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The study reported on here was conducted to explore four Grade 7 mathematics teachers' understanding of the relationship between the objectives indicated in the CAPS for teaching different topics/concepts and instructional time stipulated for doing so. Seven lessons were studied in 4 primary schools in the Vhembe district of the Limpopo province, South Africa. A constructivist philosophical approach was used. The data collection methods included interviews and classroom observations. The main finding indicates teachers' understanding of instructional time as either a regulatory or a teaching tool. The ability to translate instructional time into social time depends on the level of teachers' curriculum literacy. Consideration of how CAPS objectives could be fulfilled based on the topic/concept to be taught and the stipulated instructional time, influenced the learners' conceptual understanding, procedural fluency, and competency in mathematics. The conclusion underscores the importance of instructional time as both an essential authoritative regulatory tool and signal of a pedagogic device and communication required to advance the instructional objectives.

Increased time-on-task is one of the overall goals for teacher education in both Denmark and Norway. However, student teachers' time-on-task in those programs are uncertain and highly debated indicators of research input. Researchers adopt this indicator with the expectation that student teachers must invest time and effort in their courses that are approximately equivalent to that expended during a standard workweek. The purpose of this article is to analyse the differences between Danish and Norwegian teacher education for elementary schools based on a uniform survey conducted in each country; more specifically, the survey queried student teachers' time-on-task in faculty- and student faculty-led campus activities. In this empirical study, we use survey data to examine factors that influence the duration of student teachers' time-on-task in Norway (n = 274) and Denmark (n = 1224). To meet the study's objectives, we conducted an ordinary least squares regression analysis and found that student teachers' self-discipline and perceived study demands are the most important exogenous factors in the duration of their time-on-task. The analyses led us to explore their implications for the structure of teacher education programs, particularly in terms of curriculum design and the articulation of academic expectations.

Studies have indicated that the learning results are closely related to how much effort a student puts into the course and how effectively the student works with the learning material. Adequate time-on-task is crucial for student teachers because it allows them to develop their teaching skills, build strong relationships with students, adapt to classroom challenges, and ultimately become more effective educators. It is a critical component of their teacher preparation and development. Time-on-task in a teacher education program can be considered a coarse-grained measure of study intensity. The purpose of the present study is to explore factors that could explain Faroese student teachers' time-on-task. Faroese schools received a PISA shock after the millennium. As one of several measures, the teacher education institute was incorporated into the country's sole university. The results show that it is their perceptions of the study requirements in teacher education that is most strongly related to time-on-task. Further, there is a tendency towards a weaker relation between self-discipline and time-on-task. A comparison with time-on-task in the other Nordic nations shows that time-on-task is somewhat low. If this is a problem, it might be important to increase the study requirements in Faroese teacher education.

The Three Basic Dimensions model, theorizes three mediators for the effect of teaching quality dimensions on student outcomes. However, the proposed mediating paths and their effects have largely not been empirically tested. This study investigated the mediating role of depth of-processing, time-on-task, and need satisfaction between student-perceived teaching quality and student mathematics achievement and interest, expanding the TBD model to include mediation paths suggested by theories of motivation, cognition, and effort. Data from the TALIS Video Study for Germany, comprising 958 secondary school students in 41 classrooms, were used to run multilevel longitudinal and correlational mediation analyses. The results only found mediation effects at the student level; there were no mediating effects at the classroom level. Not all of the hypothesized relationships thought to exist between the mediators and achievement and interest outcomes were confirmed. The conceptual sequence of the variables, the choice of correlational vs. longitudinal evidence, and the level of analysis were all shown to have an impact on the results. The study thus confirms some of the assumptions of the TBD model, identifies new paths between teaching quality and student outcomes, and provides suggestions for how to proceed with further investigation of a model which should be expanded and more thoroughly empirically tested.

In this essay I concentrate on a distinct aspect of teaching courses online postpandemic: concrete steps both to ease workload burden and to increase student learning efficacy. There are ten lessons that can facilitate moving instruction online: 1. Organize the Course in Weekly Modules; 2. Communicate on a Regular Schedule; 3. Post Key Lectures; 4. Implement Discussions; 5. Provide Frequent Feedback; 6. Solicit Student Feedback; 7. Reconsider Deadlines; 8. Use Online Assessments; 9. Experiment and Learn from Others; and 10. Proactively Seek Administrative Support. I applied these lessons to a specific course: Public Speaking. Traditionally based on face-to-face presentations, the ability to move this course online bodes well for adapting all instruction to the requirements of online learning.

With an educational issue that has caught the attention of many countries in the world (study load), a population of 8th graders from a typical Chinese metropolitan city (40,536 from 118 schools), and an advanced statistical strategy (multilevel piecewise regression), we examined whether there was a turning point in terms of the effects of study load on science achievement. We did identify a turning point for each and every measure of study load. For weekday learning on science achievement, we identified a turning point of 22.50 hr for the effects of in-school learning, 7.50 hr for the effects of homework, and 12 hr for the effects of after-school learning. For weekend learning on science achievement, we identified a turning point of 1.50 hr for the effects of in-school learning, 5 hr for the effects of homework, and 1 hr for the effects of after-school learning. In each case, the difference in effects before and after the turning point was statistically significant, indicating that the effects of study load on science achievement were nonlinear. All of these turning points offered important implications for science education.

Homework is a common activity among K-12 students, and numerous observational meta-analyses have confirmed the positive relationship between homework and academic performance. However, considering children's limited energy and attention, several researchers have proposed an optimum time to spend on homework. This Campbell review examines the effects of homework on academic performance among K-12 students with experimental studies and estimates the optimum time that should be spent on it.

Course-based undergraduate research experiences (CUREs) are an effective method of engaging large numbers of students in authentic research but are associated with barriers to adoption. Short CURE modules may serve as a low-barrier entryway, but their effectiveness in promoting expansion has not been studied. The Prevalence of Antibiotic Resistance in the Environment (PARE) project is a modular CURE designed to be a low-barrier gateway into CURE use. In a series of interviews, we track and characterize use of PARE in 19 PARE-interested instructors throughout the Innovation-Decision Process described by Rogers' Diffusion of Innovations theory. The majority (16/19) implement PARE at least once, and a majority of these implementers (11/16) expanded use by the final interview. Three of four cases of discontinuance were due to a disruption such as moving institutions or a change in course assignment and occurred for community college faculty. Expanders expressed fewer personal challenges than nonexpanders. Overall analysis shows that perception of barriers is nuanced and impacted by the innovation itself, the institutional context, and one's own experiences. These results suggest that a short duration, low barrier CURE can serve as a catalyst for implementation of a longer duration CURE.

Reduced hours of instruction are reported within the gross anatomy education literature. Anatomy instruction continues to be challenged with motivating and inspiring learners to value the contribution of gross anatomy knowledge to their career development alongside increased organizational demands for efficiency and effectiveness. To address these demands, this retrospective study sought to understand how the relative timing and amount of gross anatomy instruction were related to examination performance. Undergraduate and graduate students between 2018 and 2022 were assigned to three cohorts determined by enrollment in prosection-based anatomy only (n = 334), concurrent enrollment in prosection- and dissection-based anatomy in the same semester (n = 67), or consecutive enrollment in the courses one year apart (n = 43). Concurrent students had higher prosection-based anatomy examination scores than prosection-only and consecutive students. Consecutively, enrolled students outperformed concurrently enrolled students on the first two dissection examinations but showed no performance differences on the third and fourth dissection examinations. While the results on the timing and presentation of anatomical instruction were inconclusive, the results do support increased instructional time using both prosection and dissection modalities concurrently to improve performance on identification-based gross anatomy examinations.

For this pilot study, the use of the digital 3D anatomy application Complete Anatomy was evaluated as a non-mandatory additional study tool throughout the semester. The aim of the study was to investigate if the Complete Anatomy usage time had an effect on final exam grades and how the app was used post-COVID-19. This cross-sectional study asked first year bachelor/freshman university students of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Sciences to fill out a questionnaire to gauge Complete Anatomy usage time, the student's exam results, and how the app was used, for example, in relation to other study tools. A positive correlation was found between the proportion of students that passed the final exam and the number of hours of Complete Anatomy usage (r[subscript s] (4) = 0.94, p = 0.016). Compared to students who didn't use Complete Anatomy, these positive effects were observed when students used Complete Anatomy for at least 10 h (p = 0.04). The app was well-used with almost half of the respondents reporting >10 h of usage time. The results from this study provide a good overview of how and how often Complete Anatomy is used. Although a positive correlation between the hours of use and the number of passing grades was found in this pilot study, a future study to prove the causality between these two factors is warranted to further investigate the effect of Complete Anatomy as an additional non-mandatory study tool.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a technology-based self-monitoring application, I-Connect, to enhance the on-task behavior of five secondary students (ages 15-16) with autism spectrum disorder, intellectual disability, and specific learning disability during Biology instruction in a rural special education classroom. We used an A-B-A-B withdrawal design with a generalization condition. The primary dependent variable was percent of intervals with on-task behavior as measured by momentary time sampling procedures. Results indicated overall higher levels of on-task behavior for all students when using I-Connect to monitor their behavior. However, there were also high percentages of overlapping data, and student satisfaction with the application was relatively low. Students used I-Connect in an employability seminar offered at their school as a means to generalize to a different setting. We provide implications for practice in rural settings and suggestions for future research related to I-Connect. We also provide recommendations for enhancing the social validity of technology-based self-monitoring for secondary students with disabilities.

We examine the fundamental and complex role that time plays in the learning process. We begin by developing a conceptual framework to elucidate the multiple obstacles schools face in converting total time in school into active learning time. We then synthesize the causal research and document a clear positive effect of additional time on student achievement typically of small to medium magnitude depending on dosage, use, and context. Further descriptive analyses reveal how large differences in the length of the school day and year across public schools are an underappreciated dimension of educational inequality in the United States. Finally, our case study of time loss in one urban district demonstrates the potential to substantially increase instructional time within existing constraints.

Intensive interventions are time- and resource-demanding interventions designed to be implemented with a single student with unique learning needs. Economic evaluation provides a methodology for evaluating the time and material resource costs of implementing these interventions to provide detailed feasibility information for educators considering their implementation. This study presents a cost analysis of the time and materials required to implement an intensive intervention, I-Connect, and compares those costs to the reported effects, from the perspective of the intervention agent and recipient (i.e., teacher and student) using time as the primary cost metric. The results suggest the total time cost of implementing I-Connect falls within the time teachers and students are likely to have available. Furthermore, teachers will likely find I-Connect to be a cost-effective option for generating a 50% increase in on-task behavior if they have an initial 40 min of available time to become familiar with the intervention procedures, prepare the intervention, train the student to engage in self-monitoring, and initiate a 10-min session of I-Connect. Limitations and future research directions for the economic evaluation of intensive interventions are discussed.

Background: Social annotation has emerged as a promising educational technology that fosters collaborative reading and discussion of digital resources among learners. While the positive impact of social annotation on students' learning process and performance is widely acknowledged, students' behavioural patterns in social annotation are underexplored. Objectives: This study investigated patterns in students' use of annotation and response behaviours in social annotation activities. We also explored how students' performance in the behavioural, cognitive, emotional, and social dimensions varied based on their behavioural patterns. Methods: We recruited 93 undergraduates who were enrolled in an elective course at a large North American University. Students were tasked with collaboratively annotating the class readings uploaded to Perusall, a social annotation platform, over 7 weeks. We used metaclustering to determine the optimal number of clusters pertaining to student behaviours. We compared the differences among clusters across multiple performance dimensions. Results and Conclusions: Two distinct clusters were identified and defined as initiators and responders. We found that responders had significantly longer active reading time and exhibited greater social annotation effort compared to initiators. However, initiators received more peer acknowledgement, as evidenced by higher upvotes. No significant difference was found in cognitive insight between initiators and responders, but responders demonstrated significantly higher cognitive discrepancy. Additionally, there were no significant differences in positive and negative tones between initiators and responders; however, responders displayed higher levels of prosocial behaviours than initiators. This study has significant practical implications regarding promoting students' collaborative learning experience in social annotation.

Responses are slower in two-choice tasks when either a previous stimulus feature or the previous response repeats than when all features repeat or all features change. Current views of action control posit that such partial repetition costs (PRCs) index the time to update a prior "binding" between a stimulus feature and the response or to resolve processing conflicts between retrieved and current features. However, violating a heuristic that stimulus feature repetitions and changes "signal" repetitions or changes of the previous response, respectively, may also contribute to such costs. To determine whether such relational codes affect performance, we compared PRCs in two- and four-choice tasks. While a stimulus feature repetition signals a response repetition in both tasks, a stimulus feature change signals a specific alternative response only in a two-choice task. Consistent with the signaling hypothesis, we observed similar complete repetition benefits in the two- and four-choice tasks but smaller complete change benefits in the four-choice task. We also investigated whether the smaller complete change benefit in the four-choice task--that is, the signaling effect--varies with the validity of the signal in the previous trial. In all four experiments, we observed a larger signaling effect after trials in which stimulus changes or repetitions corresponded to response changes or repetitions, respectively, than after trials in which stimulus changes did not correspond with response changes. We conclude that signaling contributes to PRCs, which indicates that bindings include relational codes.

Purpose: We investigated the effectiveness of a highly individualized morphosyntactic intervention using the SHAPE CODING™ system delivered at different dosages. Method: Eight children with developmental language disorder aged 8;0-10;10 (years;months) received 10 hr of explicit individualized intervention for morphosyntax delivered in 30-min individual sessions once per week for 20 weeks. Following at least four baseline probe tests, two grammatical targets per session received explicit instruction until they reached criterion (90%), when the next target was introduced. To control for session length and teaching episode density, either both targets received 20 teaching episodes per session or one target received 10 teaching episodes and the other 30. Maintenance testing of completed targets was also carried out. Results: Scores on probe tests post-intervention were significantly higher than during the baseline phase (d = 1.6) with no change during the baseline or maintenance phases. However, progress during the intervention phase was highly significant. One participant showed significantly faster progress with intervention, while one (with the lowest attention score) made little progress. When considering progress relative to cumulative intervention sessions, progress was faster with 30 teaching episodes per session and slower with 10. However, when cumulative teaching episodes were used as the predictor, all three within-session dosages showed very similar rates of progress, with the odds of a correct response increasing by 3.9% for each teaching episode. The targets that were achieved required an average of 40-60 teaching episodes. Conclusions: With the exception of one participant, the individualized intervention was highly effective and efficient. Thus, the individualized target identification process and intervention method merit further research in a larger group of children. The cumulative number of teaching episodes per target provided across sessions appeared to be key. Thus, clinicians should aim for high teaching episode rates, particularly if the number of sessions is constrained. Otherwise, intervention scheduling can be flexible.

Various district-level factors contribute to the successful implementation of Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) in schools, a widely implemented evidence-based framework supporting students' social, emotional, and behavioral development. Prior research has identified the district PBIS coordinator as a critical factor supporting school-level PBIS implementation. However, further research is needed to clarify the functions of the district PBIS coordinator role throughout the implementation process. This pilot study developed and validated a survey instrument to clarify (a) the common functions of the district PBIS coordinator role and (b) how the common functions of district PBIS coordinators changed across the distinct implementation stages. The Kruskal-Wallis H-test was used to determine whether significant differences existed in the amount of time district PBIS coordinators spent on functions of their role by implementation stage. Results from the pilot administration conducted in the U.S. state of Michigan indicated that district PBIS coordinators initially focused time on leadership and organization functions while competency functions developed as implementation matured. The survey findings offer preliminary insights into the district PBIS coordinator role, which may help inform professional development planning at the local and state levels, technical assistance offerings, and personnel decision-making. This study also serves as a blueprint for future research.

Background: Virtual reality (VR) offers much potential for learning, but it challenges learners' orientation. Objectives: This paper investigates whether it is possible to use light or movement cues to facilitate orientation in a search task in a desktop-VR environment so that participants can better attend to the learning content presented simultaneously. Methods: In two pre-registered online experiments, we investigated the effects of cueing (light and movement) on search time, learning, and several evaluation variables. Participants were asked to find tools in a virtual workshop, while information about the respective tool was narrated. Experiment 1 (N = 60) used a within-subject design, that is, the objects were alternately highlighted by light, movement or not. For Experiment 2 (N = 159) the narration was substantially shortened, and a between-subject design was used. Cognitive load and presence were measured additionally. Results and conclusions: In Experiment 1, only the movement cue decreased search time, indicating automatic guidance of learners' attention. There was no effect of cueing on learning, which may be due to the average search time being substantially shorter than the narration, leaving sufficient time to attend to the narration exclusively. In Experiment 2 search times were significantly faster for both cueing methods, but only the light cue resulted in better learning outcomes, which could be explained by the slightly lower presence in the movement cue condition. Implications: Results imply that it is important to develop cues that automatically guide attention without reducing presence.

Increasing evidence has shown that implicit learning shapes visuospatial attention, yet how such learning interacts with top-down, goal-driven attention remains unclear. This study investigated the relationship between task goals and selection history using a location probability learning (LPL) paradigm. We tested whether a top-down spatial cue facilitates or interferes with the acquisition of implicit LPL. In a visual search task, participants were asked to give precedence to one of four, spatially cued, quadrants of the screen. Unbeknownst to them, there was an underlying uneven spatial probability in which the target appeared disproportionately often in the cued quadrant (37.5%) and a second, uncued quadrant (37.5%). To assess what participants had learned, neutral, uncued testing trials with an equal target location probability (25%) were used. Results revealed faster search times in the cued and the uncued high-probability quadrants compared to the two low-probability quadrants and these fast search times remained prevalent in the neutral testing blocks. Importantly, LPL was comparable between the cued and uncued locations in the testing blocks, suggesting that the spatial cue neither facilitated nor interfered with LPL. These results support the dual-system view of attention, revealing parallel systems supporting both goal-driven and experience-guided attention.

The assumption that honors programs are more academically challenging is rarely interrogated. Using multi-institutional, longitudinal quantitative data from a larger study, we use quasi-experimental methods to examine students' experiences of course rigor, including workload and cognitive challenge, for honors participants compared to non-participants. Honors students perceive greater workload but not cognitive challenge in their first year, especially in terms of the amount of reading and writing they are asked to do. In their fourth year, honors participants experience less cognitive challenge than non-participants. Results of subgroup analyses suggest that these differences are likely driven by students who participate in centralized honors programs rather than departmental honors as well as those attending more selective institutions, with implications for honors program instructors and administrators.

Studies have indicated that pictures in test items can impact item-solving performance, information processing (e.g., time on task) and metacognition as well as test-taking affect and motivation. The present review aims to better organize the existing and somewhat scattered research on multimedia effects in testing and problem solving while considering several potential moderators. We conducted a systematic literature search with liberal study inclusion criteria to cover the still young research field as broadly as possible. Due to the complexity and heterogeneity of the relevant studies, we present empirical findings in a narrative review style. Included studies were classified by four categories, coding the moderating function of the pictures investigated. The evaluation of 62 studies allowed for some tentative main conclusions: Decorative pictures did not appear to have a meaningful effect on test-taker performance, time on task, test-taking affect, and metacognition. Both representational and organizational pictures tended to increase performance. Representational pictures further seem to enhance test-taker enjoyment and response certainty. Regarding the contradictory effects of informational pictures on performance and time on task that we found across studies, more differentiated research is needed. Conclusions on other potential moderators at the item-level and test-taker level were often not possible due to the sparse data available. Future research should therefore increasingly incorporate potential moderators into experimental designs. Finally, we propose a simplification and extension of the functional picture taxonomy in multimedia testing, resulting in a simple hierarchical approach that incorporates several additional aspects for picture classification beyond its function.

The COVID-19 pandemic has fast-tracked the development of digital applications and inspired everyone to adapt to the technologies to curb the spread of outbreak. As this crisis intensifies, the rapid usage of digital devices and apps has echoed the serious concerns about civil liberties, privacy, and data protection. Considering the situation, this research aimed to explore the internet using habits of the youths of West Bengal, a state in eastern India, during COVID-19. Besides, the paper explored their experiences of using various digital applications, the fundamental digital literacy and how safely they protect data from breaches. Thus, the paper presents the results by conducting an online survey among the youths in West Bengal. The result, from 215 participants, highlighted that the increased use of these digital applications has not matched the demand for digital privacy literacy among the young generation of the state. While this pandemic has raised their concerns over digital privacy and data protection, yet they do not undertake any strong protection mechanisms to safeguard them digitally. Besides, this paper suggests suitable plans to raise awareness among this generation and form a healthy digital citizenship with a proper regulatory framework as it is the need of the hour.

In the current study, we used a sequential explanatory design to examine secondary writing instruction for deaf students in various school settings. An examination of secondary writing instruction was carried out in two cycles using a survey and subsequent focus group discussions. The first cycle (n = 222) presented an overview of secondary writing instruction for deaf students with diverse skill levels. The second cycle (n = 18) focused on writing instruction specific to grade-level or college-bound deaf students. We compared results from both cycles to investigate the similarities and differences in instructional practices and research needs between the two groups. We found that teachers are generally more prepared to instruct deaf students who are at grade level due to widely available curricula aligned with grade-level benchmarks. This contrasts with the challenges teachers face with creating or adapting materials for those who have experienced language deprivation. According to teachers, grade-level students receive 1.5 hr more weekly in writing instruction compared to the full sample. This study also indicates the importance of training teachers to teach skills in crafting arguments through writing, given its applicability to deaf students' future academic and personal goals.

This study investigates the impact of task-induced involvement and time on task on incidental second language (L2) vocabulary acquisition. Utilizing a 3 (task-induced involvement) × 2 (time on task) × 2 (post-test time) research design, three task-induced involvement conditions were employed based on the Involvement Load Hypothesis (ILH): reading and gap-fill task, reading and sentence-making task, and reading and translation task, with corresponding involvement load (IL) indices of 2, 3, and 4, respectively. Two time-on-task conditions were implemented: uncontrolled time on task, where participants in different groups completed tasks with varied durations, and controlled time on task, where participants in different groups completed tasks with roughly equal durations. Five intact classes comprising 256 Chinese middle school students participated and were randomly assigned to one of five designed tasks aimed at learning 10 carefully selected target words. The results of a three-way repeated measures ANOVA indicate a significant three-way interaction effect among task-induced involvement, time on task, and post-test time, as well as a significant two-way interaction effect between task-induced involvement and time on task. These findings demonstrate that task-induced involvement and time on task interact to significantly influence both initial acquisition and retention of incidental L2 vocabulary. Specifically, under uncontrolled time conditions, tasks with higher ILs and longer durations yield better initial vocabulary gains and retention, partially supporting the ILH. Conversely, under controlled time conditions, tasks with lower ILs exhibit superior initial vocabulary gains and retention, contradicting the predictions of the ILH. Relevant implications are also discussed.

This study aims to track college students' on-task rate during the teaching process and to analyze the influence of instructional strategies on on-task rate through the aspects of observable and internal engagement indicators. Thirty-six undergraduate students at a higher education institution in China participated in the study. Students' behaviors and their EEG signals were recorded from fifty-one learning activities. Analyses have been focused on identifying the determinants of student's engagement levels and revealing the impacts of behavioral sequences and cognitive sequences on student's engagement levels. The results show that: (1) instructional strategies, classroom behaviors, and cognitive states were significant predictors of students' on-task rate; (2) the continuity of classroom behaviors improved the on-task rate; and (3) the standard deviations of attention and cognitive load were positively correlated with the on-task rate. This study describes a case of integrating multimodal data analysis in classroom teaching and discusses practical implications for improving classroom teaching.

The impact of globalization and technologization has continued to reverberate in the translation industry, causing seismic changes in the translation process, output, and client expectations. Consequently, several approaches and models have been adopted to align training with these changes. Prominent among these is project-based learning, where most research has focused on collaborative practices that mirror authentic translation scenarios in the industry. However, despite the high volume of research on collaborative translation within the training environment, two significant lacunae remain perceptible--there is limited research comparing collaborative teams and individual trainees, and the use of video ethnography as a research methodology is scarce. This study intends to bridge this gap by comparing the performance of collaborative teams and individual trainees in accomplishing several computer-assisted translation (CAT) tasks. The study quantitively analyzes data from video recordings of four collaborative teams and 25 individual trainees performing three computer-assisted task blocks, eight subtasks, and three sub-subtasks. The study investigates compliance with instructions, task completion time, translation output quality, terminology research, and workspace management. The findings reveal that, to different degrees, teams and individual trainees failed to comply with instructions (even though teams spent more time working on the tasks), and teams had higher assessment scores and also enjoyed more downtime. In contrast, individual trainees had less downtime and lower average assessment scores though they consulted more terminological resources than teams. Furthermore, correlations were established between the final assessment score, task completion time, and compliance with instructions. The findings informed our practical and pedagogical reflections on CAT course design, particularly with regard to the training outcomes for collaborative teams and individual trainees.

We examined whether media use measured using time diaries is related to preschoolers' academic and social/behavioral skills. Children (N = 179) completed direct assessments of academic skills in the fall and spring, and teachers reported on social and behavioral skills. Parents/caregivers completed a 24-hr time diary in the spring, from which children's total media use, nighttime media use, educational media use, and joint media engagement were obtained. Results showed that children who had high levels of media use tended to have smaller social skill gains than children with low or moderate levels of media use. A similar effect was found for nighttime use on assertiveness. Overall, children who used more educational media tended to have larger gains in task orientation and assertiveness, whereas children who used more educational media specifically focusing on social-emotional content tended to have larger gains in task orientation and behavioral control. Children who used more entertainment media tended to have smaller gains in assertiveness, social skills, and task orientation, but these effects mostly emerged at high rather than moderate levels of use. Children who had more joint media engagement with peers tended to have smaller gains in vocabulary skills, whereas no such effect was seen for joint media engagement with adults. These findings suggest that there may be some important links between media use and children's social and behavioral skills, but that in general media use may not be overwhelmingly and uniformly harmful to young children's development.

Background: Teachers are important role players in improving literacy; however, they lack the expertise to explicitly teach reading comprehension strategies. Studies have showed that when teachers are motivated to explicitly teach reading comprehension strategies in their classrooms, learners' comprehension is improved. Objective: The aim of the study was to investigate what motivates teachers to explicitly teach reading comprehension strategies in their classrooms after a workshop. Method: Purposive sampling was used and 20 teachers took part in this study. The research followed a qualitative approach, and the data were obtained from teachers' responses to an open-ended questionnaire. Thematic analysis using concepts from Shulman's 'Pedagogical Content Knowledge', Vygotsky's 'Social Constructivism', Bundura's 'Self-efficacy' and Chalmers and Gardiner's 'Academic Professional Development Effectiveness Framework' was conducted. Results: One key finding was that teachers developed competence through effective pedagogical practices used by facilitators of the workshop; this boosted their confidence. Conclusion: The findings suggest that professional development training plays an important role in making teachers aware of reading comprehension strategies, equipping them with skills that will enable them to guide learners to become proficient readers. Contribution: The uniqueness of this study is that it hinged on collecting empirical evidence, within a South African context, on what motivates teachers to explicitly teach reading comprehension in their professional practice after being exposed to a repertoire of reading comprehension strategies during a workshop.

This paper aims to establish if any of the following characteristics are associated with a difference in student performance during the COVID-19 pandemic: online lecture attendance, study time and performance; gender, class standing "(freshman (1st year), sophomore (2nd year), junior (3rd year)and senior (4th year))" and having one's own room. A Learning Management System was used to measure students' study times and performance on the assessments. A survey instrument was used to obtain information about their gender, class standing, whether they had their own room and their perceptions of online education. The study found a positive correlation between study times and performance, except for test 1 and its study time, and a positive relationship between academic performance and having their own room. There was also a difference noted between class standing and performance, however, there was no difference based on gender in the performance of the students.

Student preferences for digital learning and the COVID-19 pandemic have increased demand for asynchronous learning activities, including pre-recorded video lectures. However, there are varying recommendations and a lack of data-driven results for how long video lectures should be. This study has two purposes: (1) To determine and understand student preferences for video length in a flipped, software-intensive modeling course for engineering undergraduate students; (2) To generate data-driven evidence of actual video coverage and video length preferences. This study examined video coverage over three consecutive semesters in a software intensive industrial engineering simulation modeling course. The first semester utilized medium-length videos (30-60 minutes) and the second semester used a mini-series of short-length (4-12 minutes) videos. In the third semester, students could choose or alternate freely between the two options. Data was collected on video coverage, student video preferences pre- and post experiment, and learning outcomes. Students expressed preferences for the mini-series of short-length videos in a pre-assessment, but data-driven evidence and post-assessment surveys confirmed that the medium-length videos were utilized significantly more. An emergent themes analysis revealed this trend was primarily because students wanted to watch the video in one sitting. Evidence of better learning outcomes based on video length was inconclusive. Results may be limited to higher education settings where modeling and programming skills are required. More investigation is needed in other educational settings.

Although language sample analysis (LSA) is considered an important tool for high-quality child language assessment, surveys have found that its use is quite limited by school-based speech-language pathologists (SLPs). Two of the reasons often cited are limited time and limited expertise (Kemp & Klee, 1997; Pavelko et al., 2016). This study aims to evaluate the outcomes of a language sample training program on SLP students' accuracy, efficiency, and confidence with language sample transcription and coding. Upper-division SLP undergraduates and graduate students participated in a self-paced language sample training and practice program. Participants completed online language transcription and coding training and practiced transcribing 7-10 narrative child language samples. After each one, they entered information into the quiz tool in the university's online learning management system and received automated, individualized, and specific feedback. The accuracy and time needed for the language transcriptions were recorded and analyzed. The results indicated that the participants significantly increased their accuracy and reduced the time needed for transcription and coding. They also reported a significant increase in their confidence level with language sample transcription. The results suggest that increased training and practice opportunities that involve specific feedback will better prepare new clinicians to use language sample analysis in clinical practice.

This study aims at highlighting the relationship between mastery learning models and academic performance in mathematics, moderated by the number of hours allotted to studying mathematics. There are 305 first to eighth-grade students who learn at "Nae A. Ghica Middle School" in Romania. Students in sixth, seventh, and eighth grades (n=101) were selected to participate in this research because they study both algebra and geometry. We have used purposive sampling to control certain variables, i.e., mastery learning strategies and academic performance. The data were analyzed in Jamovi (2022). The level of performance was measured according to the progress students made. Data analysis revealed that the moderation effect of the time each student allocated to studying mathematics individually is not statistically significant in the relationship between the mastery learning model and academic performance in mathematics. This study was conducted on a small number of students, so it is recommended to be expanded on a larger scale.

Due to the increased use of scientific models and modelling in K-12 education, there is a need to uncover its effects on students over time. Prior research has shown that the use of scientific modelling in K-12 classes is associated with improved conceptual knowledge and problem-solving skills. However, few studies have explicitly tested the longitudinal benefits of using model-based instruction on students' scientific reasoning skills (SRS) and content knowledge. This paper studies the effects of the use of modelling-based pedagogy in a longitudinal comparative case study on students' SRS using hierarchical linear modeling. Our findings showed that initial exposure to modelling-based instruction increased scientific reasoning scores significantly. By the end of their first year of science instruction, the average high school freshman in our study achieved the scientific reasoning level of many undergraduate STEM majors. More importantly, students in the lowest quartile of scientific reasoning demonstrated increased scores over the three years of the modeling-based course sequence. In addition, reasoning scores in the modelling classes were a significant predictor of post-content knowledge in all subjects. Our results suggested that students should be exposed to model-based instruction early and consistently to achieve equity in science instruction.

The increased adoption of online learning environments has resulted in the availability of vast amounts of educational log data, which raises questions that could be answered by a thorough and accurate examination of students' online learning behaviours. Event logs describe something that occurred on a platform and provide multiple dimensions that help to characterize what actions students take, when, and where (in which course and in which part of the course). Temporal analysis has been shown to be relevant in learning analytics (LA) research, and capturing time-on-task as a proxy to model learning behaviour, predict performance, and prevent drop-out has been the subject of several studies. In Moodle, one of the most used learning management systems, while most events are logged at their beginning, other events are recorded at their end. The duration of an event is usually calculated as the difference between two consecutive records assuming that a log records the action's starting time. Therefore, when an event is logged at its end, the difference between the starting and the ending event identifies their sum, not the duration of the first. Moreover, in the pursuit of a better user experience, increasingly more online learning platforms' functions are shifted to the client, with the unintended effect of reducing significant logs and conceivably misinterpreting student behaviour. The purpose of this study is to present Moodle's logging system to illustrate where the temporal dimension of Moodle log data can be difficult to interpret and how this knowledge can be used to improve data processing. Starting from the correct extraction of Moodle logs, we focus on factors to consider when preparing data for temporal dimensional analysis. Considering the significance of the correct interpretation of log data to the LA community, we intend to initiate a discussion on this domain understanding to prevent the loss of data-related knowledge.

Using a cross-sectional survey of co-operative education students, this study explored relationships between students' gender, work experience, time spent on tasks with supervisors, and self-reported learning. Inexperienced men spent 50% more time on tasks with supervisors than inexperienced women. Work experience (completing at least one co-operative education work term) significantly reduced this gender-based gap. Further, time on tasks with supervisors was positively associated with self-reported learning among women, especially inexperienced women, but not for men. The findings are interpreted using the literature on gender roles at work and students' experiential learning outcomes. Early career women may be socialized into gender roles that limit access to supervisors' time. Work experience may help such women develop human capital such as confidence and social skills that closes gender-based gaps in learning opportunities.

Currently, the majority of e-learning lessons created and disseminated advocate a "one-size-fits-all" teaching philosophy. The e-learning environment, however, includes slow learners in a noticeable way, just like in traditional classroom settings. Learning analytics of educational data from a learning management system (LMS) have been considered by the researchers as a potential means of identifying slow e-learners and supporting, contesting, and altering present educational practices in e-learning. We used the students' rates of learning and grade points along with the total learning time, which is calculated from the time series log data, to cluster the learners. The rate at which a student learns determines whether he or she is a slow learner, an average learner, or a gifted learner. For classifying learners, we followed a step-by-step procedure that included instructional design to create a dataset, learning analytics of the dataset, and a machine learning strategy to cluster e-learners. The system has been adequately integrated with the methods for measuring student learning. A strategy based on the revised Bloom's Taxonomy is offered for the assessment of learners. The K-Means clustering approach is used to group learners who have similar performance without collecting a learner's previous academic records or demographic information. In the experimental evaluation, 7.7% of e-learners are grouped as slow learners, while advanced learners make up 61.3 percent of the student body and average learners make up 31 percent. According to the study, there is a correlation between learning rate and academic success, with fast learners having a lower learning rate.

Students organize and manage their own learning time, choosing when, what, and how to study due to the flexibility of online learning. Each person has unique learning habits that define their behaviours and distinguish them from others. To investigate the temporal behaviour of students in online learning environments, we seek to identify suitable time-windows that could be used to investigate their temporal behaviour. First, we present a novel perspective for identifying different types of sessions based on individual needs. The majority of previous works address this issue by establishing an arbitrary session timeout threshold. In this paper, we propose an algorithm for determining the optimal threshold for a given session. Second, we use data-driven methods to support investigators in determining time-windows based on the identified sessions. To this end, we developed a visual tool that assists data scientists and researchers to determine the optimal settings for session identification and locating suitable time-windows.