not anthropology departments. However, 2D:4D research has not been predominantly published in core and specialized journals of psychology, but rather in more broadly scoped journals of the behavioral sciences, biomedical social sciences, and neurosciences. Total citation numbers of 2D:4D papers for the most part were not larger than their citation counts within 2D:4D research, indicating that until now, only a few 2D:4D studies have attained broader interest outside this specific field. Comparative citation analyses show that 2D:4D research presently is commensurate in size and importance to evolutionary psychological jealousy research, but has grown faster than the latter field. In contrast, it is much smaller and has spread more slowly than research about the Implicit Association Test. Fifteen conjectures about anticipated trends in 2D:4D research are outlined, appendixed by a first-time bibliography of the entirety of the published 2D:4D literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary-Digit ratios, such as the frequently studied second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D), are already sexually differentiated in utero, postnatally fairly stable, and thus commonly held as possible markers for prenatal androgen levels. Based on six independent samples, totaling 381 male and 420 female subjects from different age bands, this study investigated the magnitude and cross-sample consistency of sex differences in all six possible digit ratios (2D:3D, 2D:4D, 2D:5D, 3D:4D, 3D:5D, 4D:5D) and in four novel relative finger-length measures (the ratio of a given finger to the sum of all four fingers) that were recently suggested by Loehlin, Medland, and Martin as possibly superior to digit ratios for discriminating between the sexes. However, based on the magnitude of sex effects and observed measurement repeatabilities, these novel measures were not superior to digit ratios. Across samples, among digit ratios the traditionally used 2D:4D never yielded the largest sex effect, 2D:5D was the most and 2D:3D the least sexually differentiated. Sex differences were generally larger for digit ratios calculated from nonadjacent than from adjacent fingers. Compared with females, males' relative finger length was clearly lower for 2D, somewhat lower for 3D, somewhat higher for 4D, and clearly higher for 3D. This gradient suggests mediolaterally arranged developmental fields that act sexually differentiated on fingerlength expression. Implications of these findings for further digit ratio research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]