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A novel focused ion beam (FIB)-based methodology for the preparation of clean and artifact-free specimens on micro-electro-mechanical-system (MEMS)-based chips for in-situ electrical and electro-thermal experiments in a (scanning) transmission electron microscope ((S)TEM) is introduced. Owing to an alternative geometry, the lamellae are attached to a MEMS-based chip directly after the lift-out procedure and afterward further treated or thinned to electron transparency. The quality of produced lamellae on a chip resembles the quality of a classical FIB-prepared sample that is here demonstrated by high-resolution STEM imaging and analytical techniques. Various sample preparation parameters and the performance of in-situ prepared samples have been evaluated through electrical-biasing experiments.

Metal fluoride (MF) conversion cathodes theoretically show higher gravimetric and volumetric capacities than Ni- or Co-based intercalation oxide cathodes, which makes metal fluoride-lithium batteries promising candidates for next-generation high-energy-density batteries. However, their high-energy characteristics are clouded by low-capacity utilization, large voltage hysteresis, and poor cycling stability of transition MF cathodes. A variety of reasons is responsible for this: poor reaction kinetics, low conductivities, unstable MF/electrolyte interfaces and dissolution of active species upon cycling. Herein, we combine the synthesis of the metal-organic-framework (MOF) with the low-temperature fluorination to prepare MOF-shaped CoF2@C nanocomposites that exhibit confinement of the CoF2 nanoparticles and efficient mixed-conducting wiring in the produced architecture. The ultrasmall CoF2 nanoparticles (5-20 nm on average) are uniformly covered by graphitic carbon walls and embedded in the porous carbon framework. Within the CoF2@C nanocomposite, the cross-linked carbon wall and interconnected nanopores serve as electron- and ion-conducting pathways, respectively, enabling a highly reversible conversion reaction of CoF2. As a result, the produced CoF2@C composite cathodes successfully restrain the above-mentioned challenges and demonstrate high-capacity utilization of ∼500 mAh g-1 at 0.2C, good rate capability (up to 2C), and long-term cycle stability over 400 cycles. Overall, the presented study not only reports on a simple composite design to achieve high-energy characteristics in CoF2-Li batteries but also may provide a general solution for many other metal fluoride-lithium batteries.

Electron transparent TEM lamella with unaltered microstructure and chemistry is the prerequisite for successful TEM explorations. Currently, TEM specimen preparation of quantum nanostructures, such as quantum dots (QDs), remains a challenge. In this work, we optimize the sample-preparation routine for achieving high-quality TEM specimens consisting of SrRuO3 (SRO) QDs grown on SrTiO3 (STO) substrates. We demonstrate that a combination of ion-beam-milling techniques can produce higher-quality specimens of quantum nanostructures compared to TEM specimens prepared by a combination of tripod polishing followed by Ar+ ion milling. In the proposed method, simultaneous imaging in a focused ion-beam device enables accurate positioning of the QD regions and assures the presence of dots in the thin lamella by cutting the sample inclined by 5{\deg} relative to the dots array. Furthermore, the preparation of TEM lamellae with several large electron-transparent regions that are separated by thicker walls effectively reduces the bending of the specimen and offers broad thin areas. The final use of a NanoMill efficiently removes the amorphous layer without introducing any additional damage., Comment: 20 pages, 6 figures, 1 table

Nucleation behavior of amorphous Si–B–C–N ceramics derived from boron-modified polyvinylsilazane procusors was systematically investigated by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) combined with spatially-resolved electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS) analysis. The ceramics were pyrolyzed at 1000 °C followed by further annealing in N2, and SiC nano-crystallites start to emerge at 1200 °C and dominate at 1500 °C. Observed by high-angle annular dark-field imaging, bright and dark clusters were revealed as universal nano-structured features in ceramic matrices before and after nucleation, and the growth of cluster size saturated before reaching 5 nm at 1400 °C. EELS analysis demonstrated the gradual development of bonding structures successively into SiC, graphetic BNCx and Si3N4 phases, as well as a constant presence of unexpected oxygen in the matrices. Furthermore, EELS profiling revealed the bright SiC clusters and less bright Si3N4-like clusters at 1200–1400 °C. Since the amorphous matrix has already phase separated into SiCN and carbon clusters, another phase separation of SiCN into SiC and Si3N4-like clusters might occur by annealing to accompany their nucleation and growth, albeit one crystallized and another remained in amorphous structure. Hinderance of the cluster growth and further crystallization was owing to the formation of BNCx layers that developed between SiC and Si3N4-like clusters as well as from the excessive oxygen to form the stable SiO2.

Metal fluoride (MF) conversion cathodes theoretically show higher gravimetric and volumetric capacities than Ni- or Co-based intercalation oxide cathodes, which makes metal fluoride-lithium batteries promising candidates for next-generation high-energy-density batteries. However, their high-energy characteristics are clouded by low-capacity utilization, large voltage hysteresis, and poor cycling stability of transition MF cathodes. A variety of reasons is responsible for this: poor reaction kinetics, low conductivities, unstable MF/electrolyte interfaces and dissolution of active species upon cycling. Herein, we combine the synthesis of the metal-organic-framework (MOF) with the low-temperature fluorination to prepare MOF-shaped CoF

The last three decades have seen a growing trend toward studying the interfacial phenomena in complex oxide heterostructures. Of particular concern is the charge distribution at interfaces, which is a crucial factor in controlling the interface transport behavior. However, the study of the charge distribution is very challenging due to its small length scale and the intricate structure and chemistry at interfaces. Furthermore, the underlying origin of the interfacial charge distribution has been rarely studied in-depth and is still poorly understood. Here, by a combination of aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) and spectroscopy techniques, we identify the charge accumulation in the SrMnO3 (SMO) side of SrMnO3/SrTiO3 heterointerfaces and find that the charge density attains the maximum of 0.13 ± 0.07 e–/unit cell (uc) at the first SMO monolayer. Based on quantitative atomic-scale STEM analyses and first-principle calculations, we explore the origin of interfacial charge accumulation in terms of epitaxial strain-favored oxygen vacancies, cationic interdiffusion, interfacial charge transfer, and space-charge effects. This study, therefore, provides a comprehensive description of the charge distribution and related mechanisms at the SMO/STO heterointerfaces, which is beneficial for the functionality manipulation via charge engineering at interfaces.

Terrestrial isopods possess large sensory setae on their walking legs. Increased fracture resistance of these elongated structures is of crucial importance, making the exoskeleton forming the setae an interesting durable material that may inspire biomimetic designs. We studied the cuticle of the sensory setae with analytical electron microscopy in order to gain detailed insights into its structure and composition at the nanometer scale and identify features that increase the fracture resistance of these minute skeletal elements. The setae are stiff structures formed by mineralized cuticle that are connected to the leg exoskeleton by a non-mineralized joint membrane. Our results demonstrate that different layers of the setal cuticle display contrasting organizations of the chitin-protein fibers and mineral particles. While in the externally positioned exocuticle organic fibers shift their orientation helicoidally in sequential layers, the fibers are aligned axially in the internally positioned endocuticle. In the setal cuticle, layers of structurally anisotropic cuticle likely providing strength in the axial direction are combined with layers of isotropic cuticle which may allow the setae to better resist perpendicular loading. They are further strengthened with amorphous calcium phosphate, a highly fracture resistant mineral rarely observed in invertebrate skeletons.

Sodium-ion batteries (SIB) are regarded as the most promising competitors to lithium-ion batteries in spite of expected electrochemical disadvantages. Here a “cross-linking” strategy is proposed to mitigate the typical SIB problems. We present a SIB full battery that exhibits a working potential of 3.3 V and an energy density of 180 Wh kg–1 with good cycle life. The anode is composed of cross-linking hollow carbon sheet encapsulated CuP2 nanoparticles (CHCS-CuP2) and a cathode of carbon coated Na3V2(PO4)2F3 (C-NVPF). For the preparation of the CHCS-CuP2 nanocomposites, we develop an in situ phosphorization approach, which is superior to mechanical mixing. Such CHCS-CuP2 nanocomposites deliver a high reversible capacity of 451 mAh g–1 at 80 mA g–1, showing an excellent capacity retention ratio of 91% in 200 cycles together with good rate capability and stable cycling performance. Post mortem analysis reveals that the cross-linking hollow carbon sheet structure as well as the initially formed SEI layers are...

We report a software tool for post-correcting the linear and nonlinear image distortions of atomically resolved 3D spectrum imaging as well as 4D diffraction imaging. This tool improves the interpretability of distorted scanning transmission electron microscopy spectrum/diffraction imaging data., Specimen and stage drift as well as scan distortions can lead to a mismatch between true and desired electron probe positions in scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) which can result in both linear and nonlinear distortions in the subsequent experimental images. This problem is intensified in STEM spectrum and diffraction imaging techniques owing to the extended dwell times (pixel exposure time) as compared to conventional STEM imaging. As a consequence, these image distortions become more severe in STEM spectrum/diffraction imaging. This becomes visible as expansion, compression and/or shearing of the crystal lattice, and can even prohibit atomic resolution and thus limits the interpretability of the results. Here, we report a software tool for post-correcting the linear and nonlinear image distortions of atomically resolved 3D spectrum imaging as well as 4D diffraction imaging. This tool improves the interpretability of distorted STEM spectrum/diffraction imaging data.

Calcium bodies are specialized organs of terrestrial isopod crustaceans (woodlice) in the family Trichoniscidae. These organs are epithelial sacs that contain an extracellular matrix, mineralized with calcium salts. Recent studies have demonstrated that the mineral content of these organs changes periodically in relation to molt, the process in which crustaceans shed their old exoskeleton and form a new one. During the preparation for molt, minerals are deposited in the calcium bodies and are resorbed during and shortly after molt [1, 2]. As the crustacean exoskeleton contains large amounts of calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate [3], calcium bodies may function as reservoirs that allow woodlice to temporarily deposit minerals from their exoskeleton before molt and mobilize it after molt, when great amounts of calcium are needed for the mineralization of the new exoskeleton.

Iron disilicide nanowhiskers and nanoblades are synthesized by depositing Fe onto Si(100) substrates at about 900 °C via electron beam physical vapor deposition. The nanostructures are determined as single crystalline α-FeSi2 with tetragonal lattice. The nanostructures are stable with prolong exposure under ambient condition, and no transformation towards β-FeSi2 is detected after 2 h annealing at 500 °C and 800 °C under high vacuum condition (10−6 mbar). The growth directions of the whiskers are found as either [001] or [100]. However, in the blades we observe grow only in [100] crystallographic direction. Changing cross-sectional shape of the α-FeSi2 whiskers from octagon at the root to rectangle at the upper part is observed and believed to be a result of the thermodynamic and kinetic anisotropy. SiO2 layer formed on the surface of the structures because of its lower surface energy compared to all iron oxides. By this a passivation, which prevents further oxidization, of the nanowhiskers is achieved. The α-FeSi2 whiskers form by root growth. Keywords: Electron beam evaporation, α-FeSi2, Whisker, Transmission electron microscopy, Atom probe tomography, Physical vapor deposition

We present the fabrication and exploration of arrays of nanodots of $SrRuO_3$ with dot sizes between 500 nm and 15 nm. Down to the smallest dot size explored, the samples were found to be magnetic with a maximum of the Curie temperature $T_C$ achieved by dots of 30 nm diameter. This peak in $T_C$ is associated with a dot-size-induced relief of the epitaxial strain, as evidenced by scanning transmission electron microscopy.

Metal fluoride-lithium batteries with potentially high energy densities, even higher than lithium-sulfur batteries, are viewed as very promising candidates for next-generation lightweight and low-cost rechargeable batteries. However, so far, metal fluoride cathodes have suffered from poor electronic conductivity, sluggish reaction kinetics and side reactions causing high voltage hysteresis, poor rate capability, and rapid capacity degradation upon cycling. Herein, it is reported that an FeF3 @C composite having a 3D honeycomb architecture synthesized by a simple method may overcome these issues. The FeF3 nanoparticles (10-50 nm) are uniformly embedded in the 3D honeycomb carbon framework where the honeycomb walls and hexagonal-like channels provide sufficient pathways for the fast electron and Li-ion diffusion, respectively. As a result, the as-produced 3D honeycomb FeF3 @C composite cathodes even with high areal FeF3 loadings of 2.2 and 5.3 mg cm-2 offer unprecedented rate capability up to 100 C and remarkable cycle stability within 1000 cycles, displaying capacity retentions of 95%-100% within 200 cycles at various C rates, and ≈85% at 2C within 1000 cycles. The reported results demonstrate that the 3D honeycomb architecture is a powerful composite design for conversion-type metal fluorides to achieve excellent electrochemical performance in metal fluoride-lithium batteries.

Protein-based bottom-up synthesis of functional nanomaterials and devices is one of the most promising areas in bio-nanotechnology. Here, we demonstrate that organic assemblies can serve as biologically controllable scaffolds for the deposition of inorganic nanoparticles. In this work, wild-type M13 phages were employed for controlled mineralization of zinc oxide particles. Our aim was to construct layered structures of organic and inorganic materials which contain alternating layers on a smooth substrate. The structure, elemental composition, and also the integrity of the organic and the biologically-templated inorganic layers were studied. A uniform nano-hybrid structure without significant thickness fluctuations was fabricated by using a high concentration of M13 phages and a carbon-coated substrate. The current study gives insight into the combination of organic–inorganic materials to form a multilayered structure, which in turn sets the stage for the fabrication of electronic devices, e. g. actuators or capacitors.

The effect of different types of organic solvents on the structural integrity of M13 phages has been directly visualized by transmission and scanning electron microscopy. The exposure of M13 phages to apolar hexane had no effect on the structure of the phages for up to 8 h. In contrast, phages showed ~10-fold contraction into rod-like I-forms and to flattened spheroids with ~12 nm diameter upon exposure to polar organic solvents. We show that this finding can be beneficial for the macromolecular self-assembly and in broader aspects, to enhance the spatial arrangement of desired inorganic nanoparticles in the rapidly developing field of virotronics.

We report on the evaporative self-assembly and orientational ordering of semi-flexible spherocylindrical M13 phages on asymmetric stranded webs of thin amorphous carbon films. Although the phages were dispersed with a low concentration in the isotropic phase, the substrate edges induced nematic ordering and bending of the phages. As revealed by transmission electron microscopy, phages were aligned parallel to the curved substrate edges. This two-dimensional self-assembly on structured substrates opens a new route to the design of structures of orientationally ordered semi-flexible biomacromolecules.

Sodium-ion batteries (SIB) are regarded as the most promising competitors to lithium-ion batteries in spite of expected electrochemical disadvantages. Here a "cross-linking" strategy is proposed to mitigate the typical SIB problems. We present a SIB full battery that exhibits a working potential of 3.3 V and an energy density of 180 Wh kg

Focusing X-rays to single nanometer dimensions is impeded by the lack of high-quality, high-resolution optics. Challenges in fabricating high aspect ratio 3D nanostructures limit the quality and the resolution. Multilayer zone plates target this challenge by offering virtually unlimited and freely selectable aspect ratios. Here, a full-ceramic zone plate is fabricated via atomic layer deposition of multilayers over optical quality glass fibers and subsequent focused ion beam slicing. The quality of the multilayers is confirmed up to an aspect ratio of 500 with zones as thin as 25 nm. Focusing performance of the fabricated zone plate is tested toward the high-energy limit of a soft X-ray scanning transmission microscope, achieving a 15 nm half-pitch cut-off resolution. Sources of adverse influences are identified, and effective routes for improving the zone plate performance are elaborated, paving a clear path toward using multilayer zone plates in high-energy X-ray microscopy. Finally, a new fabrication concept is introduced for making zone plates with precisely tilted zones, targeting even higher resolutions.

Ferrihydrite is a short range ordered iron(III) oxyhydroxide that has been recently recognized as a good catalyst for Fischer–Tropsch synthesis of liquid hydrocarbons. Despite the critical role of ferrihydrite in many disciplines, its mineral structure remains a topic of debate. The main aspect of its structure which has been debated is the presence or absence of tetrahedrally coordinated Fe3+ in its mineral structure. In this work, electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS) was used to probe the Fe L2,3 edges of ferrihydrite and reference spectra of different iron oxide compounds and the percentage of Fe3+ in Td symmetry was estimated from non-linear least squares (NLLS) fitting coefficients. EELS results demonstrate that Fe3+ in Td coordination is present in substantial amounts in the structure of ferrihydrite. These findings were supported by Mossbauer spectroscopy results performed on the same ferrihydrite samples.

The lithium-sulfur battery is considered as one of the most promising energy storage systems and has received enormous attentions due to its high energy density and low cost. However, polysulfide dissolution and the resulting shuttle effects hinder its practical application unless very costly solutions are considered. Herein, a sulfur-rich polymer termed sulfur-limonene polysulfide is proposed as powerful electroactive material that uniquely combines decisive advantages and leads out of this dilemma. It is amenable to a large-scale synthesis by the abundant, inexpensive, and environmentally benign raw materials sulfur and limonene (from orange and lemon peels). Moreover, owing to self-protection and confinement of lithium sulfide and sulfur, detrimental dissolution and shuttle effects are successfully avoided. The sulfur-limonene-based electrodes (without elaborate synthesis or surface modification) exhibit excellent electrochemical performances characterized by high discharge capacities (≈1000 mA h g-1 at C/2) and remarkable cycle stability (average fading rate as low as 0.008% per cycle during 300 cycles).

Terrestrial isopods from the group Trichoniscidae accumulate calcium in specialized organs, known as the calcium bodies. These consist of two pairs of epithelial sacs located alongside the digestive system. These organs contain various forms of calcium and constantly present bacteria. To elucidate their origin and role, we analyzed the bacteria of the calcium bodies in the cave-dwelling isopod Titanethes albus and the epigean species Hyloniscus riparius, by microscopy, histochemistry, energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry, 16S rRNA analysis and in situ hybridization. The calcium bodies of both species comprise numerous and diverse bacterial communities consisting of known soil bacteria. Despite their diversity, these bacteria share the polyphosphate-accumulation ability. We present the model of phosphorous dynamics in the calcium bodies during the molting cycle and potentially beneficial utilization of the symbiotic phosphate by the host in cyclic regeneration of the cuticle. Although not fully understood, this unique symbiosis represents the first evidence of polyphosphate-accumulating bacterial symbionts in the tissue of a terrestrial animal.

The influences of different transmission electron microscopy (TEM) specimen preparation techniques on the chemical composition of Pb(Mg1/3Nb2/3)O3-PbTiO3 (PMN-PT) single crystals was studied. Ion-milled samples where no cooling with liquid nitrogen (L-N2) was applied show permanently changed composition also deep inside the bulk material. When the PMN-PT samples were cooled to L-N2 temperature during the ion-milling process and in addition lower accelerating voltages were used, the chemical composition was altered only in the thinnest parts close to the specimen edge. Samples prepared using only tripod polishing technique show compositional irregularities close to the specimen edge. For the preparation of lead-containing samples, such as PMN-PT single crystals, a combination of tripod polishing and short Ar-ion-milling at low accelerating voltages while cooling the samples to liquid nitrogen temperature proved to be the most suitable to obtain artefact-free electron-transparent TEM lamellae.

Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is one of the most promising bio-based and biodegradable polymers. However, its processability and range of applications are limited by its low thermal stability. The novelty of this work is studying the thermal stability of two PLA/clay nanocomposites (PLA/Cloisite 20A and PLA/Cloisite 30B) as a function of the composition and the microstructure, which is exhaustively studied by performing quantitative electron tomography (ET). Quantitative ET involves image acquisition, reconstruction of the volume and a subsequent segmentation of the objects under study. In this work, an objective segmentation is applied to compare the two PLA/clay microstructures. Then, relevant descriptors of the 3D microstructure (dimensions of the reconstructed objects, their specific surface area and orientation) are measured and used to quantitatively explain the effect of the clay particles on the thermal stability of the nanocomposites. The tortuous path has been calculated—based on the descriptors of the microsturecture—and proved to be larger for PLA/Cloisite 30B nanocomposite compared to that of PLA/Cloisite 20A. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016, 134, 44691.

Teeth are an excellent example where optimally designed nanoarchitectures with precisely constructed components consist of simple compounds. Typically, these simple constituent phases with insignificant properties show mechanical property amplifications when formed into composite architectures. Material properties of functional composites are generally regulated on the nanoscale, which makes their characterization particularly demanding. Using advanced analytical and imaging transmission electron microscopy techniques, we identified innovative microstructural adjustments combined with astonishing compositional adaptations in incisors of coypu. Unique constituents, recognized as an additional amorphous Fe-rich surface layer followed by a transition zone covering pigmented enamel, provide the required structural stability to withstand repeated mechanical load. The chemically diverse Fe-rich surface layer, including ferrihydrite and iron-calcium phosphates, gives the typical orange-brown coloration to the incisors. Within the spaces between elongated hydroxyapatite crystals in the pigmented enamel, only ferrihydrite was found, implying that enamel pigmentation is a very strictly controlled process. Most significantly, an unprecedentedly high amount of Mg was measured in the amorphous flake-like material within the dentinal tubules of the incisors, suggesting the presence of a (Mg,Ca) phosphate phase. This unusually high influx of Mg into the dentin of incisors, but not molars, suggests a substantial functionality of Mg in the initial formation stages and constant growth of incisors. The present results emphasize the strong mutual correlation among the microstructure, chemical composition, and mechanical properties of mineralized dental tissues.

The genetic engineering of M13 phage coat proteins provides an excellent system for the generation of functionalized biotemplates for the mineralization of inorganic materials in the nanometer range. Such biotemplates open facile synthesis approaches for the fabrication of miniaturized devices. The gold-binding peptide A3 was expressed at two different locations on the M13 particle surface, obtaining functionalized biotemplates with either gold-binding peptides at the one end or along the whole phage particle, respectively. The functionality of the gold-binding peptides fused to the respective phage coat proteins was tested by a binding assay with colloidal gold particles and confirmed by transmission electron microscopy. The engineered phage templates have a high affinity to gold compared with non-modified M13 phages. The binding strength is correlated to the number of expressed gold-binding peptides on the M13 phage particles. Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) were mineralized from chloroauric acid solutions. There, the M13 templates controlled the shape of the mineralized GNPs and the kinetic of the mineralization reaction. In the presence of M13 templates, GNPs were mineralized at the sites where the gold-binding peptides are localized. This approach shows a facile method for the localized mineralization of GNPs under the control of functionalized biotemplates.

Skeletal elements that are exposed to heavy mechanical loads may provide important insights into the evolutionary solutions to mechanical challenges. We analyzed the microscopic architecture of dactylus claws in the woodlice Porcellio scaber and correlated these observations with analyses of the claws' mineral composition with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX), electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) and selected area electron diffraction (SAED). Extraordinarily, amorphous calcium phosphate is the predominant mineral in the claw endocuticle. Unlike the strongly calcified exocuticle of the dactylus base, the claw exocuticle is devoid of mineral and is highly brominated. The architecture of the dactylus claw cuticle is drastically different from that of other parts of the exoskeleton. In contrast to the quasi-isotropic structure with chitin-protein fibers oriented in multiple directions, characteristic of the arthropod exoskeleton, the chitin-protein fibers and mineral components in the endocuticle of P. scaber claws are exclusively axially oriented. Taken together, these characteristics suggest that the claw cuticle is highly structurally anisotropic and fracture resistant and can be explained as adaptations to predominant axial loading of the thin, elongated claws. The nanoscale architecture of the isopod claw may inspire technological solutions in the design of durable machine elements subjected to heavy loading and wear.

Up to now, chemical synthesis routes only provide restricted opportunities for the formation of structured nano particles. In contrast, living microorganisms generate nano materials of well defined shapes by the precise control of biomineralization. Here we reveal new principles for the generation of functional nano materials through the process of biomineralization. We used the detoxification mechanism of the unicellular alga Scenedesmus obliquus to generate a techno logically interesting zinc-phosphate-based nano material. The algae were incubated in media with a sublethal zinc concentration (6.53 mg Zn dm-3) for 4 weeks. Using BF-and ADF-STEM imaging combined with analytical XEDS we could show that nano needles containing phosphorus and zinc were formed inside the living cells. Further more, the cells incubated with zinc show a strong fluorescence. Our findings indicate that the algae used polyphosphate bodies for detoxification of the zinc ions, leading to the generation of intracellular zinc-phosphate-based nano needles. Beside the technological application of this material, the fluorescent cells can be used for labeling of e.g. biological probes. This new experimental protocol for the production of an inorganic functional material can be applied also for other substances.