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Abstract While gilts and sows are regularly vaccinated against the porcine parvovirus (PPV), little is known on the presence of antibodies in vaccinated sows nor the decline of maternally derived antibodies (MDA) in their offspring. On twelve farms serum samples were taken from 180 gilts and sows vaccinated at least twice with one of three different commercial PPV vaccines. On nine farms, additional 270 serum samples were collected from growing pigs of three different age categories. All 450 samples were examined for PPV antibodies (Abs) by ELISA and haemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay. In total, 65% of all gilts vaccinated twice with either vaccine 1 or vaccine 3 were seronegative by HI assay. In each farm, there were at least three animals with high Ab titres (≥ 1:1280) indicating the presence of PPV in all twelve study farms. However, PPV DNA could not be detected in collected faecal samples. While low to moderately high Ab titres (1:10–1:640) were measured in 98% of twelve-weeks-old pigs, ELISA was only positive in 30% of the same pigs. Though, the statement on the duration of MDA may depend on the applied test, we could confirm an exponential decay of MDA. In addition, we could demonstrate that applied serological tools are insufficient for the confirmation of successful vaccination.

Summary: Climate change is one of several drivers of recurrent outbreaks and geographical range expansion of infectious diseases in Europe. We propose a framework for the co-production of policy-relevant indicators and decision-support tools that track past, present, and future climate-induced disease risks across hazard, exposure, and vulnerability domains at the animal, human, and environmental interface. This entails the co-development of early warning and response systems and tools to assess the costs and benefits of climate change adaptation and mitigation measures across sectors, to increase health system resilience at regional and local levels and reveal novel policy entry points and opportunities. Our approach involves multi-level engagement, innovative methodologies, and novel data streams. We take advantage of intelligence generated locally and empirically to quantify effects in areas experiencing rapid urban transformation and heterogeneous climate-induced disease threats. Our goal is to reduce the knowledge-to-action gap by developing an integrated One Health—Climate Risk framework.

Abstract Knowledge of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) herd infection status is important to plan appropriate control and prevention strategies for Paratuberculosis (PTB); however, in Uganda MAP infection status of most herds is unknown. This study aimed at determining the MAP infection status of cattle herds and the associated risk factors for MAP infection in six western districts of Uganda. The survey covered a total of 93 herds where faecal and blood samples were collected from 1814 cattle. A Recombinase Polymerase Amplification (RPA) and an antibody-based (ELISA) assays were used to test for the presence of MAP DNA in faeces and MAP antibodies in serum, respectively. The apparent cow-level prevalence of MAP infection was 3.2 and 2.7% using ELISA and RPA respectively and the true cow-level prevalence using ELISA and RPA was 4.9 and 3% respectively. A herd-level prevalence of 43% (ELISA) and 40.8% (RPA) and a within-herd prevalence of 3.8 ± 2.1% based on ELISA were obtained. Among the risk factors investigated, long dry spells were significantly associated with high MAP infection (p

Feline morbillivirus (FeMV) was first isolated in 2012 from stray cats in Hong Kong. It has been found in association with tubulointerstitial nephritis (TIN), the most common cause of feline chronic kidney disease (CKD). However, viral host spectrum and virus tropism go beyond the domestic cat and kidney tissues. The viral genetic diversity of FeMV is extensive, but it is not known if this is clinically relevant. Urine and kidney tissues have been widely tested in attempts to confirm associations between FeMV infection and renal disease, but samples from both healthy and sick cats can test positive and some cross-sectional studies have not found associations between FeMV infection and CKD. There is also evidence for acute kidney injury following infection with FeMV. The results of prevalence studies differ greatly depending on the population tested and methodologies used for detection, but worldwide distribution of FeMV has been shown. Experimental studies have confirmed previous field observations that higher viral loads are present in the urine compared to other tissues, and renal TIN lesions associated with FeMV antigen have been demonstrated, alongside virus lymphotropism and viraemia-associated lymphopenia. Longitudinal field studies have revealed persistent viral shedding in urine, although infection can be cleared spontaneously.

Feline coronavirus (FCoV) is a ubiquitous RNA virus of cats, which is transmitted faeco-orally. In these guidelines, the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD) presents a comprehensive review of feline infectious peritonitis (FIP). FCoV is primarily an enteric virus and most infections do not cause clinical signs, or result in only enteritis, but a small proportion of FCoV-infected cats develop FIP. The pathology in FIP comprises a perivascular phlebitis that can affect any organ. Cats under two years old are most frequently affected by FIP. Most cats present with fever, anorexia, and weight loss; many have effusions, and some have ocular and/or neurological signs. Making a diagnosis is complex and ABCD FIP Diagnostic Approach Tools are available to aid veterinarians. Sampling an effusion, when present, for cytology, biochemistry, and FCoV RNA or FCoV antigen detection is very useful diagnostically. In the absence of an effusion, fine-needle aspirates from affected organs for cytology and FCoV RNA or FCoV antigen detection are helpful. Definitive diagnosis usually requires histopathology with FCoV antigen detection. Antiviral treatments now enable recovery in many cases from this previously fatal disease; nucleoside analogues (e.g., oral GS-441524) are very effective, although they are not available in all countries.

Diverse origins and causes are described for papyraceous mummifications of porcine foetuses, but the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) is not one of them. In contrast, PRRSV is unlikely to cause mid-term placental transmission but may cause late-term abortions and weakness of piglets. This case report describes a sudden occurrence of mummified foetuses of various sizes and stillborns and delayed birth (>115 days) in more than 50% of sows from one farrowing batch, while newborn piglets were mostly vital. Neither increased embryonic death nor infertility was reported. Three litters with mummies, autolysed piglets and stillborn piglets were investigated, and infections with porcine parvoviruses, porcine teschoviruses, porcine circoviruses, encephalomyocarditis virus, Leptospira spp. and Chlamydia spp. were excluded. Instead, high viral loads of PRRSV were detected in the thymus pools of piglets at all developmental stages, even in piglets with a crown–rump length between 80 and 150 mm, suggesting a potential mid-term in utero transmission of the virus. Genomic regions encoding structural proteins (ORF2–7) of the virus were sequenced and identified the virulent PRRSV-1 strain AUT15-33 as the closest relative. This case report confirms the diversity of PRRSV and its potential involvement in foetal death in mid-gestation.

Vaccine-associated adverse events (VAAEs), including feline injection-site sarcomas (FISSs), occur only rarely but can be severe. Understanding potential VAAEs is an important part of informed owner consent for vaccination. In this review, the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD), a scientifically independent board of feline medicine experts, presents the current knowledge on VAAEs in cats, summarizing the literature and filling the gaps where scientific studies are missing with expert opinion to assist veterinarians in adopting the best vaccination practice. VAAEs are caused by an aberrant innate or adaptive immune reaction, excessive local reactions at the inoculation site, an error in administration, or failure in the manufacturing process. FISS, the most severe VAAE, can develop after vaccinations or injection of other substances. Although the most widely accepted hypothesis is that chronic inflammation triggers malignant transformation, the pathogenesis of FISS is not yet fully understood. No injectable vaccine is risk-free, and therefore, vaccination should be performed as often as necessary, but as infrequently as possible. Vaccines should be brought to room temperature prior to administration and injected at sites in which FISS surgery would likely be curative; the interscapular region should be avoided. Post-vaccinal monitoring is essential.

The importance of air purifiers has increased in recent years, especially with the "coronavirus disease 2019" pandemic. The efficacy of air purifiers is usually determined under laboratory conditions before widespread application. The standard procedure for testing depends on virus cultivation and titration on cell culture. This, however, requires several days to deliver results. The aim of this study was to establish a rapid molecular assay which can differentiate between intact infectious and distorted non-infectious virus particles. Feline Coronavirus was selected as model for screening. First the samples were pretreated with enzymes (universal nuclease and RNase cocktail enzyme mixture) or viability dye (propidium monoazide) to eliminate any free nucleic acids. The ribonucleic acid (RNA) from intact virus was released via magnetic beads-based extraction, then the amount of the RNA was determined using real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) or reverse transcription recombinase-aided amplification (RT-RAA). All results were compared to the infectivity assay based on the calculation of the 50% tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50). The nuclease has eliminated 100% of the free Feline Coronavirus RNA, while propidium monoazide underperformed (2.3-fold decrease in free RNA). Both RT-RAA and real-time RT-PCR produced similar results to the infectivity assay on cell culture with limit of detection of 102 TCID50/mL. Two UV-C air purifiers with prosperities of 100% inactivation of the viruses were used to validate the established procedure. Both real-time RT-PCR and RT-RAA were able to differentiate between intact virus particles and free RNA. To conclude, this study revealed a promising rapid method to validate the efficacy of air purifiers by combining enzymatic pretreatment and molecular assays.

Wastewater monitoring became a promising solution in the early detection of outbreaks. Despite the achievements in the identification of pathogens in wastewater using real-time PCR, there is still a lack of reliable rapid nucleic acid extraction protocols. Therefore, in this study, samples were subjected to alkali, proteinase K and/or bead-beating followed by reverse purification magnetic beads-based separation. Wastewater samples spiked with S. aureus, E. coli and C. parvum were used as examples for Gram-positive and -negative bacteria and protozoa, respectively. All results were compared with a spin column technology as a reference method. Proteinase K with bead beating (vortexing with 0.1 mm glass beads for three minutes) was particularly successful for bacterial DNA extraction (three- to five-fold increase). The most useful extraction protocol for protozoa was pre-treatment with proteinase K (eight-fold increase). The selected methods were sensitive as far as detecting one bacterial cell per reaction for S. aureus, ten bacterial cells for E. coli and two oocysts for C. parvum. The extraction reagents are cold chain independent and no centrifuge or other large laboratory equipment is required to perform DNA extraction. A controlled validation trial is needed to test the effectiveness at field levels.

Surveillance of antimicrobial administration in livestock production is an important factor in global policies to reduce spreading of antimicrobial resistance. In recent years, many studies have been carried out concerning the usage of antimicrobials in animal production and in some countries recording of antimicrobial quantities dispensed to famers is mandatory. On cattle farms, antimicrobial treatments are recorded for fattening calves under 8 months of age and for fattening cattle older than 8 months in Germany and treatment frequencies are then calculated. However, with the entry into force of Regulation (EU) 2019/6 on 01/28/2022, antimicrobial monitoring will gradually be extended to all animal species and age groups. Therefore, an effective, fast and accurate transfer of data on the use of antimicrobials, especially in the field of livestock farming, into corresponding databases is required to determine the treatment frequencies for the individual animal species or types of use. For this purpose, an electronic interface was programmed to transfer the data on antimicrobial use in dairy cattle farms from a herd management software program directly into a database. To test the practicability and effectiveness of this interface, 10 dairy cattle farms from Saxony were initially selected. Based on an in-depth analysis of the treatment frequencies of antimicrobial administration of 7 different age groups of animals after a two-year observation period, the functionality of the electronic interface could be established. The greatest potential for reduction of antimicrobials is in newborn calves, as they represent the age group with the highest treatment frequency.

Vaccines protect cats from serious diseases by inducing antibodies and cellular immune responses. Primary vaccinations and boosters are given according to vaccination guidelines provided by industry and veterinary organizations, based on minimal duration of immunity (DOI). For certain diseases, particularly feline panleukopenia, antibody titres correlate with protection. For feline calicivirus and feline herpesvirus, a similar correlation is absent, or less clear. In this review, the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD) presents current knowledge and expert opinion on the use of antibody testing in different situations. Antibody testing can be performed either in diagnostic laboratories, or in veterinary practice using point of care (POC) tests, and can be applied for several purposes, such as to provide evidence that a successful immune response was induced following vaccination. In adult cats, antibody test results can inform the appropriate re-vaccination interval. In shelters, antibody testing can support the control of FPV outbreaks by identifying potentially unprotected cats. Antibody testing has also been proposed to support decisions on optimal vaccination schedules for the individual kitten. However, such testing is still expensive and it is considered impractical to monitor the decline of maternally derived antibodies.

(1) Background: This study aimed to determine the risk factors for outbreaks of feline panleukopenia in shelters. (2) Methods: Four shelters (A−D) with 150 cats were included. Fecal samples were analyzed by parvovirus real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), including culture and sequencing of qPCR-positive samples. Information on cats, husbandry, hygiene, and infection management was evaluated to determine risk factors for feline panleukopenia and parvovirus shedding by logistic regression. (3) Results: Feline panleukopenia occurred in 28.0% (42/150) of cats (0 in shelter D). Shedding was found in 48.7% (73/150) (A: 21/73; B: 29/73; C: 7/73; D: 16/73). Of 73 qPCR-positive fecal samples, 65.8% (48/73) were culture-positive; sequencing revealed feline panleukopenia virus (FPV) isolates in 34/48 samples and vaccine virus isolate in 14/48; canine parvovirus was not detected. Presence of feline panleukopenia was significantly more likely in cats from shelter A (p < 0.05), unvaccinated cats (p < 0.001), and young cats (4 weeks to 2 years; p = 0.008). Parvovirus shedding was significantly more common in young cats (p < 0.001), cats with feline panleukopenia (p = 0.033), and group-housed cats (p = 0.025). (4) Conclusions: Vaccination is the most important measure to reduce the risk of feline panleukopenia in shelters. Risk of parvovirus shedding is especially high in young, group-housed cats.

Canine coronavirus (CCoV) and canine respiratory coronavirus (CRCoV) are highly infectious viruses of dogs classified as Alphacoronavirus and Betacoronavirus, respectively. Both are examples for viruses causing emerging diseases since CCoV originated from a Feline coronavirus-like Alphacoronavirus and CRCoV from a Bovine coronavirus-like Betacoronavirus. In this review article, differences in the genetic organization of CCoV and CRCoV as well as their relation to other coronaviruses are discussed. Clinical pictures varying from an asymptomatic or mild unspecific disease, to respiratory or even an acute generalized illness are reported. The possible role of dogs in the spread of the Betacoronavirus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is crucial to study as animal always played the role of establishing zoonotic diseases in the community.

We studied the prevalence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacteriaceae in dairy calves as part of a routine health check protocol. In addition, data regarding antimicrobial use (AMU), farm hygiene, and farm management were collected in order to identify possible risks for ESBL occurrence. Ten farms participated in the study with a median of 781 milking cows (319-1701). All calves investigated were younger than two weeks with an average age of 6.8 (±3.9) days. The farms were visited and samples were collected twice at an interval of 7-11 months. Faecal samples diluted 1:10, were plated onto BrillianceTM ESBL agar in duplicates. After 24 hours at 37°C, colonies were counted and total colony forming units (cfu)/ml calculated. Bacteria species were identified biochemically. ESBL-production was phenotypically confirmed using the MICRONAUT-S β-Lactamases system. Additionally, antimicrobial susceptibility was tested using VITEK® 2 technology. Phylotyping of E. coli isolates and screening for bla genes was performed by PCR. ESBL-producing enterobacteria were detected on all farms and 96.5% of calves investigated shed ESBL-positive bacteria. Of all ESBL-producing isolates, the majority were E. coli (92.9%), followed by Enterobacter cloacae (5.1%) and Klebsiella pneumoniae subsp. pneumoniae (2.0%). The majority of E. coli isolates was clearly assigned to phylogroup C (25.0%), followed by phylogroups A (15.2%) and E (14.1%). CTX-M group 1 was most frequently detected (80.4%). E. cloacae contained blaCTX-M and blaTEM or blaSHV. K. pneumoniae harboured blaSHV only. Besides resistance to penicillins and cephalosporins, the majority of isolates was also resistant to one or more antibiotic classes, with a high proportion being resistant against fluoroqinolones. 52.5% of isolates were further characterised as threefold multidrug resistant gram-negative bacteria (3MDR-GNB) according to the German Commission for Hospital Hygiene and Infection Prevention. None of the isolates were 4MDR-GNB, i.e. none revealed carbapenem-resistance. Penicillins were the most frequently administered antibiotics to calves on most farms and were the predominant substance class at herd level on all farms. Overall, the number of calves treated prior to sampling was rather low (11.7%). Analyses of data regarding the farm management identified weaknesses in biosecurity and cleaning and disinfection. Besides beta-lactam antibiotics being the most commonly used antibiotics no other risk factors could be identified. In summary, the prevalence of ESBL-carriers in dairy calves was exceptionally high and should be motivation to develop strategies for the reduction of multidrug-resistant bacteria in farm animals.

Immunocompromise is a common condition in cats, especially due to widespread infections with immunosuppressive viruses, such as feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) and feline leukaemia virus (FeLV), but also due to chronic non-infectious diseases, such as tumours, diabetes mellitus, and chronic kidney disease, as well as treatment with immunosuppressive drugs, such as glucocorticoids, cyclosporins, or tumour chemotherapy. In this review, the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD), a scientifically independent board of experts in feline medicine from eleven European countries, discusses the current knowledge and rationale for vaccination of immunocompromised cats. So far, there are few data available on vaccination of immunocompromised cats, and sometimes studies produce controversial results. Thus, this guideline summarizes the available scientific studies and fills in the gaps with expert opinion, where scientific studies are missing. Ultimately, this review aims to help veterinarians with their decision-making in how best to vaccinate immunocompromised cats.

Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a common pathogen in domestic cats that is highly contagious, resistant to many disinfectants and demonstrates a high genetic variability. FCV infection can lead to serious or even fatal diseases. In this review, the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD), a scientifically independent board of experts in feline medicine from 11 European countries, presents the current knowledge of FCV infection and fills gaps with expert opinions. FCV infections are particularly problematic in multicat environments. FCV-infected cats often show painful erosions in the mouth and mild upper respiratory disease and, particularly in kittens, even fatal pneumonia. However, infection can be associated with chronic gingivostomatitis. Rarely, highly virulent FCV variants can induce severe systemic disease with epizootic spread and high mortality. FCV can best be detected by reverse-transcriptase PCR. However, a negative result does not rule out FCV infection and healthy cats can test positive. All cats should be vaccinated against FCV (core vaccine); however, vaccination protects cats from disease but not from infection. Considering the high variability of FCV, changing to different vaccine strain(s) may be of benefit if disease occurs in fully vaccinated cats. Infection-induced immunity is not life-long and does not protect against all strains; therefore, vaccination of cats that have recovered from caliciviral disease is recommended.

Since September 2020, Germany has experienced the first ever outbreak of African swine fever (ASF). The first known cases occurred exclusively in wild boar in forest areas in Brandenburg and Saxony; in July 2021, infected domestic pigs were also confirmed for the first time. As wild boar are considered the main reservoir for the virus in the European region, an effective interruption of this infection chain is essential. In particular, the removal and safe disposal of infected carcasses and the direct disinfection of contaminated, unpaved ground are priorities in this regard. For the disinfection, highly potent as well as environmentally compatible disinfectants must be used, which are neither influenced in their effectiveness by the soil condition nor by increased organic contamination. Thus, in this study, slaked lime, milk of lime and quicklime (1% to 10% solutions) were selected for efficacy testing against the test virus recommended by the German Veterinary Society (DVG), Modified Vaccinia Ankara virus (MVAV), and ASF virus (ASFV) in conjunction with six different forest soils from Saxony in two different soil layers (top soil and mineral soil) each. In summary, 10% of any tested lime type is able to inactivate both MVAV and ASFV under conditions of high organic load and independent of the water content of the soil. At least a 4 log reduction of the virus titer in all tested forest soil types and layers and by all applied lime types was observed. In conclusion, the high efficacy and suitability of all tested lime products against both viruses and in the presence of high organic load in forest soil can be confirmed and will help to control ASF spread.

Surface disinfectants are regularly used in prophylactic and infection control measures. Concern has been raised whether residues of sub-inhibitory disinfectant concentrations may constitute a selective pressure and could contribute to the development of strains which are tolerant and/or resistant to biocides including antibiotics. The current study investigated whether Staphylococcus (S.) aureus ATCC® 29213™ and ATCC® 6538™ would change their growth characteristics and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles after prolonged treatment with sub-inhibitory concentrations of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl). NaOCl is a fast-acting disinfectant with a broad-spectrum activity, inexpensive and widely used in healthcare and the food production industry. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for NaOCl was determined by broth macrodilution according to the guidelines for disinfectant efficacy testing provided by the German Veterinary Medical Society. Serial passages after 24 h and 72 h, respectively, in defined sub-inhibitory concentrations of NaOCl resulted in a number of phenotypic variants. Two of these variants, derived from S. aureus ATCC® 29213™, showed elevated MICs of oxacillin and were considered as in vitro-generated borderline oxacillin-resistant S. aureus (BORSA). Transmission electron microscopy revealed a significantly thickened cell wall in these isolates, a phenomenon that has also been described for Listeria monocytogenes after low-level exposure to NaOCl. Whole genome sequencing revealed an early stop codon in the gene coding for the GdpP protein and thereby abolishing the function of this gene. GdpP represents a phosphodiesterase that regulates gene expression, and loss of function of the GdpP protein has been described in association with borderline oxacillin resistance. Our findings suggest that a mutation in the GdpP protein gene and morphological changes of the cell wall were induced by repeated exposure to sub-lethal NaOCl concentrations, and most likely accounted for a BORSA phenotype in two variants derived from S. aureus ATCC® 29213™.

Koi herpesvirus disease (KHVD) is a highly infectious disease leading to outbreaks and mass mortality in captive and free-ranging common carp and koi carp. Outbreaks may result in high morbidity and mortality which can have a severe economic impact along the supply chain. Currently, control and prevention of KHVD relies on avoiding exposure to the virus based on efficient hygiene and biosecurity measures. An early diagnosis of the disease is crucial to prevent its spread and to minimize economic losses. Therefore, an easy-to-handle, sensitive, specific and reliable test prototype for a point-of-care detection of KHV was developed and evaluated in this study. We used a multiplex-endpoint-PCR followed by a specific probe hybridization step. PCR-products/hybridization-products were visualized with a simple and universal lateral flow immunoassay (PCR-LFA). Fifty-four gill tissue samples (KHV-positive n = 33, KHV-negative n = 21) and 46 kidney samples (KHV-positive n = 24, KHV-negative n = 22) were used to determine diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of the PCR-LFA. In addition, the usability of PCR-LFA to detect CyHV-3-DNA in gill swabs taken from 20 perished common carp during a KHVD-outbreak in a commercial carp stock was examined. This assay gave test results within approximately 60 min. It revealed a detection limit of 9 KHV gene copies/μl (95% probability), a diagnostic specificity of 100%, and diagnostic sensitivity of 94.81% if samples were tested in a single test run only. PCR inhibition was noticed when examining gill swab samples without preceding extraction of DNA or sample dilution. Test sensitivity coud be enhanced by examining samples in five replicates. Overall, our PCR-LFA proved to be a specific, easy-to-use and time-saving point-of-care-compatible test for the detection of KHV-DNA. Regarding gill swab samples, further test series using a higher number of clinical samples should be analyzed to confirm the number of replicates and the sample processing necessary to reveal a 100% diagnostic sensitivity.

Presurgical hand asepsis is part of the daily routine in veterinary medicine. Nevertheless, basic knowledge seems to be low, even among specialised veterinary surgeons. The major objectives of our study were to assess current habits for presurgical hand preparation (phase 1) among personnel in a veterinary hospital and their effectiveness in reducing bacteria from hands in comparison to a standardised protocol (phase 2). Assessment of individual habits focused on time for hand washing and disinfection, the amount of disinfectant used, and the usage of brushes. The standardised protocol defined hand washing for 1 min with liquid neutral soap without brushing and disinfection for 3 min. All participants (2 surgeons, 8 clinic members, 32 students) used Sterillium®. Total bacterial counts were determined before and after hand washing, after disinfection, and after surgery. Hands were immersed in 100 ml sterile sampling fluid for 1 min and samples were inoculated onto Columbia sheep blood agar using the spread-plate method. Bacterial colonies were manually counted. Glove perforation test was carried out at the end of the surgical procedure. Differences in the reduction of relative bacterial numbers between current habits and the standardised protocol were investigated using Mann-Whitney-Test. The relative increase in bacterial numbers as a function of operation time (≤60 min, >60 min) and glove perforation as well as the interaction of both was investigated by using ANOVA. Forty-six and 41 preparations were carried out during phase 1 and phase 2, respectively. Individual habits differed distinctly with regard to time (up to 8 min) and amount of disinfectant (up to 48 ml) used both between participants and between various applications of a respective participant. Comparison of current habits and the standardised protocol revealed that the duration of hand washing had no significant effect on reducing bacteria. Contrary, the reduction in bacterial numbers after disinfection by the standardised protocol was significantly higher (p

A real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) is considered the gold standard for the laboratory diagnosis of canine parvovirus (CPV) infection but can only be performed in specialized laboratories. Several point-of-care tests (POCT), detecting CPV antigens in faeces within minutes, are commercially available. The aim of this study was to evaluate eight POCT in comparison with qPCR. Faecal samples of 150 dogs from three groups (H: 50 client-owned, healthy dogs, not vaccinated within the last four weeks; S: 50 shelter dogs, healthy, not vaccinated within the last four weeks; p = 50 dogs with clinical signs of CPV infection) were tested with eight POCT and qPCR. Practicability, sensitivity, specificity, positive (PPV) and negative predictive values (NPV), as well as overall accuracy were determined. To assess the differences between and agreement among POCT, McNemar’s test and Cohen’s Kappa statistic were performed. Specificity and PPV were 100.0% in all POCT. Sensitivity varied from 22.9–34.3% overall and from 32.7–49.0% in group P. VetexpertRapidTestCPVAg® had the highest sensitivity (34.3% overall, 49.0% group P) and differed significantly from the 3 POCT with the lowest sensitivities (Fassisi®Parvo (27.7% overall, 36.7% group P), Primagnost®ParvoH+K (24.3% overall, 34.7% group P), FASTest®PARVOCard (22.9% overall, 32.7% group P)). The agreement among all POCT was at least substantial (kappa >0.80). A positive POCT result confirmed the infection with CPV in unvaccinated dogs, whereas a negative POCT result did not definitely exclude CPV infection due to the low sensitivity of all POCT.

African swine fever (ASF) has become a global threat to the pig industry and wild suids. Within Europe, including Germany, affected wild boar populations play a major role. Fencing and carcass removal in combination with the reduction in environmental contamination are key to control further spread. The handling of the ASF virus (ASFV) is restricted to high-containment conditions in Germany. According to the regulation of the German Veterinarian Society (DVG), modified vaccinia Ankara virus (MVAV) is the virus of choice to determine the efficacy of disinfection for enveloped viruses. The aim of this study was to use the MVAV as a guide to select the best possible disinfectant solution and concentration for the inactivation of ASFV in soil. Both viruses were tested simultaneously. In this study, two layers (top and mineral soil) of soil types from six different locations in Saxony, Germany, were collected. The tenacity of ASFV and MVAV were tested at various time points (0.5 to 72 h). The capabilities of different concentrations of peracetic acid and citric acid (approx. 0.1 to 2%) to inactivate the viruses in the selected soil types with spiked high protein load were examined under appropriate containment conditions. Around 2–3 Log10 (TCID50) levels of reduction in the infectivity of both ASFV and MVAV were observed in all soil types starting after two hours. For MVAV, a 4 Log10 loss was recorded after 72 h. A total of 0.1% of peracetic acid (5 L/m2) was sufficient to inactivate the viruses. A 4 log10 reduction in the infectivity of MVAV was noticed by applying 1% citric acid, while a 2 log10 decline was recorded with ASFV. In conclusion, comparing MVAV to ASFV for efficacy screening of disinfectant solutions has revealed many similarities. Peracetic acid reduced the infectivity of both viruses independently of the soil type and the existence of a high organic soiling.

Feline coronavirus (FCoV) is endemic in cat populations worldwide. Persistently, subclinically infected cats play a significant role in spreading the infection. Testing fecal samples of cats may facilitate efforts to decrease the viral burden within a population. Real-time RT-PCR is highly sensitive and specific for the detection of FCoV but must be performed in a fully equipped laboratory. A simple and accurate assay is needed to identify FCoV at the point-of-need. The aim of this study was to develop a rapid FCoV detection assay based on isothermal amplification technology, i.e., reverse transcription-recombinase polymerase amplification (RT-RPA). Primers were designed to target the highly conserved 3′ untranslated region of the 7b gene. Running on a constant temperature of 42 °C, reverse transcription as well as DNA amplification and detection was achieved in a maximum of 15 min. A probit analysis revealed a detection limit of 58.5 RNA copies/reaction. For cross-detection, nucleic acids from 19 viruses were tested. Both RT-RPA and real-time RT-PCR showed cross-detection with canine coronavirus and transmissible gastroenteritis virus, but not with other pathogens. To evaluate clinical performance, RNA was extracted from 39 fecal samples from cats. All samples were tested simultaneously with real-time RT-PCR resulting in a RT-RPA sensitivity and specificity of 90.9% and 100%, respectively. RT-RPA can be considered a promising simple method for rapid detection of FCoV.

African swine fever virus (ASFV) is the causative agent of a deadly disease in pigs and is spread rapidly across borders. Samples collected from suspected cases must be sent to the reference laboratory for diagnosis using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In this study, we aimed to develop a simple DNA isolation step and real-time recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) assay for rapid detection of ASFV. RPA assay based on the p72 encoding B646L gene of ASFV was established. The assays limit of detection and cross-reactivity were investigated. Diagnostic performance was examined using 73 blood and serum samples. Two extraction approaches were tested: silica-column-based extraction method and simple non-purification DNA isolation (lysis buffer and heating, 70 °C for 20 min). All results were compared with well-established real-time PCR. In a field deployment during a disease outbreak event in Uganda, 20 whole blood samples were tested. The assay’s analytical sensitivity was 3.5 DNA copies of molecular standard per µL as determined by probit analysis on eight independent assay runs. The ASFV RPA assay only detected ASFV genotypes. Compared to real-time PCR, RPA diagnostic sensitivity and specificity were 100%. Using the heating/lysis buffer extraction procedure, ASFV-RPA revealed better tolerance to inhibitors than real-time PCR (97% and 38% positivity rate, respectively). In Uganda, infected animals were identified before the appearance of fever. The ASFV-RPA assay is shown to be as sensitive and specific as real-time PCR. Moreover, the combination of the simple extraction protocol allows its use at the point of need to improve control measures.

In the past, cats were considered resistant to influenza. Today, we know that they are susceptible to some influenza A viruses (IAVs) originating in other species. Usually, the outcome is only subclinical infection or a mild fever. However, outbreaks of feline disease caused by canine H3N2 IAV with fever, tachypnoea, sneezing, coughing, dyspnoea and lethargy are occasionally noted in shelters. In one such outbreak, the morbidity rate was 100% and the mortality rate was 40%. Recently, avian H7N2 IAV infection occurred in cats in some shelters in the USA, inducing mostly mild respiratory disease. Furthermore, cats are susceptible to experimental infection with the human H3N2 IAV that caused the pandemic in 1968. Several studies indicated that cats worldwide could be infected by H1N1 IAV during the subsequent human pandemic in 2009. In one shelter, severe cases with fatalities were noted. Finally, the highly pathogenic avian H5N1 IAV can induce a severe, fatal disease in cats, and can spread via cat-to-cat contact. In this review, the Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD), a scientifically independent board of experts in feline medicine from 11 European countries, summarises current data regarding the aetiology, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical picture, diagnostics, and control of feline IAV infections, as well as the zoonotic risks.

Re-vaccinations against canine distemper virus (CDV) are commonly performed in 3-year intervals. The study’s aims were to determine anti-CDV antibodies in healthy adult dogs within 28 days of vaccination against CDV, and to evaluate factors associated with the presence of pre-vaccination antibodies and with the antibody response to vaccination. Ninety-seven dogs, not vaccinated within 1 year before enrollment, were vaccinated with a modified live CDV vaccine. A measurement of the antibodies was performed before vaccination (day 0), on day 7, and 28 after the vaccination by virus neutralization. A response to vaccination was defined as a ≥4-fold titer increase by day 28. Fisher’s exact test was used to determine factors associated with a lack of antibodies and vaccination response. In total, 94.8% of the dogs (92/97; CI 95%: 88.2–98.1) had antibodies (≥10) prior to vaccination. A response to vaccination was not observed in any dog. Five dogs were considered humoral non-responders; these dogs neither had detectable antibodies before, nor developed antibodies after vaccination. Young age (p = 0.018; OR: 26.825; 95% CI: 1.216–1763.417). In conclusion, necessity of re-vaccination in adult healthy dogs should be debated and regular vaccinations should be replaced by antibody detection.

High amounts of aerial pollutants like dust and microorganisms can pose serious health hazards to animals and humans. The aim of the current study therefore was, to assess the efficiency of UVC irradiation combined to air filtration in reducing airborne microorganisms at laboratory scale. In a second part, a UVC-combined recirculating air filtration module (UVC module) was implemented in a small animal facility in order to assess its improvement of air quality with regard to airborne bacteria and dust. Tests at laboratory scale were performed using aerosols of Staphylococcus (S.) aureus, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, porcine parvovirus (PPV) and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. We varied relative humidity (RH) to evaluate its effect on UVC irradiation efficiency. In addition, viability of pathogens inside the filter material was determined over up to six months. UVC-combined air filtration resulted in a more than 99% reduction of viral and bacterial particles. RH had no influence on UVC efficiency. Viability in the filter matter varied depending on the pathogen used and RH with S. aureus and PPV being most resistant. In our small pig facility consisting of two separated barns, weekly air measurements were conducted over a period of 13 weeks (10 piglets) and 16 weeks (11 piglets), respectively. Airborne bacterial numbers were significantly lower in the barn equipped with the UVC module compared to the reference barn. On average a reduction to 37% of reference values could be achieved for bacteria, whereas the amount of total dust was reduced to a much lesser extent (i.e. to 78% of reference values). Measures taken in front of and behind the UVC module revealed a reduction of 99.4% for airborne bacteria and 95.0% for total dust. To conclude, recirculating air filtration combined to UVC provided efficient reduction of pathogens at laboratory and experimental scale. The implementation of such devices might improve the overall environmental quality in animal facilities.

(1) Background: No information is available on how dogs with hypothyroidism (HypoT) respond to vaccination. This study measured pre- and post-vaccination anti-canine parvovirus (CPV) antibodies in dogs with HypoT treated with levothyroxine and compared the results to those of healthy dogs. (2) Methods: Six dogs with HypoT and healthy age-matched control dogs (n = 23) were vaccinated against CPV with a modified-live vaccine. Hemagglutination inhibition was used to measure antibodies on days 0, 7, and 28. The comparison of the vaccination response of dogs with HypoT and healthy dogs were performed with univariate analysis. (3) Results: Pre-vaccination antibodies (≥10) were detected in 100% of dogs with HypoT (6/6; 95% CI: 55.7–100) and in 100% of healthy dogs (23/23; 95% CI: 83.1–100.0). A ≥4-fold titer increase was observed in none of the dogs with HypoT and in 4.3% of the healthy dogs (1/23; CI95%: p = 1.000), or vaccination response (p = 0.735), nor in the occurrence of post-vaccination VAAEs (p = 0.798). The vaccination response in dogs with levothyroxine-treated HypoT seems to be similar to that of healthy dogs.

(1) Background: Antibody testing is commonly used to assess a dog’s immune status. For detection of antibodies against canine adenoviruses (CAVs), one point-of-care (POC) test is available. This study assessed the POC test´s performance. (2) Methods: Sera of 198 privately owned dogs and 40 specific pathogen-free (SPF) dogs were included. The reference standard for detection of anti-CAV antibodies was virus neutralization (VN) using CAV-1 and CAV-2 antigens. Specificity, sensitivity, positive predictive value (PPV), negative predictive value (NPV), and overall accuracy (OA) of the POC test were assessed. Specificity was considered most important. (3) Results: Prevalence of CAV-1 neutralizing antibodies (≥10) was 76% (182/238) in all dogs, 92% (182/198) in the subgroup of privately owned dogs, and 0% (0/40) in SPF dogs. Prevalence of CAV-2 neutralizing antibodies (≥10) was 76% (181/238) in all dogs, 91% (181/198) in privately owned dogs, and 0% (0/40) in SPF dogs. Specificity for detection of CAV-1 antibodies was lower (overall dogs, 88%; privately owned dogs, 56%; SPF dogs, 100%) compared with specificity for detection of CAV-2 antibodies (overall dogs, 90%; privately owned dogs, 65%; SPF dogs, 100%). (4) Conclusions: Since false positive results will lead to potentially unprotected dogs not being vaccinated, specificity should be improved to reliably detect anti-CAV antibodies that prevent infectious canine hepatitis in dogs.

COVID-19 is a severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) caused by a new coronavirus (CoV), SARS-CoV-2, which is closely related to SARS-CoV that jumped the animal–human species barrier and caused a disease outbreak in 2003. SARS-CoV-2 is a betacoronavirus that was first described in 2019, unrelated to the commonly occurring feline coronavirus (FCoV) that is an alphacoronavirus associated with feline infectious peritonitis (FIP). SARS-CoV-2 is highly contagious and has spread globally within a few months, resulting in the current pandemic. Felids have been shown to be susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Particularly in the Western world, many people live in very close contact with their pet cats, and natural infections of cats in COVID-19-positive households have been described in several countries. In this review, the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD), a scientifically independent board of experts in feline medicine from 11 European Countries, discusses the current status of SARS-CoV infections in cats. The review examines the host range of SARS-CoV-2 and human-to-animal transmissions, including infections in domestic and non-domestic felids, as well as mink-to-human/-cat transmission. It summarises current data on SARS-CoV-2 prevalence in domestic cats and the results of experimental infections of cats and provides expert opinions on the clinical relevance and prevention of SARS-CoV-2 infection in cats.

Measuring antibodies to evaluate dogs’ immunity against canine parvovirus (CPV) is useful to avoid unnecessary re-vaccinations. The study aimed to evaluate the quality and practicability of four point-of-care (POC) tests for detection of anti-CPV antibodies. The sera of 198 client-owned and 43 specific pathogen-free (SPF) dogs were included; virus neutralization was the reference method. Specificity, sensitivity, positive and negative predictive value (PPV and NPV), and overall accuracy (OA) were calculated. Specificity was considered to be the most important indicator for POC test performance. Differences between specificity and sensitivity of POC tests in the sera of all dogs were determined by McNemar, agreement by Cohen’s kappa. Prevalence of anti-CPV antibodies in all dogs was 80% (192/241); in the subgroup of client-owned dogs, it was 97% (192/198); and in the subgroup of SPF dogs, it was 0% (0/43). FASTest® and CanTiCheck® were easiest to perform. Specificity was highest in the CanTiCheck® (overall dogs, 98%; client-owned dogs, 83%; SPF dogs, 100%) and the TiterCHEK® (overall dogs, 96%; client-owned dogs, 67%; SPF dogs, 100%); no significant differences in specificity were observed between the ImmunoComb®, the TiterCHEK®, and the CanTiCheck®. Sensitivity was highest in the FASTest® (overall dogs, 95%; client-owned dogs, 95%) and the CanTiCheck® (overall dogs, 80%; client-owned dogs, 80%); sensitivity of the FASTest® was significantly higher compared to the one of the other three tests (McNemars p-value in each comparison: ® would be the POC test of choice when considering specificity and practicability. However, differences in the number of false positive results between CanTiCheck®, TiterCHEK®, and ImmunoComb® were minimal.

Background: Re-vaccination against canine adenovirus (CAV) is performed in ≤3-year-intervals but their necessity is unknown. The study determined anti-CAV antibodies within 28 days of re-vaccination and factors associated with the absence of antibodies and vaccination response. Methods: Ninety-seven healthy adult dogs (last vaccination ≥12 months) were re-vaccinated with a modified live CAV-2 vaccine. Anti-CAV antibodies were measured before vaccination (day 0), and after re-vaccination (day 7, 28) by virus neutralization. A ≥4-fold titer increase was defined as vaccination response. Fisher’s exact test and multivariate regression analysis were performed to determine factors associated with the absence of antibodies and vaccination response. Results: Totally, 87% of dogs (90/97; 95% CI: 85.61–96.70) had anti-CAV antibodies (≥10) before re-vaccination. Vaccination response was observed in 6% of dogs (6/97; 95% CI: 2.60–13.11). Time since last vaccination (>3–5 years, OR = 9.375, p = 0.020; >5 years, OR= 25.000, p = 0.006) was associated with a lack of antibodies. Dogs from urban areas were more likely to respond to vaccination (p = 0.037). Conclusion: Many dogs had anti-CAV pre-vaccination antibodies, even those with an incomplete vaccination series. Most dogs did not respond to re-vaccination. Based on this study, dogs should be re-vaccinated every 3 years or antibodies should be determined.

It is unknown how dogs with hyperadrenocorticism (HAC) respond to vaccination. This study measured antibodies against canine parvovirus (CPV) in dogs with HAC treated with trilostane before and after CPV vaccination, and compared the immune response to that from healthy dogs. Eleven dogs with HAC, and healthy age-matched control dogs (n = 31) received a modified-live CPV vaccine. Antibodies were determined on days 0, 7, and 28 by hemagglutination inhibition. Univariate analysis was used to compare the immune response of dogs with HAC and healthy dogs. Pre-vaccination antibodies (≥10) were detected in 100% of dogs with HAC (11/11; 95% CI: 70.0–100) and in 93.5% of healthy dogs (29/31; 95% CI: 78.3–99.2). No ≥4-fold increase in antibody titer was observed in dogs with HAC while in 22.6% of healthy dogs, a ≥4-fold titer increase was observed (7/31; 95% CI: 11.1–40.1). Mild vaccine-associated adverse events (VAAEs) were detected in 54.5% of dogs with HAC (6/11; 95% CI: 28.0–78.8) and in 29.0% of healthy dogs (9/31; 95% CI: 15.9–46.8). There was neither a significant difference in presence of pre-vaccination antibodies (p = 1.000), or response to vaccination (p = 0.161), nor in the occurrence of VAAEs (p = 0.158). Immune function of dogs with HAC treated with trilostane seems comparable to that of healthy dogs.

Biosecurity is defined as the implementation of measures that reduce the risk of disease agents being introduced and/or spread. For pig production, several of these measures are routinely implemented (e.g. cleaning, disinfection, segregation). However, air as a potential vector of pathogens has long been disregarded. Filters for incoming and recirculating air were installed into an already existing ventilation plant at a fattening piggery (3,840 pigs at maximum) in Saxony, Germany. Over a period of three consecutive fattening periods, we evaluated various parameters including air quality indices, environmental and operating parameters, and pig performance. Animal data regarding respiratory diseases, presence of antibodies against influenza A viruses, PRRSV, and Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae and lung health score at slaughter were recorded, additionally. There were no significant differences (p = 0.824) in total bacterial counts between barns with and without air filtration. Recirculating air filtration resulted in the lowest total dust concentration (0.12 mg/m3) and lung health was best in animals from the barn equipped with recirculating air filtration modules. However, there was no difference in animal performance. Antibodies against all above mentioned pathogens were detected but mostly animals were already antibody-positive at re-stocking. We demonstrated that supply air filtration as well as recirculating air filtration technique can easily be implemented in an already existing ventilation system and that recirculating air filtration resulted in enhanced lung health compared to supply air-filtered and non-filtered barns. A more prominent effect might have been obtained in a breeding facility because of the longer life span of sows and a higher biosecurity level with air filtration as an add-on measure.

Air filtration has been shown to be efficient in reducing pathogen burden in circulating air. We determined at laboratory scale the retention efficiency of different air filter types either composed of a prefilter (EU class G4) and a secondary fiberglass filter (EU class F9) or consisting of a filter mat (EU class M6 and F8-9). Four filter prototypes were tested for their capability to remove aerosol containing equine arteritis virus (EAV), porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), bovine enterovirus 1 (BEV), Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae (APP), and Staphylococcus (S.) aureus from air. Depending on the filter prototype and utilisation, the airflow was set at 1,800 m3/h (combination of upstream prefilter and fiberglass filter) or 80 m3/h (filter mat). The pathogens were aerosolized and their concentration was determined in front of and behind the filter by culture or quantitative real-time RT-PCR. Furthermore, survival of the pathogens over time in the filter material was determined. Bacteria were most efficiently filtered with a reduction rate of up to 99.9% depending on the filter used. An approximately 98% reduction was achieved for the viruses tested. Viability or infectivity of APP or PRRSV in the filter material decreased below the detection limit after 4 h and 24 h, respectively, whereas S. aureus was still culturable after 4 weeks. Our results demonstrate that pathogens can efficiently be reduced by air filtration. Consequently, air filtration combined with other strict biosecurity measures markedly reduces the risk of introducing airborne transmitted pathogens to animal facilities. In addition, air filtration might be useful in reducing bioaerosols within a pig barn, hence improving respiratory health of pigs.

Feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) is a retrovirus associated with fatal disease in progressively infected cats. While testing/removal and vaccination led to a decreased prevalence of FeLV, recently, this decrease has reportedly stagnated in some countries. This study aimed to prospectively determine the prevalence of FeLV viraemia in cats taken to veterinary facilities in 32 European countries. FeLV viral RNA was semiquantitatively detected in saliva, using RT-qPCR as a measure of viraemia. Risk and protective factors were assessed using an online questionnaire to report geographic, demographic, husbandry, FeLV vaccination, and clinical data. The overall prevalence of FeLV viraemia in cats visiting a veterinary facility, of which 10.4% were shelter and rescue cats, was 2.3% (141/6005; 95% CI: 2.0%−2.8%) with the highest prevalences in Portugal, Hungary, and Italy/Malta (5.7%−8.8%). Using multivariate analysis, seven risk factors (Southern Europe, male intact, 1−6 years of age, indoor and outdoor or outdoor-only living, living in a group of ≥5 cats, illness), and three protective factors (Northern Europe, Western Europe, pedigree cats) were identified. Using classification and regression tree (CART) analysis, the origin of cats in Europe, pedigree, and access to outdoors were important predictors of FeLV status. FeLV-infected sick cats shed more viral RNA than FeLV-infected healthy cats, and they suffered more frequently from anaemia, anorexia, and gingivitis/stomatitis than uninfected sick cats. Most cats had never been FeLV-vaccinated; vaccination rates were indirectly associated with the gross domestic product (GDP) per capita. In conclusion, we identified countries where FeLV was undetectable, demonstrating that the infection can be eradicated and highlighting those regions where awareness and prevention should be increased.

This study evaluated the prevalence of feline calicivirus (FCV) antibodies and response to vaccination in healthy adult cats. Cats >1 year (n = 111) that had not been vaccinated within 12 months of enrollment in the study received a vaccine containing inactivated FCV antigen strains 431 and G1. Antibodies were determined on Days 0, 7, and 28 by virus neutralization (VN) using FCV isolate KS20, and by broad spectrum blocking FCV enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Factors associated with the presence of antibodies and vaccine response were determined by uni- and multivariate analysis. Pre-vaccination antibodies were detected in 62.2% of cats (CI95%: 52.9−70.1) by VN and in 77.2% (CI95%: 67.5−84.6) by ELISA. A ≥4-fold titer increase after vaccination was observed in 13.6% (CI95%: 8.3−21.4) of cats with VN and 33.7% (CI95%: 24.5−44.5) with ELISA. Factors associated with the presence of pre-vaccination VN antibodies were age (≥2 years; OR: 7.091; p = 0.022) and lack of previous vaccination (OR: 3.472; p = 0.014). The presence of pre-vaccination ELISA antibodies was associated with time since last vaccination (OR: 5.672; p = 0.043). Outdoor cats were more likely to have a ≥4-fold ELISA titer increase (OR: 5.556; p = 0.005). Many cats had pre-vaccination FCV antibodies, and their presence depended on previous vaccinations and increases with age. A ≥4-fold titer increase was rarely observed and was influenced by the lifestyle of the cat.

Canine parvovirus (CPV), which causes hemorrhagic enteritis in dogs, has 3 antigenic variants: types 2a, 2b, and 2c. Molecular method assessment of the distribution of the CPV variants in Europe showed that the new variant CPV-2c is widespread in Europe and that the viruses are distributed in different countries.