Search

The brain's ability to act as an input filter and to suppress actions is crucial to navigate everyday life and impairments in these abilities affect quality of life substantially. Although Parkinson's disease (PD) is primarily known as a movement disorder, recent research has redefined it as a multisystem disorder affecting cognition, in particular inhibitory control and attentional resource allocation. Analysing the neural mechanisms underlying this cognitive deficit provides a better understanding of brain changes observed in patients affected by PD. Therefore, this study aimed to identify resource allocation to relevant and irrelevant stimuli in patients affected by PD. Besides neuropsychological tests, we employed electroencephalographic recordings during an auditory oddball paradigm in 13 patients suffering from idiopathic PD and 11 healthy controls (HC). Participants were instructed to ignore the standard stimulus and to respond as fast as possible to the rarely presented target tone. Event-related potentials (ERP) and time-frequency representations (TFR) were analyzed. Patients affected by PD showed faster response latencies to the task-irrelevant standard tones, but slower response latencies to target tones compared to HC. This observation was prominent at frontal sites during later P3-like processing stages. Reaction time, however, was prolonged in patients with PD, suggesting inefficient resource allocation. Additionally, TFR revealed reduced parietal alpha activity, which is associated with distractor suppression and functional inhibition in patients with PD compared to healthy controls. Thus, our results point towards inefficient resource allocation in patients with PD possibly driven by less functional inhibition through parietal alpha activity.

Background and purpose Exercise is an adjunctive treatment in the management of Parkinson's disease (PD), but barriers such as health status, fear of overexertion, and lack of transportation to the location prevent regular exercise participation. Disease‐inclusive exercise classes may offer an opportunity to make exercise more accessible for older adults with and without diseases. However, the efficacy of such heterogenous exercise classes is still widely unknown. Therefore, it was the aim of this study to analyze the feasibility of disease‐inclusive exercise classes in older adults with and without PD. Methods Twenty‐one older adults (healthy older adults (HOA): n = 13; PD: n = 8) completed an 8‐week multimodal exercise intervention in supervised group sessions. Exercise classes lasted 60 min with the goal of two participations a week. We assessed physical fitness (timed up and go test [TUG], 6‐minute walking test [6MWT], single leg stance), depressive symptoms and cognitive functions, and we determined growth factors (BDNF & IGF‐1) before and after the intervention to determine the effects and by that, the feasibility of a disease‐inclusive exercise program. Repeated measures ANOVA were used to establish changes. Results TUG and 6MWT improved significantly after the training in both HOA (p = .008; p, Older adults with and without Parkinson's disease benefit from disease‐inclusive exercise classes by reducing depressive symptoms and increasing physical fitness. Further, these classes may set an example for an open and inclusive society.

Aim The aim of this pilot study was to examine the acute effect of a psychomotor intervention (PMI) on auditory-verbal memory, emotional state, and electrocortical activity recorded by electroencephalography on subjectively healthy older adults (sHE) and older adults diagnosed with mild cognitive impairment (MCIs). Methods Eleven MCIs and 11 sHE underwent a single 45-min PMI. Resting state electroencephalography, the Rey Auditory-Verbal Learning Test, MoodMeter®, and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule were compared between groups and pre- and post-PMI. Results Electroencephalography current source density and activity within the theta frequency band were higher in MCIs than in sHE at baseline, and brain frequency had a tendency to decrease in MCIs after training. Both groups showed improvement on the auditory-verbal memory test. Only among MCIs were there increases in perceived physical state and psychological strain and an improvement in negative affect. Conclusions Our findings suggest that acute psychomotor activity may be more effective for MCIs than for sHE. It supports the notion that PMI does have functional influences on the central nervous level and therefore might prevent and treat cognitive, psychological, and psychiatric symptoms of people with mild cognitive impairment.

Prolonged periods of social isolation and spatial confinement do not only represent an issue that needs to be faced by a few astronauts during space missions, but can affect all of us as recently shown during pandemic situations. The fundamental question, how the brain adapts to periods of sensory deprivation and re-adapts to normality, has only received little attention. Here, we use eyes closed and eyes open resting-state electroencephalographic (EEG) recordings to investigate how neural activity is altered during 120 days of isolation in a spatially confined, space-analogue environment. After disentangling oscillatory patterns from 1/f activity, we show that isolation leads to a reduction in broadband power and a flattening of the 1/f spectral slope. Beyond that, we observed a reduction in alpha peak frequency during isolation, but did not find strong evidence for isolation-induced changes that are of oscillatory nature. Critically, all effects reversed upon release from isolation. These findings suggest that isolation and concomitant sensory deprivation lead to an enhanced cortical deactivation which might be explained by a reduction in the mean neuronal population firing rate.

The aim of this study was to determine the hemodynamic and neuroendocrinological responses to different levels and protocols of artificial gravity, especially in comparison to what is expected during a moderate bout of exercise. Ten male participants were exposed to artificial gravity using two different protocols: the first was a centrifugation protocol that consisted of a constant phase of 2 Gz for 30 minutes, and the second consisted of an intermittent phase of 2 Gz for two minutes, separated by resting periods for three minutes in successive order. Near infrared spectroscopy (oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin) at the prefrontal cortex, Musculus biceps brachii, and Musculus gastrocnemius, as well as heart rate and blood pressure were recorded before, during, and after exposure to artificial gravity. In order to determine effects of artificial gravity on neuroendocrinological parameters (brain-derived neurotrophic factor, vascular endothelial growth factor, and insulin-like growth factor 1), blood samples were taken before and after centrifugation. During the application of artificial gravity the concentration of oxyhemoglobin decreased significantly and the concentration of deoxyhemoglobin increased significantly in the prefrontal cortex and the Musculus biceps brachii muscle. Participants exposed to the continuous artificial gravity profile experienced peripheral pooling of blood. No changes were observed for brain-derived neurotrophic factor, vascular endothelial growth factor, or insulin-like growth factor 1. Intermittent application of artificial gravity may represent a better-tolerated presentation for participants as hemodynamic values normalize during resting periods. During both protocols, heart rate and arterial blood pressure remained far below what is experienced during moderate physical activity.

Background: Recent research suggests using an imaginary version of the Timed Up and Go test (TUG) for a first assessment of cognitive impairment. By using the time difference between a real (TUGr) and an imagined (TUGi) TUG task, the objective of this study was to examine the effect of cognitive impairment on motor imagery ability. Methods: Fifty-two participants (mean age 69.3 ± 4.0 years) with mild cognitive impairment or subjective cognitive impairment were included in this study. The time difference between the TUGr and the TUGi was used as the main outcome. The Trail Making Test part B (TMT B), the ratio between TMT A and TMT B, and the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) battery were the main independent variables. Results: The difference between TUGr and TUGi performance time and the TMT B performance time increased with decreasing cognitive function (p < 0.01). There was no relationship between TUGr and TUGi performance time and TMT B/A ratio. There were significant correlations between TUG time differences and the MoCA score (r = -0.489, p < 0.01), the TMT B (r = 0.364, p < 0.01), and the TMT B/A ratio (r = 0.377, p < 0.01). Conclusion: The combination of TUGr and TUGi may have added value in assessing cognitive impairment, which is a possible pre-stage of dementia.

Activity tracking devices gain popularity in research, which is due to their multiple features (e.g. heart rate monitor, step count) and easy handling. Nevertheless, many devices used for research are lacking validation of specific features. This study aimed to assess the validity of the Polar M400© activity tracker to count steps in older adults and, therefore, compared it to a previously validated pedometer (Omron Walking Style©) and observed step count. 32 older adults (mean age: 74.8 ± 5.9 years) walked at a self-selected, normal gait speed on a tartan track for 200 meters while wearing the activity tracker and the pedometer. Additionally, steps were counted manually. Data was analysed using Kruskal-Wallis test and Lin's concordance coefficient. Furthermore, Bland Altman plots were employed to evaluate accuracy of the activity tracker. Kruskal-Wallis test revealed significant differences between the step count of the activity tracker and the pedometer (p = 0.011) but no further differences were observed. Lin's concordance showed a moderate correlation between activity tracker and pedometer (rc = 0.561) and between pedometer and observed step count (rc = 0.690). A high correlation was detected between activity tracker and observed step count (rc = 0.802). Bland Altman plots revealed good accuracy of the activity tracker. The Polar M400© activity tracker accurately assesses steps during walking in older adults. Nevertheless, a slight overestimation compared to the pedometer was observed, which should be considered when using the activity tracker for tracking steps over a longer period of time.

Purpose A number of studies has well described central cardiovascular changes caused by changing gravity levels as they occur e.g. during parabolic flight. limited data exists describing the effect of microgravity on the cerebrovascular system and brain perfusion. Methods In this study middle cerebral artery velocity (MCAv) of 16 participants was continuously monitored on a second-by-second basis during 15 consecutive parabolas (1G, 1,8G, 0G, 1,8G) using doppler ultrasound. Simultaneously central cardiovascular parameters (heart rate, mean arterial blood pressure, cardiac output) were assessed. Results Results revealed an immediate reaction of central cardiovascular parameters to changed gravity levels. In contrast, changes in MCAv only initially were in accordance with a normal cerebral autoregulation. Whereas all of the measured central cardiovascular parameters seemed to have reached a steady state after approximately 8 s of microgravity, MCAv, after an initial decrease with the onset of microgravity, increased again during the second half of the microgravity phase. Conclusion It is concluded that this increase in MCAv during the second half of the microgravity period reflects a decrease of cerebrovascular resistance caused by a pressure driven increased venous outflow and/or a contraction of precapillary sphincters in order to avoid hyperperfusion of the brain.

Purpose Aging is associated with impaired cerebral blood flow (CBF) and increased risk of cerebrovascular disease. Acute increases in CBF during exercise may initiate improvements in cerebrovascular health, but the CBF response is diminished during continuous exercise in older adults. The effect of interval exercise for promoting increases in CBF in young and old adults is unknown. Methods We compared middle cerebral artery blood velocity (MCAv), end-tidal CO (PCO) and blood pressure (mean arterial pressure [MAP]) during intensity- and work-matched bouts of continuous (10-min 60%W, followed by 10-min rest) and interval cycling (10 × 1-min 60%W, separated by 1-min rest) in 11 young (25 ± 3 yr) and 10 old (69 ± 3 yr) men. Results Middle cerebral artery velocity was higher during continuous compared with interval exercise in the young (P < 0.001), but not in the old. This trend was also seen for changes in PCO. Although absolute MAP was higher in the old, the relative rise (%Δ) in MAP was similar between age groups and was greater during continuous exercise than interval. When we assessed the total accumulated change in MCAv (area under curve: exercise + recovery), it was higher with interval compared with continuous exercise in both groups (P = 0.018). Conclusion These findings suggest that interval exercise may be an effective alternative for promoting acute increases in CBF velocity, particularly in those older adults who may have difficulty sustaining continuous exercise.

Previous studies showed a decrease in reaction time during the weightlessness phase of a parabolic flight. This effect was found to be stronger with increasing task complexity and was independent of previous experience of weightlessness as well as anti-nausea medication. Analysis of event related potentials showed a decreased amplitude of the N100-P200 complex in weightlessness but was not able to distinguish a possible effect of task complexity. The present study aimed to extend this previous work, by comparing behavioral (reaction time) and neurological (event related potentials analysis) performance to a simple (oddball) and a complex (mental arithmetic + oddball) task during weightlessness. 28 participants participated in two experiments. 11 participants performed a simple oddball experiment in the 1G and 0G phases of a parabolic flight. 17 participants were presented a complex arithmetic task in combination with an oddball task during the 1G and 0G phases of a parabolic flight. Reaction time as well as event related potentials (ERP) were assessed. Results revealed a reduced reaction time (p .05) for the complex task during 0G. No gravity effects on reaction time were found for the simple task. In both experiments a reduction of typical ERP amplitudes was noticeable in weightlessness. It is assumed that the weightlessness induced fluid shift to the brain is positively affecting neuro-behavioral performance.

Objective The analysis of event-related potentials (ERPs) is a useful tool to differentiate between healthy older adults, and individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Less is known about the ERPs’ sensitivity of differentiating between individuals with subjective cognitive impairment (SCI) and MCI, as early evidence indicates similar brain alterations between these two groups. In order, to establish tests that are sensitive to subclinical impairment, this study compared auditory evoked ERPs between individuals with SCI and MCI. Methods Besides assessing cognitive performance in four neuropsychological tests (Trail Making Test A + B, verbal fluency letter and category task), latency and amplitude of ERP components evoked by an auditory oddball paradigm were compared between two groups of either individuals with SCI (n = 13) or MCI (n = 13). Results While individuals with MCI performed significantly worse in all neuropsychological tests (TMT A: p = 0.001, Cohen’s d = 1.5; TMT B: p = 0.030, Cohen’s d = 0.94; verbal fluency letter: p = 0.0011, Cohen’s d = 1.08; verbal fluency category: p = 0.038; Cohen’s d = 0.86), no significant differences (p > 0.05) were found in ERP components with small to moderate effect sizes (Cohen’s d ranged between 0.11 – 0.59). Conclusion ERPs evoked by an auditory oddball paradigm lack sensitivity to differentiate between individuals with SCI and MCI, although significant differences in cognitive performance were detected by neuropsychological tests. Similar pathophysiological brain alterations may limit utility of ERPs as indicated by previous research and results of this study. Cognitively more challenging tasks than the auditory oddball paradigm may be considered by future investigations.

Item does not contain fulltext Changes in gravity conditions have previously been reported to influence brain hemodynamics as well as neuronal activity. This paper attempts to identify a possible link between changes in brain blood flow and neuronal activity during microgravity. Middle cerebral artery flow velocity (MCAv) was measured using Doppler ultrasound. Brain cortical activity (i.e., cortical current density) was measured using electroencephalography. Finger blood pressure was recorded and exported to generate beat-by-beat systolic (SBP), diastolic (DBP) and mean arterial pressure (MAP), heart rate (HR), cardiac output (CO), and cerebrovascular conductance index (CVCi). Seventeen participants were evaluated under normal gravity conditions and microgravity conditions, during 15 bouts of 22-s intervals of weightlessness during a parabolic flight. Although MAP decreased and CO increased, MCAv remained unchanged in the microgravity condition. CVCi as the quotient of MCAv and MAP increased in microgravity. Cortical current density showed a global decrease. Our data support earlier data reporting a decrease in the amplitude of event-related potentials recorded during microgravity. However, the general decrease in neural excitability in microgravity seems not to be dependent on hemodynamic changes.

The increasing demand of space flights requires a profound knowledge of the chronologic reactions of the human body to extreme conditions. Prior studies already have shown the adverse effects of long-term isolation on psycho-physiological well-being. The chronology of the effects and whether short-term isolation periods already lead to similar effects has not been investigated. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to investigate the effects of short-term isolation (30 days) on mood, cognition, cortisol, neurotrophic factors, and brain activity. 16 participants were isolated in the Human Exploration Research Analog at NASA for 30 days. 17 non-isolated control participants were tested simultaneously. On mission days − 5, 7, 14, 28, and + 5, multiple tests including the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-X and cognitive tests were conducted, and a 5-min resting electroencephalography was recorded. A fasted morning blood drawing was also done. Increased stress was observed via augmented cortisol levels during the isolation period. Activity within the parietal cortex was reduced over time, probably representing a neural adaptation to less external stimuli. Cognitive performance was not affected, but rather enhanced in both groups. No further significant changes in neurotrophic factors BDNF/IGF-1 and mood could be detected. These results suggest that 30 days of isolation do not have a significant impact on brain activity, neurotrophic factors, cognition, or mood, even though stress levels were significantly increased during isolation. Further studies need to address the question as to what extent increased levels of stress do not affect mental functions during isolation periods.

Contains fulltext : 193331.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Closed access) BACKGROUND: By 2030, about 74 million people will be diagnosed with dementia, and many more will experience subjective (SCI) or mild cognitive impairment (MCI). As physical inactivity has been identified to be a strong modifiable risk factor for dementia, exercise and physical activity (PA) may be important parameters to predict the progression from MCI to dementia, but might also represent disease trajectory modifying strategies for SCI and MCI. OBJECTIVE: A better understanding of the relationship between activity, fitness, and cognitive function across the spectrum of MCI and SCI would provide an insight into the potential utility of PA and fitness as early markers, and treatment targets to prevent cognitive decline. METHODS: 121 participants were stratified into three groups, late MCI (LMCI), early MCI (EMCI), and SCI based on the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA). Cognitive function assessments also included the Trail Making Test A+B, and a verbal fluency test. PA levels were evaluated with an interviewer-administered questionnaire (LAPAQ) and an activity monitor. An incremental exercise test was performed to estimate cardiorespiratory fitness and to determine exercise capacity relative to population normative data. RESULTS: ANCOVA revealed that LMCI subjects had the lowest PA levels (LAPAQ, p = 0.018; activity monitor, p = 0.041), and the lowest exercise capacity in relation to normative values (p = 0.041). Moreover, a modest correlation between MoCA and cardiorespiratory fitness (r = 0.25; p < 0.05) was found. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that during the earliest stages of cognitive impairment PA and exercise capacity might present a marker for the risk of further cognitive decline. This finding warrants further investigation using longitudinal cohort studies.

Long-term isolation has been reported to have impact on psycho-physiological performance in humans. As part of the 520 days isolation study (MARS500, n=6) from June 3rd 2010 to November 4th 2011, this study aimed to show that stress caused by isolation and confinement is mirrored in cortical activity and cortisol levels and that exercise is a valid countermeasure. Cortical activity was measured by electroencephalography (EEG) pre- and post-moderate exercise every two weeks, salivary cortisol was taken every 60 days. Data show a decrease of global cortical activity, in both alpha- and beta-activity (p

Background Increasing rates of survival present a new set of physical and psychological challenges for children dealing with side effects during cancer treatment. Physical activity has been shown to be an effective strategy to reduce several side effects. . Objectives The purpose of this pilot study was to determine the benefits of a 12-week computer-based exercise intervention on perceived physical, motivational, and fatigue syndrome and psychological state. . Methods Nine inpatient and outpatient pediatric patients with cancer participated in a 12-week intervention consisting of supervised computer-based exercise sessions. Participants completed measures assessing mood and fatigue pre- and postintervention. . Findings The intervention was feasible and provided preliminary evidence for the benefits on mood and fatigue in pediatric patients with cancer. The results promote the effectiveness of physical activity in pediatric oncology and call for continuing research in pediatric patients with cancer where sedentary behavior and the associated side effects are a growing concern.

Assessing changes in brain activity under extreme conditions like weightlessness is a desirable, but difficult undertaking. Results from previous studies report specific changes in brain activity connected to an increase or decrease in gravity forces. Nevertheless, so far it remains unclear (1) whether this is connected to a redistribution of blood volume during micro- or hypergravity and (2) whether this redistribution might account for neurocognitive alterations. This study aimed to display changes in brain oxygenation caused by altered gravity conditions during parabolic flight. It was hypothesized that an increase in gravity would be accompanied by a decrease in brain oxygenation, whereas microgravity would lead to an increase in brain oxygenation. Oxygenized and deoxygenized haemoglobin were measured using two near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) probes on the left and right prefrontal cortex throughout ten parabolas in nine subjects. Results show a decrease of 1.44 μmol/l in oxygenized haemoglobin with the onset of hypergravity, followed by a considerable increase during microgravity (up to 5.34 μmol/l). In contrast, deoxygenized haemoglobin was not altered during the first but only during the second hypergravity phase and showed only minor changes during microgravity. Changes in oxygenized and deoxygenized haemoglobin indicate an increase in arterial flow to the brain and a decrease in venous outflow during microgravity.

With respect to the plans of national and internationals space agencies to send people to Mars or Moon, long-term isolation studies are performed to learn about the psycho-physiological and psycho-social limitations of such missions. From June 3rd 2010 to November 4th 2011 six participants lived under totally isolated and confined conditions in the MARS500 habitat located in Moscow. Despite the possibility to mimic the condition of space travel, this study allowed for experimental conditions under very reliable and traceable conditions. As exercise is widely discussed to have a positive impact on neuro-cognitive performance, this study aimed to test the effect of different exercise protocol (endurance/strength orientated) on brain cortical activity and cognitive performance. Brain cortical activity was recorded using a 16 channel EEG before and after exercise across the 520 days of confinement. Cognitive performance was assessed using three commercially available brain games. Following the theory of transient hypofrontality, results show a significant decrease of frontal brain cortical activity after exercise (p

Spaceflight is known to include the risk for physiological deconditioning as well as mental impairments, endangering mission safety and success. While Space science primarily focussed on physical health in the past, mental health (i.e. cognitive performance and affective state) was widely neglected. Today, not only in Space but also exercise science, the promotion of exercise for mental health is on the rise. This chapter is dedicated to review the known cognitive and affective deficits in relation to spaceflight. It aims to provide information about the underlying neurophysiological mechanisms, thus discussing the effect and application of exercise as a countermeasure, and to illustrate the contribution of Space science to mental health for our society.

There is increasing interest in the effects of microgravity on cognitive processing, particularly as it relates to the potential for human space travel. While findings to date are quite inconsistent, studies reporting a decrement in cognitive performance have generally not been able to distinguish between the direct influence of microgravity, and any associated influence of stress. Furthermore, the currently available findings are primarily based on behavioral observations, and there is a need to better understand the underlying neurophysiological responses. The current study aimed to determine the effects of microgravity on neurophysiological processing during a mental arithmetic task (executive function). During the normal- and microgravity phases of a parabolic flight, four levels of a mental arithmetic task were presented on a touchscreen tablet. The latency between the appearance of the problem and the participants' response was identified as reaction time. In addition visual evoked potentials N1 and P2 were determined using an active EEG system and analyzed using source localization algorithms. Results showed an increase in reaction time with increasing levels of task difficulty. During the most complex levels, reaction time was significantly reduced during microgravity. This observation was independent of previous parabolic flight experience as well as the use of anti-motion-sickness medication. P2 amplitude decrease during microgravity was concomitant to a related involvement of the superior frontal and medial frontal gyrus. It is concluded that cortical processes are enhanced during microgravity, and that previously reported impairments in cognitive performance are likely attributable to increased stress rather than weightlessness itself.

In the last decades exercise in space has mainly been used to counteract musculoskeletal and cardiovascular deconditioning. This is in accordance with the mainstream approach of exercise science to preserve and restore physical health. Today we know that exercise holds an additional dimension, affecting not only the peripheral physiological system but also enhancing neurocognitve performance and affective state. As a result medical interest in exercise as a countermeasure to mood changes and neurocognitive function has recently emerged. Special attention was given to alterations in brain cortical activity caused by exercise. These modifications are supposed to act as a multifunctional generator for the adaptation of mood, vigilance and cognitive performance.

IntroductionMental impairments, including deterioration of mood and cognitive performance, are known to occur during isolation and space missions, but have been insufficiently investigated. Appropriate countermeasures are required, such as exercise, which is known to prevent mood disorders for prolonged space and isolation missions. Based on the interaction of brain activity, mood and cognitive performance, this study aims to investigate the effect of long-term isolation and confinement and the long-term effect of exercise on these parameters.MethodsEight male volunteers were isolated and confined for about eight month during the winter period at the Antarctic Concordia Station. Every six weeks electroencephalographic measurements were recorded under rest conditions, and cognitive tests and a mood questionnaire were executed. Based individual training logs, subjects were afterwards separated into an active (> 2500 arbitrary training units/interval) or inactive (< 2500 arbitrary training units/interval) group.ResultsA long-term effect of exercise was observed for brain activity and mood. Regularly active people showed a decreased brain activity (alpha and beta) in the course of isolation, and steady mood. Inactive people instead first increased and than remained at high brain activity accompanied with a deterioration of mood. No effect of exercise and isolation was found for cognitive performance.ConclusionThe findings point out the positive effect of regularly performed voluntary exercise, supporting subjective mental well-being of long-term isolated people. The choice to be regularly active seems to support mental health, which is not only of interest for future isolation and space missions.

Background: By 2030 about 74 million people worldwide will be diagnosed with dementia. This number will pose a tremendous burden for patients, caregivers and health care systems. Physical activity is known to affect cognitive ageing positively and maintain cognitive functions, but its role in the progression of already diagnosed cognitive impairment remains unclear. This study aims to display the relationship between physical activity levels and cognitive functions among older people with prodromal stages of dementia. Methods: 121 participants aged above 60 with memory complaints took part in this study. General cognitive function was analyzed using the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA). Physical activity levels were evaluated using the self-reported LASA Physical Activity Questionnaire (LAPAQ) and an activity tracker. Physical fitness was determined with an incremental exercise test. On the basis of the results of the MoCA the participants were subdivided into three different groups (Group 1 with a MoCA score of 19–21, Group 2 with a MoCA score between 22–25 Group 2 and Group 3 with a MoCA score of 26). The groups’ physical activity levels (LAPAQ, activity tracker, incremental exercise test) were analyzed using the one-way analysis of variance with the dependent variable group. The relationship between general cognitive function (MoCA) and physical activity levels (LAPAQ, activity tracker, incremental exercise test) was analyzed with Spearman’s correlation. Results: Group 1 showed significantly lower activity levels than Group 2, both, for self-reported activity (p < 0.05) as well as activity measured by the activity tracker (p < 0.001). Furthermore, physical fitness was significantly worse in Group 1 compared to Group 2 (p < 0.05). A negative correlation between the MoCA and the results of the incremental exercise test (p < 0.05; r = −0.24) was found. Discussion: Due to these findings we assume that a reciprocal relationship between physical activity and cognitive functions exists. In contrast to previous studies we were able to show a direct link between physical activity levels – objectively and subjectively measured – physical fitness and cognitive performance even among prodromal stages of dementia. Data of this study supports the idea that an increase in physical activity levels will be reflected by an improvement of cognitive functions even in patients at a prodromal stage of dementia.

Collective evidence indicates that previous exposure to stressful condition might be able to induce changes in brain structure, HPA axis activity and related neurotransmission, and accordingly affect physiological responses to subsequent challenges. During long-term spaceflight, space travelers have to live under the condition of isolation and confinement in the spacecraft for a long period. It is still largely unknown if this kind of chronic stress burden can induce any long-lasting changes. To address this question, following 520-d isolation and confinement simulating a flight to Mars, the participants and a matched control group were exposed to an acute stress challenge called parabolic flight. Brain cortical activity, HPA axis activity, and sympathetic adrenal-medullary system response were monitored by EEG signal, cortisol secretion, and catecholamine production, respectively. We observed enhanced EEG signals, elevated cortisol levels and increased adrenaline productions. A group effect on cortisol output was revealed showing higher cortisol peak levels in the Mars520 group as compared to the control group, suggesting that HPA axis was to a certain extent more activated in the subjects who had chronic stress experience.

The aim of this study was to determine psychophysiological responses and cognitive performance after a single bout of artificial gravity, in order to investigate its use as a potential holistic countermeasure for long-duration human space flight, considering mental health.Sixteen male participants were exposed to two different hypergravity protocols in a randomized order, one providing a constant +2 Gz environment for 30 min, the other providing participants for five times with repeated 3-min intervals of +2 Gz and rest, respectively. EEG was recorded prior, during and after AG. In addition, self-reported mood and cognitive performance was assessed before and after AG exposure. EEG data were analyzed using standardized brain electromagnetic tomography (sLORETA).Beta-1 EEG activity (12-18 Hz) was decreased in the left middle frontal gyrus after the continuous profile. Participants' motivation decreased after continuous artificial gravity, while perceived physical state was increased. The intermittent profile did not induce any changes in the observed parameters. Cognitive performance was not affected by either of both profiles.The continuous profile induced neurophysiological changes, which are considered with negative affect and withdrawal related motivation, according to the model of frontal asymmetry. This notion was further confirmed by decreases in self-reported mood after continuous AG. Therefore, the continuous profile would not be appropriate for the human space flight program. Intermittent AG did not induce any psychophysiological changes and might therefore provide a more appropriate approach as a countermeasure for further investigations.

Imaging the brain during complex and intensive movements is challenging due to the susceptibility of brain-imaging methods for motion and myogenic artifacts. A few studies measured brain activity during either single-joint or low-intensity exercises; however, the cortical activation state during larger movements with increases up to maximal intensity has barely been investigated so far. Eleven right-handed volunteers (22-45 years in age) performed isometric leg extensions with their right leg at 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100% of their maximal voluntary contraction. Contractions were hold for 20 seconds respectively. Electroencephalographic (EEG) and electromyographic (EMG) activity was recorded. Standardized low-resolution brain electromagnetic tomography (sLORETA) was used to localize the cortical current density within the premotor (PMC), primary motor (M1), primary somatosensory (S1) and somatosensory association cortex (SAC). ANOVA was used for repeated measures for comparison of intensities and between the left and right hemispheres. The quality of the EEG signal was satisfying up to 80% intensity. At 100% half of the participants were not able to keep their neck and face muscles relaxed, leading to myogenic artifacts. Higher contralateral versus ipsilateral hemispheric activity was found for the S1, SAC and PMC. M1 possessed higher ipsilateral activity. The highest activity was localized in the M1, followed by S1, PMC and SAC. EMG activity and cortical current density within the M1 increased with exercise intensity. EEG recordings during bigger movements up to submaximal intensity (80%) are possible, but maximal intensities are still hard to investigate when subjects contracted their neck and face muscles at the same time. Isometric contractions mainly involve the M1, whereas the S1, PMC and SAC seem not to be involved in the force output. Limitations and recommendations for future studies are discussed.

The effect of sleep deprivation on psychophysical performance and well-being is comprehensively investigated. Research investigating the effect of improved sleep is rare. Just as little exists about attempts to support athletic mental state and performance by improving sleep quality. This study aims to investigate whether sleep quality of top athletes can be improved by auditory brainwave entrainment and whether this leads to enhancements of post-sleep psychophysical states. In a pilot study, 15 young elite soccer players were stimulated for eight weeks during sleep with binaural beats around 2-8 Hz. Once a week after wake-up, participants completed three different questionnaires: a sleep diary, an adjective list for psychophysical and motivational state, and a self-assessment questionnaire for sleep and awakening quality. Fifteen sport students executed the same protocol sleeping on the same pillow, but without stimulation. Subjective ratings of sleep and awakening quality, sleepiness and motivational state were significantly improved only in the intervention group, but did not impact their perceived physical state. In summary, eight weeks of auditory stimulation with binaural beats improved perceived sleep quality and the post-sleep state of athletes, whereas the effect on physical level is assumed to occur in a time-delayed fashion. It seems to be worthwhile - to further elaborate long-time effects and consequences on physical and mental performance.

While numerous researches addressed the connection between physical exercise, changes in brain cortical activity and its relationship to psycho-physiological processes, most of these neuro-scientific studies were set up for healthy individuals. However, the benefits of exercise, such as well being, physical and cognitive health enhancements are also becoming increasingly important for intellectually disabled individuals. This study aimed to localize electroencephalographic activity changes in intellectually disabled individuals following a moderate running exercise for 30 min. An increase in cognitive performance and in mood was hypothesized to correlate with a decrease in fronto-temporal brain areas following exercise. Significant changes in cortical current density in frontal brain areas as well as decreases in perceived physical energy could be shown. Overall motivational states (including self-confidence and social acceptance) as well as positive mood increased significantly. However, no changes could be observed for the cognitive tasks following exercise. With respect to the data provided here there is reason to believe, that a self-selected pace running exercise, enhances self-esteem, coincided with cortical activity changes in fronto-temporal brain areas.

Since the beginning of manned spaceflight, the challenge for space science is to avoid or minimize physiological degeneration processes of the musculoskeletal and cardiovascular system caused by missing gravity. With ongoing mission it became clear that weightlessness and isolation in space has an impact also on cognitive performance and mood. Both, mental and physical health are a matter of mission success and mission safety, especially in times of enabling longer space missions, for example, to Mars.