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Triton, the largest satellite of Neptune, is in a retrograde orbit and is likely a captured Kuiper Belt Object (KBO). Triton has a mean density of only 2.061 gm/cm3 and is therefore believed to have a 250–400 km thick hydrosphere. Triton is also one of the few planetary satellites to possess a thick ionosphere whose height-integrated Pedersen conductivity exceeds 104 S, complicating the sounding of Triton's subsurface using electromagnetic induction. Triton experiences a time-varying magnetic field dominated by two periods, one at 14.4 h, at the synodic rotation period of Neptune (from Neptune's tilted field) and one at 141 h, at the orbital period of Triton (from large inclination of Triton's orbit). We show that for most models of ionospheric conductivity, the 14.4 h wave creates a large response from the ionosphere itself and is unable to sound the putative ocean below. However, the 141 h wave penetrates the ionosphere easily and provides information on Triton's ocean. We introduce a technique that allows us to determine the complex magnetic moments generated at the two key periods from the magnetic data from a single flyby, allowing us to infer the presence of a subsurface ocean. This article is part of the theme issue 'Magnetometric remote sensing of Earth and planetary oceans'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The success of root canal therapy depends on the efficient removal of the smear layer. This study compares the efficacy of Triton irrigation solution with sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) for the removal of smear layers. After extraction, the premolars were instrumented and irrigated with either Triton, NaOCl plus EDTA, or NaOCl by itself. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to measure the smear layer's clearing at various root canal depths. The results demonstrated that Triton solution removed the smear layer more successfully than NaOCl alone, making it comparable to the NaOClEDTA combination. Triton shows promise as a cost-effective and efficient irrigant for root canal treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A position-sensitive detector, which is a neutron target at the same time, is presented to study the interaction reactions of fast neutrons of above 1 MeV with light nuclei, in particular, with the 10B nucleus. It contains two boron-10 layers and a system of wire electrodes to identify secondary nuclei, in particular 3H and 4He, and to determine energy loss and departure angle. Thus the neutron energy can be determined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Triton and Pluto are believed to share a common origin, both forming initially in the Kuiper Belt but Triton being later captured by Neptune. Both objects display similar sizes, densities, and atmospheric and surface ice composition, with the presence of volatile ices N2, CH4, and CO. Yet their appearance, including their surface albedo and ice distribution strongly differ. What can explain these different appearances? A first disparity is that Triton is experiencing significant tidal heating due to its orbit around Neptune, with subsequent resurfacing and a relatively flat surface, while Pluto is not tidally activated and displays a pronounced topography. Here we present long-term volatile transport simulations of Pluto and Triton, using the same initial conditions and volatile inventory, but with the known orbit and rotation of each object. The model reproduces, to first order, the observed volatile ice surface distribution on Pluto and Triton. Our results unambiguously demonstrate that obliquity is the main driver of the differences in surface appearance and in climate properties on Pluto and Triton, and give further support to the hypothesis that both objects had a common origin followed by a different dynamical history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Optical observations of the occultation of the star TYC 5254-00839-1 by Neptune's satellite Triton were carried out on October 6, 2022, using the Zeiss-1000 telescope at the Sanglokh Observatory (MPC code 193). As a result of photometric processing of images, a light curve of the star was constructed and it was revealed that the areas of decline and rise in brightness had a finite duration from 15 to 24 s. This is apparently due to the presence of an atmosphere around Triton. In addition, in the resulting light curve of this phenomenon, according to our and other observations, a "step" is revealed, which may indicate the possible presence of a close, faint object near the occulted star. As a result of astrometric processing, high-precision coordinates of Triton were determined at the average moment of occultation, which, within the limits of measurement errors, coincided with its ephemeris position. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Probabilities that are close for the (s, f) and (nth, f) fission reactions of the corresponding nuclei are estimated for the formation of third particles in the neck of a fissile nucleus. The probabilities are obtained using formulas for calculating the widths of spontaneous and thermal neutron-induced ternary fission of atomic nuclei with the emission of light charged particles. The formulas are based on an approach that views ternary fission as a virtual process, in combination with experimental energy distributions of α particles, hydrogen isotopes, and 6He nuclei in the ternary fission of actinide nuclei. It is shown that spontaneous and induced ternary fissions of actinide nuclei with the emission of light charged particles and nucleons occurs from close configurations of the fissile nucleus. The bonding energy of the thermal neutron introduced into the fissile compound nucleus in reactions (nth, f) is added to the energy of deformation the fissile nucleus but not to the kinetic energy of the third light particle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The "Design and Implementation of Autopilot using Jetson Nano" project aims to develop an advanced autonomous control system for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and other robotic platforms. Leveraging the powerful capabilities of the NVIDIA Jetson Nano, a small yet high-performance single-board computer, this project focuses on creating a robust autopilot system that enables precise navigation, obstacle detection and avoidance, and real-time decision-making. This vehicle is designed to comply with the traffic regulations and incorporates several NVIDIA tools, including DeepStream SDK, NVIDIA GPU Cloud, TensorRT, CUDA Toolkit, Triton, and Jetbot, which serves as the central component of the project. The project's primary objectives include the integration of various sensors such as cameras and GPS for environmental perception and positioning, as well as the development of intelligent algorithms for path planning. The Jetson Nano's GPU-accelerated computing capabilities will be harnessed to handle complex data processing tasks efficiently, allowing the autopilot to react swiftly to changing conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This in vitro study aimed to compare and evaluate the effectiveness of different irrigation solutions, including Triton, 0.5% Chitosan nanoparticles (CNP), and 17% ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), on the smear layer removal of the root canal walls. Methods: Forty extracted sound mandibular premolars were examined; the samples were decoronated to obtain a root length of 14 mm. Each sample was instrumented using ProTaper Next rotary file X4 (40/0.06). The samples were longitudinally sectioned and examined under a scanning electron microscope at 3000x magnification in the coronal, middle, and apical thirds using a four-level scoring system. Results: Triton demonstrated the lowest mean smear layer removal (p>0.05) compared to the other irrigation solutions at all the levels of the root canal. No significant differences were observed (p>0.05) at the coronal and middle levels of the root canal between the CNP and EDTA groups. CNP demonstrated significantly more smear layer removal at the apical level compared to EDTA. Conclusion: Smear layer removal was least effective with Triton at all the levels of the root canal compared to the other irrigation solutions tested in this study. CNP demonstrated superior smear layer removal at the apical level compared to the other irrigation solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Isolation of nuclei or nuclear proteins is a prerequisite for western blot, nuclear proteome profiling, and other evaluations of nuclear proteins. Here, we developed a simple method for in situ isolation of nuclei or nuclear proteins by in situ removing the extranuclear part of adherent cells via a classical nonionic detergent triton X-100. Results: First, the feasibility of our method was confirmed by confocal microscopy, atomic force microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, immunofluorescence imaging, and time-lapse dynamic observation. Next, the optimal concentration range (approximately 0.1–1% for ~ 10 min) of triton X-100 and the optimal treatment time (< 30 min) of 0.1–1% Triton X-100 for our method were determined via western blotting of eight extra-/intra-nuclear proteins. Subsequently, the effectiveness, sensitivity, and cytoplasmic contamination of our method were tested by investigating the levels of phosphorylated p65 (a NF-κB subunit) in the nuclei of endothelial or tumor cells treated with/without lipopolysaccharide (LPS) via western blotting and by comparing with a commercial nuclear protein extraction kit (a classical detergent-based method). The data show that compared with the commercial kit our method obtained a higher yield of total nuclear proteins, a higher pP65 level in both control and LPS groups, and much lower content of GAPDH (as a reference for cytoplasmic contamination) in nuclei. Conclusions: The in situ isolation of nuclei or nuclear proteins from adherent cells in this study is a simple, effective method with less cytoplasmic contamination. This method/strategy has the potential of improving the quality of downstream evaluations including western blotting and proteomic profiling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the distant outer solar system, carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen (N _2 ) ices tend to be colocated in the same deposits due to their similar molecular weights and sublimation properties. For instance, these volatiles are abundant on the surfaces of Pluto and Triton, so knowledge of their phase behavior is necessary for understanding surface evolution and geology. However, it is presently unclear how mixing between CO and N _2 molecules affects the physical properties of such mixtures. Here, we measured the liquidus, solidus, and alpha–beta phase transitions for the N _2 and CO binary system. We observed the liquidus by using visual inspection. The solidus and alpha–beta transitions were measured by using Raman spectroscopy. The laboratory results were later compared to a thermodynamic model, CRYOCHEM 2.0. The liquidus and solidus were consistent with CRYOCHEM 2.0. However, the alpha–beta coexistence region is shown to be narrower in the laboratory results than in the thermodynamic model. Finally, we present a method for deriving the compositions of a sample using Raman spectroscopy (Appendices A.1 and A.2).

Much of what we know about Neptune’s moon Triton was inferred from the analysis of images returned by the Voyager 2 mission, the only spacecraft to have visited that putative ocean world. Unfortunately, the highest-resolution images (scales < 2 km pixel ^−1 ) are difficult to use because they are only available in nonstandard formats, and the locations of the images on Triton’s surface are incorrect by up to 200 km. Although image mosaics of Triton are publicly available, these do not include the highest-resolution data. Here we describe our effort to improve the usability and accessibility of Voyager 2 images of Triton. We used the USGS’s ISIS software to process 41 Triton images, including geometric calibration, radiometric calibration, and reseau removal. We improved the image locations using a photogrammetric control network with 958 points and 3910 image measurements. Least-squares bundle adjustment of the network yielded rms uncertainty of 0.50, 0.52, and 0.51 pixels in latitude, longitude, and radius, respectively, and maximum residuals of −4.21 and +3.20 pixels, respectively. Image-to-image alignment is therefore vastly improved. We have released these processed images as cloud-optimized GeoTIFFs in orthographic projection at the original pixel scale of each image. Associated mosaics have also been created and released to provide geologic context for the individual images. These products provide the science community with analysis-ready data that enable new investigations of Triton, increase accessibility to this unique data set, and continue to enhance the scientific return from the Voyager 2 mission.

Neptune’s moon Triton has two remarkable attributes: its retrograde orbit suggests that it was captured from the Kuiper Belt, and Triton has one of the youngest surfaces of all the icy satellites in the solar system. Soon after capture, Triton experienced strong diurnal tides raised by Neptune, which caused intense deformation, heating, and melting of its ice shell as its highly eccentric initial orbit was circularized. While previous studies have suggested that Triton’s orbit would have circularized early in solar system history, we show that internal feedbacks between tidal heating and ice shell melting significantly reduce the orbital evolution rate, causing strong tidal heating to persist for billions of years. We simulate Triton’s post-capture evolution over a range of initial semimajor axes and ice shell properties. We find that Triton’s ice shell would have been extremely thin (1–10 km) for a period of 1–4 billion years, with tidal stresses strong enough to fracture the entire ice shell down to the subsurface ocean. A final phase of intense geologic activity may have occurred after tidal dissipation waned, in which late-stage ice shell thickening caused ocean pressurization potentially sufficient to refracture the ice shell and push water to the surface. Such overpressurization could have caused recent massive cryovolcanic resurfacing, perhaps explaining Triton’s geologically young surface. It is therefore possible that Triton’s youthful surface and its origin as a captured satellite may in fact be related. A long-lived subsurface ocean and extended thin ice shell period also greatly increase Triton’s astrobiological potential.

In this article, we summarize the work of the NASA Outer Planets Assessment Group (OPAG) Roadmaps to Ocean Worlds (ROW) group. The aim of this group is to assemble the scientific framework that will guide the exploration of ocean worlds, and to identify and prioritize science objectives for ocean worlds over the next several decades. The overarching goal of an Ocean Worlds exploration program as defined by ROW is to "identify ocean worlds, characterize their oceans, evaluate their habitability, search for life, and ultimately understand any life we find." The ROW team supports the creation of an exploration program that studies the full spectrum of ocean worlds, that is, not just the exploration of known ocean worlds such as Europa but candidate ocean worlds such as Triton as well. The ROW team finds that the confirmed ocean worlds Enceladus, Titan, and Europa are the highest priority bodies to target in the near term to address ROW goals. Triton is the highest priority candidate ocean world to target in the near term. A major finding of this study is that, to map out a coherent Ocean Worlds Program, significant input is required from studies here on Earth; rigorous Research and Analysis studies are called for to enable some future ocean worlds missions to be thoughtfully planned and undertaken. A second finding is that progress needs to be made in the area of collaborations between Earth ocean scientists and extraterrestrial ocean scientists.

Objectives: To evaluate the efficacy of multi-functional root canal irrigating solutions in the removal of canal wall smear layers, antibacterial activity, cytotoxicity, and tissue dissolution efficacy., Methods: Forty single-rooted teeth were mechanically instrumented and irrigated with Triton, EndoJuice™, EDTA, and 0.9 % saline. Each tooth was evaluated for smear layer removal using scanning electron microscopy. Antibacterial activity of the irrigants was assessed against Enterococcus faecalis biofilms using colony-forming unit analysis. Neutral red, clonogenic, and cytokinesis-block micronucleus assays were performed on Chinese hamster V79 cells to evaluate the short-term and long-term cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of the irrigants. Tissue dissolution efficacy was tested on shrimp meat placed in resorptive cavities prepared in root canals., Results: EndoJuice™ and EDTA showed better smear layer removal than Triton in the coronal-third and middle-third of the canal walls. There was no significant difference between EndoJuice™ and EDTA. In the apical-third, EndoJuice™ removed the smear layer more effectively than EDTA and Triton. Specimens treated with saline were heavily smeared. Triton and sodium hypochlorite were similar in reducing intracanal E. faecalis counts, while specimens treated with EndoJuice™ had higher colony-forming units compared to Triton or sodium hypochlorite. EndoJuice™ was less cytotoxic and genotoxic compared to Triton. Sodium hypochlorite dissolved the most soft tissue, followed by Triton and EndoJuice™., Conclusion: EndoJuice™ was less toxic and more effective in smear layer removal. Triton demonstrated better antimicrobial activity and tissue dissolution efficacy., Clinical Significance: Evaluating the smear layer removal, antibacterial activity, toxicity, and tissue dissolution abilities of multi-functional root canal irrigants is essential to ensure their effectiveness and safety for clinical use in root canal treatment., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Standard irrigating protocols during root canal treatment call for the use of sodium hypochlorite during chemo-mechanical preparation, followed by final irrigation with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA). This study determined the effectiveness of a new irrigant, Triton (Brasseler, USA), on smear layer removal during root canal treatment compared to that of 5.25% sodium hypochlorite and CanalPro EDTA 17% (Coltene)., Methodology: Twenty-one extracted anterior teeth were prepared for root canal treatment. The teeth were divided into three groups: five teeth were used as control with saline as the irrigant, eight teeth with sodium hypochlorite and 17% EDTA as irrigants, and eight teeth with Triton as the irrigant. Root canal preparation was done using the XP-3D shaper and finisher files (Brasseler, USA) for all teeth with respective irrigants. A single operator performed all root canal treatment procedures. The teeth were prepared for scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and analysis was performed by a second investigator. The smear layer removal was qualitatively assessed to determine the effectiveness of irrigants., Results: Smear layer removal was most effective for teeth irrigated with 5.25% sodium hypochlorite, followed by 17% EDTA (Group B). Teeth irrigated with Triton (Group A) showed a similar appearance to the hypochlorite/EDTA group but with isolated instances of inter-tubular debris., Conclusion: Sodium hypochlorite use followed by a final rinse with EDTA remains the gold standard for the removal of the smear layer created during canal instrumentation., Competing Interests: Human subjects: All authors have confirmed that this study did not involve human participants or tissue. Animal subjects: All authors have confirmed that this study did not involve animal subjects or tissue. Conflicts of interest: In compliance with the ICMJE uniform disclosure form, all authors declare the following: Payment/services info: All authors have declared that no financial support was received from any organization for the submitted work. Financial relationships: All authors have declared that they have no financial relationships at present or within the previous three years with any organizations that might have an interest in the submitted work. Other relationships: All authors have declared that there are no other relationships or activities that could appear to have influenced the submitted work., (Copyright © 2024, Bandoo et al.)

Background: There is a growing global awareness to the hazards of obesity. The obese patients are much more liable to many serious diseases including liver failure. The aim of work: was to study light and electron microscopic changes of the liver, as well as, the liver enzymes in the experimentally obese albino rats. Methodology: Sixty male albino rats were divided to 3 groups: 1- control group: was fed standard laboratory diet for 4 weeks. 2- Obese group: were given one intraperitoneal injection of Triton WR 1339 to induce obesity and fed normal laboratory diet for 4 weeks. 3- Recovery group: similar to obese group but left for additional 4 weeks for recovery. The weights of animals were recorded, blood samples were collected for liver enzymes (ALT, AST and GGT) and the livers were weighted. Liver samples were fixed in glutaraldehyde for EM examination; and other samples were fixed in 10% formol saline then stained by H&E, Mallory trichrome and PAS stains for LM examination. Results: Obese animals had significantly higher body weights, liver weights, and liver enzymes than the control group. Histologically, there was a non-significant increase in the collagen area of obese group. There was a highly significant reduction in the optical density of glycogen in the obese group. However, the optical density in the recovery group was lower than that of control group. Conclusion: obesity may induce several abnormal changes in the hepatocytes, and inflammation similar to steatosis or steatohepatitis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many moons in the solar system are thought to potentially harbor hidden oceans based on the features observed at their surfaces. However, the magnetic induction signatures measured in the vicinity of these moons provide the most compelling evidence for the presence of a subsurface ocean, specifically for the Jovian moons Europa and Callisto. Interpretation of these magnetic signatures can be challenging due to the various systematic and random sources of noise that are present in the magnetic field measurement. In this work, a novel magnetometric ocean detection methodology based on Principal Component Analysis is presented and shown to provide enhanced discrimination and geophysical characterization of ocean properties in the presence of noise and error sources. The proposed methodology is robust for a single‐encounter mission or an orbiting mission with multiple flybys. Here, it is applied to the Neptunian moon Triton as a prime example of an active, potential ocean world residing in the requisite time‐varying magnetic field environment that enables magnetic induction investigation of its interior. In addition to the usual noise sources, other confounding factors are addressed, including the presence of an intense conductive ionosphere, the small amplitude of Neptune's driving magnetic field, and the uncertainty of Neptune's magnetic phase at the time‐of‐arrival which can potentially hinder accurate ocean detection and characterization. The proposed methodology is applicable to any moon in the solar system residing in a time‐varying magnetic field environment. Plain Language Summary: The search for habitable oceans in the solar system motivates the need for advances in analytic techniques to positively determine the presence of subsurface oceans in challenging environments. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) method described in this article is a new paradigm for processing space‐based magnetic field measurements for definitive detection and constrained characterization of subsurface oceans. Using Neptune's largest moon Triton as an example ocean world, PCA is directly applied to a three‐axis magnetic field data set and shown to be a powerful ocean classification tool for a single or multiple flybys, even in the presence of Triton's highly conducting ionosphere which can mask the magnetic response from the ocean. The method is able to reliably distinguish between the magnetic field signatures associated with the ocean‐plus‐ionosphere and ionosphere‐only model classes and can further determine key characteristics of the hidden ocean in the face of the confounding factors of a conductive ionosphere, local plasma current perturbations, spacecraft timing and position uncertainties, data outages, and various sources of instrument noise. The flexibility and extensibility afforded by the PCA‐based method enhance the existing and future capabilities for ocean detection and characterization at candidate ocean worlds throughout the solar system. Key Points: A novel sub‐surface ocean detection and characterization method has been developed based on Principal Component Analysis processing of magnetic induction dataEnables differentiation between ocean‐plus‐ionosphere and ionosphere‐only induction responses in the presence of various noise sourcesApplied here to the compelling target of Triton, thought to possibly harbor a sub‐surface ocean beneath a highly conducting ionosphere [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Many moons in the solar system are thought to potentially harbor hidden oceans based on the features observed at their surfaces. However, the magnetic induction signatures measured in the vicinity of these moons provide the most compelling evidence for the presence of a subsurface ocean, specifically for the Jovian moons Europa and Callisto. Interpretation of these magnetic signatures can be challenging due to the various systematic and random sources of noise that are present in the magnetic field measurement. In this work, a novel magnetometric ocean detection methodology based on Principal Component Analysis is presented and shown to provide enhanced discrimination and geophysical characterization of ocean properties in the presence of noise and error sources. The proposed methodology is robust for a single‐encounter mission or an orbiting mission with multiple flybys. Here, it is applied to the Neptunian moon Triton as a prime example of an active, potential ocean world residing in the requisite time‐varying magnetic field environment that enables magnetic induction investigation of its interior. In addition to the usual noise sources, other confounding factors are addressed, including the presence of an intense conductive ionosphere, the small amplitude of Neptune's driving magnetic field, and the uncertainty of Neptune's magnetic phase at the time‐of‐arrival which can potentially hinder accurate ocean detection and characterization. The proposed methodology is applicable to any moon in the solar system residing in a time‐varying magnetic field environment.

Triton is the largest moon of the Neptune system and possesses a thin nitrogen atmosphere with trace amounts of carbon monoxide and methane, making it of similar composition to that of the dwarf planet Pluto. Like Pluto and Saturn's moon Titan, Triton has a haze layer thought to be composed of organics formed through photochemistry. Here, we perform atmospheric chamber experiments of 0.5% CO and 0.2% CH4 in N2 at 90 K and 1 mbar to generate Triton haze analogs. We then characterize the physical and chemical properties of these particles. We measure their production rate, their bulk composition with combustion analysis, their molecular composition with very high resolution mass spectrometry, and their transmission and reflectance from the optical to the near‐infrared with Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy. We compare these properties to existing measurements of Triton's tenuous atmosphere and surface, as well as contextualize these results in view of all the small, hazy, nitrogen‐rich worlds of our solar system. We find that carbon monoxide present at greater mixing ratios than methane in the atmosphere can lead to significantly oxygen‐ and nitrogen‐rich haze materials. These Triton haze analogs have clear observable signatures in their near‐infrared spectra, which may help us differentiate the mechanisms behind haze formation processes across diverse solar system bodies. Plain Language Summary: Triton is the largest moon of the outer planet Neptune. It has a very thin atmosphere made of similar gases to the atmospheres of the dwarf planet Pluto and Saturn's moon Titan. Sunlight or high energy particles can break apart the molecules that make up these gases, which can then react to form solid particles, called hazes. We made haze particles in an atmospheric chamber under Triton‐like temperature (90 K) and atmospheric composition (small amounts of carbon monoxide and methane in molecular nitrogen), and then measured the chemical and physical properties of the resulting material. We compare our results to similar measurements of laboratory materials made for Pluto and Titan. Our results show larger oxygen and nitrogen contents for these Triton particles, suggesting that increasing carbon monoxide in the atmosphere changes the chemistry of hazes. Within the laboratory hazes, we see signatures of molecular bonds containing oxygen in the near‐infrared, which might be useful for identifying these species with future observations of or missions to Triton. Key Points: Multiple solar system bodies have complex photochemical hazes which derive from their nitrogen and carbon‐rich atmospheresWe generate and measure the properties of analog hazes ("tholin") specific to Triton‐like composition and temperatureDespite other similarities, Triton tholin are much more strongly oxygenated and slightly more nitrogenated than Titan and Pluto tholin [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tilt between Neptune's magnetic and rotational axes, along with Triton's orbital obliquity, causes a strong time variability of the moon's local electromagnetic environment. To constrain Triton's interaction with the ambient magnetospheric plasma, we apply a hybrid (kinetic ions, fluid electrons) model including the moon's ionosphere and induced field. To represent the extremes in the changes to the local electromagnetic field over a synodic rotation, we consider two orientations between the ambient magnetic field and flow velocity. For each, we first investigate the (analytical) magnetic signatures associated with the superposition of Triton's induced field and the magnetospheric field in the absence of any plasma interaction effects. To constrain the effect of Triton's ionosphere on the currents, we model the interaction between the ionospheric and magnetospheric plasma in isolation from the moon's inductive response, before combining these effects to investigate the complex scenario of plasma interaction and induction. Finally, we explore the sensitivity of the plasma interaction to changes in the ambient plasma density and the strength of Triton's inductive response. Despite plasma interaction signatures that dominate the plasma perturbations far from the moon (beyond ∼3 Triton radii), we illustrate that the induced field is clearly discernible within ∼3 Triton radii, regardless of the moon's location within Neptune's magnetosphere. We find that the orientation of the magnetospheric field and velocity vectors strongly affects Triton's plasma interaction; at times, resembling those of Jupiter's or Saturn's moons, while at others, revealing unprecedented signatures that are likely unique to moons of the ice giants. Key Points: We constrain the time variability in signatures associated with plasma interaction and induction at Triton, Neptune's largest moonDespite the presence of plasma currents far from the moon, Triton's induced field dominates the near‐surface magnetic field perturbationsThe tilt of Neptune's magnetic and rotation axes generates a plasma wake that is strongly displaced out of Triton's geometric plasma shadow [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ocean worlds, or icy bodies in the outer solar system that have or once had subsurface liquid water oceans, are among the most compelling topics of astrobiology. Typically, confirming the existence of a subsurface ocean requires close spacecraft observations. However, combining our understanding of the chemistry that takes place in a subsurface ocean with our knowledge of the building blocks that formed potential ocean worlds provides an opportunity to identify tracers of endogenic activity in the surface volatiles of Pluto and Triton. We show here that the current composition of the volatiles on the surfaces and in the atmospheres of Pluto and Triton are deficient in carbon, which can only be explained by the loss of CH _4 through a combination of aqueous chemistry and atmospheric processes. Furthermore, we find that the relative nitrogen and water abundances are within the range observed in building block analogs, comets, and chondrites. A lower limit for N/Ar in Pluto’s atmosphere also suggests source building blocks that have a cometary or chondritic composition, all pointing to an origin for their nitrogen as NH _3 or organics. Triton’s lower abundance of CH _4 compared to Pluto, and the detection of CO _2 at Triton but not at Pluto points to aqueous chemistry in a subsurface ocean that was more efficient at Triton than Pluto. These results have applications to other large Kuiper Belt objects as well as the assessment of formation locations and times for the four giant planets given future probe measurements of noble gas abundances and isotope ratios.

We investigate the origins of Triton’s deformed and young surface. Assuming Triton was captured early in solar system history, the bulk of the energy released during capture will have been lost, and cannot be responsible for its present-day activity. Radiogenic heating is sufficient to maintain a long-lived ocean beneath a conductive ice shell, but insufficient to cause convective deformation and yielding at the surface. However, Triton’s high inclination likely causes a significant ( 0.7) obliquity, resulting in large heat fluxes due to tidal dissipation in any subsurface ocean. For a 300 km thick ice shell, the estimated ocean heat production rate (0.3 TW) is capable of producing surface yielding and mobile-lid convection. Requiring convection places an upper bound on the ice shell viscosity, while the requirement for yielding imposes a lower bound. Both bounds can be satisfied with an ocean temperature 240 K for our nominal temperature-viscosity relationship, suggesting the presence of an antifreeze such as NH3. In our view, Triton’s geological activity is driven by obliquity tides, which arise because of its inclination. In contrast, Pluto is unlikely to be experiencing significant tidal heating. While Pluto may have experienced ancient tectonic deformation, we do not anticipate seeing the kind of young, deformed surfaces seen at Triton.

Surfactant aids boiling enhancement, but the related mechanism is not yet comprehensively understood. For mechanism investigation on surfactant molecule, most of existing studies focused on its hydrophobic part, while research on hydrophilic part is scarce. In this paper, a group of non-ionic Triton surfactants with same functional group but different hydrophilic chain lengths were experimentally tested for pool boiling on flat copper. At critical micelle concentration (CMC), long-chain Tx-405 exhibited higher heat transfer coefficient (97.4 kW/(m2·K)) than Tx-100 (77.1 kW/(m2·K)) and Tx-114 (77.4 kW/(m2·K)). Long-term test indicated a gradually deteriorating trend of heat transfer performance from days on. Solution properties and bubble dynamics were measured. At low concentration, surfactant with shorter hydrophilic chain has better heat transfer performance due to greater surface tension reduction. The increase of hydrophilic chain length improves water affinity of surfactant and thus leads to higher CMC. If there is no restriction for surfactant concentration, a longer hydrophilic chain is favorable for higher heat transfer coefficient at CMC. The results in this paper provide insights for mechanism investigation on surfactant, promote further design of new surfactant, and contribute to the prediction of heat transfer enhancement effect. • Nucleate pool boiling of Triton surfactant solutions on flat copper was experimented. • Bubble behaviors during boiling and related solution properties were measured. • At CMC, Tx-405 with longer hydrophilic chain showed higher HTC of 97.37 kW/(m2·K). • At low concentration, Tx-114 with shorter hydrophilic chain was favorable. • Heat transfer enhancement mechanism regarding hydrophilic chain length was discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Signals from global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs) have been advocated as opportunities for remote sensing of the Earth. In the multi-GNSS era, signals from different constellation, at different frequency, and under different modulation are available to facilitate such applications. Existing open service GNSS signals can be roughly categorized as either binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) modulation or binary offset carrier (BOC) modulation; it is desired to establish a unified data processing procedure to account for all these signals. This article proposes a framework to synergize BPSK and BOC signals for GNSS reflectometry (GNSS-R) applications by establishing a channel response function to model the scattering phenomena and a commutative diagram to illustrate the interrelationship among direct and reflected signals under different modulations. The results are verified by processing the flight test data of the GNSS-R receiver of the TRITON mission.

Tidal heating plays a significant role in the evolution of many satellites in the outer Solar System; however, it is unclear whether tidal dissipation in a global liquid ocean can represent a significant additional heat source. Tyler (Tyler, R.H. [2008]. Nature 456, 770-772; Tyler, R.H. [2009]. Geophys. Res. Lett. 36, doi:10.1029/2009GL038300) suggested that obliquity tides could drive large-scale flow in the oceans of Europa and Enceladus, leading to significant heating. A critical unknown in this previous work is what the tidal quality factor, Q, of such an ocean should be. The corresponding tidal dissipation spans orders of magnitude depending on the value of Q assumed. To address this issue we adopt an approach employed in terrestrial ocean modeling, where a significant portion of tidal dissipation arises due to bottom drag, with the drag coefficient O (0.001) being relatively well-established. From numerical solutions to the shallow-water equations including nonlinear bottom drag, we obtain scalings for the equivalent value of Q as a function of this drag coefficient. In addition, we provide new scaling relations appropriate for the inclusion of ocean tidal heating in thermal-orbital evolution models. Our approach is appropriate for situations in which the ocean bottom topography is much smaller than the ocean thickness. Using these novel scalings, we calculate the ocean contribution to the overall thermal energy budgets for many of the outer Solar System satellites. Although uncertainties such as ocean thickness and satellite obliquity remain, we find that for most satellites it is unlikely that ocean tidal dissipation is important when compared to either radiogenic or solid-body tidal heating. Of known satellites, Triton is the most likely icy satellite to have ocean tidal heating play a role in its present day thermal budget and long-term thermal evolution. © 2013 Elsevier Inc.

Yifan Lu,1,2,* Jay C Wang,1–3,* Rebecca Zeng,2 Raviv Katz,2 Demetrios G Vavvas,2,3 Joan W Miller,2,3 John B Miller1–3 1Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Ma, USA; 2Harvard Retinal Imaging Laboratory, Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Boston, Ma, USA; 3Retina Service, Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA*These authors contributed equally to this workCorrespondence: John B MillerRetina Service, Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, 243 Charles St, Boston, MA 02114, USATel +1 617 573 3750Fax +1 617 573 3698Email john_miller@meei.harvard.eduPurpose: Optical coherence tomography angiography (OCT-A) has emerged as a novel tool for the non-invasive imaging and evaluation of the retinal microvasculature. There is little existing literature that compares OCT-A microvasculature metrics across different OCT-A devices in chorioretinal diseases. Herein, we examined these metrics on three available OCT-A platforms.Patients and methods: All subjects were scanned on each of three OCT-A devices: Optovue Avanti Angiovue, Topcon DRI-OCT Triton Swept-Source OCT, and Zeiss Cirrus 5000-HD-OCT Angioplex. Two investigators independently measured foveal avascular zone (FAZ) area. Superficial capillary plexus (SCP) and deep capillary plexus (DCP) vessel densities (VD) were calculated from binarized images with ImageJ software. Image quality across devices was qualitatively compared. Interclass correlation coefficient (ICC), Bland-Altman analysis, repeated measures ANOVA, and post-hoc tests were performed for statistical analysis.Results: Thirteen eyes of seven patients with chorioretinal diagnoses were reviewed. ICC for FAZ measurement was 0.95. There was no significant difference in FAZ area across the three devices (p= 0.792). There was a significant difference in the SCP VD between the OCT-A devices (Triton 0.344 ± 0.013, Angiovue 0.323 ± 0.013, Angioplex 0.367 ± 0.014, p < 0.05). Significantly greater DCP VD was observed with Angioplex (0.385 ± 0.010) in comparison to both Triton (0.331 ± 0.009) and Angiovue (0.341 ± 0.020). A comparison of image quality revealed that Angiovue gives the highest quality, followed by Angioplex and Triton.Conclusion: Core macular microvasculature metrics are now readily accessible on a variety of available OCT-A devices. While the FAZ can be reliably measured across all three devices in this study, there were significant differences for the vessel density in both the SCP and DCP. As a result, clinicians should be careful when comparing microvasculature metrics across different devices when using patient data in multicenter research investigations and clinical trials.Keywords: OCTA, Angiovue, Angioplex, Triton, Zeiss, Optovue

This paper presents an analysis of the Benchmark for Evaluation And Validation of Reactor Simulations (BEAVRS) performed using SCALE 6.1.2 and PARCS 3.2 computer codes. The benchmark specification contains a detailed design, operational data and measurements for a real 4-loop Westinghouse pressurized water reactor (PWR). The lattice physics simulations were prepared using TRITON depletion sequence and NEWT neutron transport solver (SCALE package). The 238-neutron group library based on evaluated nuclear data file – ENDF/B-VII nuclear data libraries was applied. A set of branch and burnup calculations was prepared, and group constants in the form of PMAXS files were generated with GenPMAXS. The full-core models were prepared using the PARCS nodal-diffusion core simulator. The PMAXS libraries were used with PARCS to investigate the core operation. The hot zero power measurement data, including control rod worths and critical boron concentrations, were compared using simulations, and satisfactory results were achieved. The first fuel cycle was simulated, and acceptable agreement with boron letdown curve and measurements were obtained. Finally, conclusions and recommendations for future research were presented.

Purpose: Optical coherence tomography angiography (OCT-A) is a novel imaging modality for the diagnosis of chorioretinal diseases. A number of FDA-approved OCT-A devices are currently commercially available, each with unique algorithms and scanning protocols. Although several published studies have compared different combinations of OCT-A machines, there is a lack of agreement on the consistency of measurements across OCT-A devices. Therefore, we conducted a prospective quantitative comparison of four available OCT-A platforms. Methods: Subjects were scanned on four devices: Optovue RTVue-XR, Heidelberg Spectralis OCT2 module, Zeiss Plex Elite 9000 Swept-Source OCT, and Topcon DRI-OCT Triton Swept-Source OCT. 3 mm × 3 mm images were utilized for analysis. Foveal avascular zone (FAZ) area was separately and independently measured by two investigators. Fractal dimension (FD), superficial capillary plexus (SCP), and deep capillary plexus (DCP) vessel densities (VD) were calculated from binarized images using the Fiji image processing software. SCP and DCP VD were further calculated after images were skeletonized. Repeated measures ANOVA, post hoc tests, and interclass correlation coefficient (ICC) were performed for statistical analysis. Results: Sixteen healthy eyes from sixteen patients were scanned on the four devices. Images of five eyes from the Triton device were excluded due to poor image quality; thus, the authors performed two sets comparisons, one with and one without the Triton machine. FAZ area showed no significant difference across devices with an ICC of > 95%. However, there were statistically significant differences for SCP and DCP VD both before and after skeletonization (p < 0.05). Fractal analysis revealed no significant difference of FD at the SCP; however, a statistically significant difference was found for FD at the DCP layer (p < 0.05). Conclusions: The results showed that FAZ measurements were consistent across all four devices, while significant differences in VD and FD measurements existed. Therefore, we suggest that for both clinical follow-up and research studies, FAZ area is a useful parameter for OCT-A image analysis when measurements are made on different machines, while VD and FD show significant variability when measured across devices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Viral hepatitis is growing into an epidemic illness, and it is urgent to neutralize the main culprit, hepatitis B virus (HBV), a small-enveloped retrotranscribing DNA virus. An intriguing observation in HB virion morphogenesis is that capsids with immature genomes are rarely enveloped and secreted. This prompted, in 1982, the postulate that a regulated conformation switch in the capsid triggers envelopment. Using solid-state NMR, we identified a stable alternative conformation of the capsid. The structural variations focus on the hydrophobic pocket of the core protein, a hot spot in capsid-envelope interactions. This structural switch is triggered by specific, high-affinity binding of a pocket factor. The conformational change induced by the binding is reminiscent of a maturation signal. This leads us to formulate the "synergistic double interaction" hypothesis, which explains the regulation of capsid envelopment and indicates a concept for therapeutic interference with HBV envelopment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neptune's moon Triton is among the Solar System's most geologically active bodies, allowing for study of its internal dynamics through surface features. Here, I consider whether the unusually great extent of its nitrogen ice cap constrains its geothermal heat. I find that viscous spreading alone can result in a hemispheric‐scale ice sheet, which only yields a loose constraint on geothermal heat flow ≥2 mW/m2. However, if the ice cap's great extent is additionally aided by basal melting, heat flow would be constrained between 5 and 18 mW/m2. This latter range would require a significant heat source beyond radiogenic heating and be sufficient to drive vigorous geological activity, providing an explanation for the moon's youthful surface and strengthening the case for Triton as an ocean world. High‐resolution images and topographic data from a new spacecraft mission at Triton would allow for testing of these possibilities and constraints on the moon's internal heat. Plain Language Summary: Triton is the largest moon of Neptune and one of the objects in the Solar System thought to be an "ocean world," but relatively little is known about it because the only spacecraft to visit Triton was Voyager 2 in 1989. One way to learn about a world's interior is through its surface features. Here, I use computer models to test whether Triton's internal heat controls the size of its largest surface feature: a huge polar ice cap of solid nitrogen ice. I find that the polar ice cap could have attained its great extent either from ice flowing outward and/or from ice melting at its bottom. Both processes could prevent the ice from growing vertically, forcing it to grow laterally instead. Only a small amount of heat sourced from Triton's interior is required for ice flow, but more heat is required for basal melting and would likely power other recent geological activity. This internal heat would be most easily explained if Triton has a subsurface ocean and experiences significant heating as a result of its orbit around Neptune. A new spacecraft mission to the Neptune system would be needed to test these ideas convincingly and estimate Triton's internal heat. Key Points: Viscous flow of solid nitrogen on Triton can explain its unusually large ice cap, which would imply a geothermal heat flux ≥2 mW/m2Basal melting of nitrogen ice is plausible, which would imply a geothermal heat flux of 5–18 mW/m2, sufficient to drive endogenic activityNew image and topography data at Triton would allow for precise estimates of its internal heat through study of its surface features [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present OSS (Outer Solar System) mission continues a long and bright tradition by associating the communities of fundamental physics and planetary sciences in a single mission with ambitious goals in both domains. OSS is an M-class mission to explore the Neptune system almost half a century after the flyby of the Voyager 2 spacecraft. Several discoveries were made by Voyager 2, including the Great Dark Spot (which has now disappeared) and Triton's geysers. Voyager 2 revealed the dynamics of Neptune's atmosphere and found four rings and evidence of ring arcs above Neptune. Benefiting from a greatly improved instrumentation, a mission as OSS would result in a striking advance in the study of the farthest planet of the solar system. Furthermore, OSS would provide a unique opportunity to visit a selected Kuiper Belt object subsequent to the passage of the Neptunian system. OSS would help consolidate the hypothesis of the origin of Triton as a Kuiper Belt object captured by Neptune, and to improve our knowledge on the formation of the solar system. The OSS probe would carry instruments allowing precise tracking of the spacecraft during the cruise. It would facilitate the best possible tests of the laws of gravity in deep space. These objectives are important for fundamental physics, as they test General Relativity, our current theoretical description of gravitation, but also for cosmology, astrophysics and planetary science, as General Relativity is used as a tool in all these domains. In particular, the models of solar system formation uses General Relativity to describe the crucial role of gravity. OSS is proposed as an international cooperation between ESA and NASA, giving the capability for ESA to launch an M-class mission towards the farthest planet of the solar system, and to a Kuiper Belt object. The proposed mission profile would allow to deliver a 500 kg class spacecraft. The design of the probe is mainly constrained by the deep space gravity test in order to minimize the perturbation of the accelerometer measurement. © 2012 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

Abstract The outer Solar System has many bodies of interest that have continued to captivate the planetary science community, recently Triton, a captured Kuiper belt object (KBO) of Neptune, and Pluto. Limited fly‐by observational data shows evidence that nitrogen is the dominant constituent on these two bodies, potentially also existing on other KBOs as well. Current simulations related to answering fundamental science questions and also to develop future mission science packages and vehicles require accurate, reliable thermodynamic, and mechanical property data of solid and gaseous nitrogen at relevant surface and atmospheric conditions. This paper thus presents an exhaustive review of all available experimental N2 property data dating back to 1887. Each historical study is systematically analyzed and summarized and then the consolidated database is assembled. Comments are made on the validity of data sets, with an emphasis on specific heat capacity at constant pressure and constant volume (CP, Cv), thermal conductivity (κ), volume thermal expansion (αV), density (ρ), equilibrium vapor pressure (Pvap), heat of sublimation (ΔHS), heat of transition (ΔHT), Gruneisen parameter (γG), adiabatic and isothermal compressibility (xS, xT) and moduli of elasticity (C11, C12, C13, C33, C44). Results here can be used directly and immediately to perform new simulations on N2‐based bodies as well as to determine gaps in the consolidated database for future experiments.

Mastitis is the inflammation of the udder characterized by pathological changes in the mammary gland tissue. The most common treatment regimen involves administration of antibiotics depending upon culture and antibiotic sensitivity test. Culture and antibiotic sensitivity testing requires a minimum of 2-3 days, thus search for alternative tests to quicken identification of causative agent has gained lot of focus. In mastitis, milk is the ideal sample for the identification of causative agents as well as for performing DNA based tests such as PCR. Milk though easy to collect, harbour certain inhibitors affecting isolation of DNA. Also, the DNA extracted might contain certain associated ions which interfere in PCR. In the present study, DNA was extracted from milk by initially treating it with SDS and triton and later DNA was extracted using standard phenol chloroform method (M1). The efficiency of extraction by this method (M1) was compared with that of a kit (Power food microbial DNA isolation kit) based method (M2). The DNA extracted from both the methods was evaluated and compared among each other using genus specific PCR for E. coli, Klebsiella spp., Staphylococcus spp. and Streptococcus spp. along with various antibiotic resistance genes present in these bacteria. From the study, it could be concluded that DNA could be extracted successfully using SDS and triton method directly from the milk more efficiently and is cost effective when compared with kit-based method.

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The outer Solar System has many bodies of interest that have continued to captivate the planetary science community, recently Triton, a captured Kuiper belt object (KBO) of Neptune, and Pluto. Limited fly‐by observational data shows evidence that nitrogen is the dominant constituent on these two bodies, potentially also existing on other KBOs as well. Current simulations related to answering fundamental science questions and also to develop future mission science packages and vehicles require accurate, reliable thermodynamic, and mechanical property data of solid and gaseous nitrogen at relevant surface and atmospheric conditions. This paper thus presents an exhaustive review of all available experimental N2 property data dating back to 1887. Each historical study is systematically analyzed and summarized and then the consolidated database is assembled. Comments are made on the validity of data sets, with an emphasis on specific heat capacity at constant pressure and constant volume (CP, Cv), thermal conductivity (κ), volume thermal expansion (αV), density (ρ), equilibrium vapor pressure (Pvap), heat of sublimation (ΔHS), heat of transition (ΔHT), Gruneisen parameter (γG), adiabatic and isothermal compressibility (xS, xT) and moduli of elasticity (C11, C12, C13, C33, C44). Results here can be used directly and immediately to perform new simulations on N2‐based bodies as well as to determine gaps in the consolidated database for future experiments. Plain Language Summary: The outer solar system has been of significant interest to the scientific community recently, particularly objects found in or were from the region of space that surrounds our solar system (the Kuiper belt). Many of the objects such as Neptune's moon Triton, and the dwarf planet Pluto have been shown in many studies to have significant amounts of nitrogen. Since there is interest in these objects, many members in the scientific community will likely conduct more studies for these worlds to answer scientific questions about them. Nitrogen is a primary component and as such, a thorough understanding of both thermal and mechanical properties of both nitrogen ice and nitrogen gas would be valuable to have for these studies. Because of this, a thorough search for measured nitrogen ice and gas property data has been carried out reviewing papers made recently to papers published more than a century ago. The data for each property was compiled with comments made to the validity to any questionable data that were not in agreement with data from other authors. The results here can be used directly in any new studies on nitrogen‐based worlds as well as determine any missing gaps in the property data as functions of temperature that could be measurable regions of interest for future property experiments. Key Points: An exhaustive literature review is conducted for cryogenic nitrogen property data relevant to outer solar system bodiesSeventy sources dating back to 1887 were collected and surveyedThe new consolidated database consists of 1,521 nitrogen property data points [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The issue of magicity of 1442Si28 has been a contentious one. Fridmann et al., through studies of two-proton knockout reaction 1644S28 → 1442Si28, presented strong evidence in support of magicity and sphericity of 1442Si28. However in complete conflict with this, Bastin et al., gave equally strong empirical evidence, to show that the N = 28 magicity had completely collapsed in 1442Si28 to make it well deformed. The consensus at present though is in favour of the validity of the latter experiment. However, our QCD based theoretical model supports the result of Fridmann experiment. They had explored the amazing persistence of the unique exotic nucleus 1442Si28 as a stable structure within the nucleus 2048Ca28; even after stripping off six-protons through the isotonic chain: 2048Ca28 → 1846Ar28 → 1644S28 → 1442Si28. Thus it is the novel and unexpected stability of proton shell closure at Z=14 in 1442Si28, which is playing such a dominant role in ensuring its magicity, while the neutron magic number N = 28, goes into hiding or actually disappears. Recently, SAA has shown that the fusion experiment of a beam of halo nucleus 6He with the target nucleus 238U, actually provided strong evidence that the "core" of the halo nucleus has the structure of a tennis-ball (bubble) like nucleus, with a "hole" at the centre of its density distribution. This provides us with clear-cut support for our Quantum Chromodynamics based model of clusters of tritons in neutron-rich nuclei. Here we show that our QCD based model, provides support to Fridmann et al., showing that, 1442Si28 has a spherically magic structure of 14 1³H2 (14-tritons) with a tennis-ball (bubble) like structure with "hidden" N=28 neutrons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zusammenfassung Die Eismonde von Uranus, Neptun und Pluto wurden bislang nur von zwei Raumsonden erforscht: Voyager 2 und New Horizons. Ihre Aufnahmen zeigen eine große Vielfalt an Oberflächenformationen. Diese Eismonde weisen Ähnlichkeiten mit denen von Jupiter und Saturn auf. So gibt es offensichtlich auch im äußersten Bereich des Sonnensystems Kryovulkanismus. Auch Dehnungsstrukturen und mögliche Auswirkungen von planetaren Kollisionen sind erkennbar. Mehr als 50 Jahre nach Voyager 2 gibt es Pläne für eine neue Mission ins Uranus‐ und Neptunsystem. Noch weitgehend unerforscht sind die Zwergplaneten und kleineren Körper im Kuiper‐Gürtel. Der Vorbeiflug an Pluto und Charon im Juli 2015 war ein erster Blick in diese noch sehr fremde Welt. Entwürfe für weitere Missionen in den Kuiper‐Gürtel, zumindest seitens der NASA, existieren bereits auf dem Reißbrett für die Zeit nach 2040. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]