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Aim Understanding the drivers of species distribution ranges and population genetic structure can help predict species' responses to global change, while mitigating threats to biodiversity through effective conservation measures. Here, we combined species habitat suitability through time with process-based models and genomic data to investigate the role of landscape features and functional connectivity in shaping the population genetic structure of Northern chamois. Location European Alps. Taxon Northern chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra). Methods Using a model that simulates dispersal and tracks the functional connectivity of populations over dynamic landscapes, we modelled the response of the chamois to climate change from the last glaciation (20,000 years ago) to the present. We reconstructed species habitat suitability and landscape connectivity over time and simulated cumulative divergence of populations as a proxy for genetic differentiation. We then compared simulated divergence with the actual population structure of 449 chamois (with >20 k SNPs) sampled across the Alps. Results We found that Alpine populations of chamois are structured into two main clades, located in the south-western and the eastern Alps. The contact zone between the two lineages is located near the Rhone valley in Switzerland. Simulations reproduced the geographic differentiation of populations observed in the genomic data, and limited dispersal ability and landscape connectivity co-determined the fit of the simulations to data. Main conclusions The contemporary genetic structure of the chamois across the Alps is explained by limited functional connectivity in combination with large rivers or valleys acting as dispersal barriers. The results of our analysis combining simulations with population genomics highlight how biological characteristics, habitat preference and landscapes shape population genetic structure over time and in responses to climate change. We conclude that spatial simulations could be used to improve our understanding of how landscape dynamics, shaped by geological or climatic forces, impact intra- and interspecific diversity., Journal of Biogeography, 49 (10), ISSN:0305-0270, ISSN:1365-2699

International audience; Deep hydrothermal vents are highly fragmented and unstable habitats at all temporal and spatial scales. Such environmental dynamics likely play a non-negligible role in speciation. Little is, however, known about the evolutionary processes that drive population-level differentiation and vent species isolation and, more specifically, how geography and habitat specialisation interplay in the species history of divergence. In this study, the species range and divergence of Alviniconcha snails that occupy active Western Pacific vent fields was assessed by using sequence variation data of the mitochondrial Cox1 gene, RNAseq, and ddRAD-seq. Combining morphological description and sequence datasets of the three species across five basins, we confirmed that A. kojimai, A. boucheti, and A. strummeri, while partially overlapping over their range, display high levels of divergence in the three genomic compartments analysed that usually encompass values retrieved for reproductively isolated species with divergences rang from 9% to 12.5% (mtDNA) and from 2% to 3.1% (nuDNA). Moreover, the three species can be distinguished on the basis of their external morphology by observing the distribution of bristles and the shape of the columella. According to this sampling, A. boucheti and A. kojimai form an east-to-west species abundance gradient, whereas A. strummeri is restricted to the Futuna Arc/Lau and North Fiji Basins. Surprisingly, population models with both gene flow and population size heterogeneities among genomes indicated that these three species are still able to exchange genes due to secondary contacts at some localities after a long period of isolation.

Genetic analysis can provide valuable information for conservation programs by unraveling the demographic trajectory of populations, by estimating effective population size, or by inferring genetic differentiation between populations. Here, we investigated the genetic differentiation within the Snowy Owl (Bubo scandiacus), a species identified as vulnerable by the IUCN, to (i) quantify connectivity among wintering areas, (ii) to evaluate current genetic diversity and effective population size and (iii) to infer changes in the historical effective population size changes from the last millennia to the recent past. The Snowy Owl, a highly mobile top predator, breeds across the Arctic tundra which is a region especially sensitive to current climate change. Using SNP-based analyses on Snowy Owls sampled across the North American nonbreeding range, we found an absence of genetic differentiation among individuals located up to 4,650 km apart. Our results suggest high genetic intermixing and effective dispersal at the continental scale despite documented philopatry to nonbreeding sites in winter. Reconstructing the population demographic indicated that North American Snowy Owls have been steadily declining since the Last Glacial Maximum ca 20,000 years ago and concurrently with global increases in temperature. Conservation programs should now consider North American Snowy Owls as a single, genetically homogenous continental-wide population which is most likely sensitive to the long-term global warming occurring since the Last Glacial Maximum.

Symbioses between invertebrate animals and chemosynthetic bacteria build the foundation of deep-sea hydrothermal ecosystems worldwide. Despite the importance of these symbioses for ecosystem functioning, the diversity of symbionts within and between host organisms and geographic regions is still poorly understood. In this study we used 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing to determine the diversity of gill endosymbionts in provannid snails of the genera Alviniconcha and Ifremeria, which are key species at deep-sea hydrothermal vents in the Indo-Pacific Ocean. Our analysis of 761 snail samples across the distributional range of these species confirms previous findings that symbiont lineages are strongly partitioned by host species and broad-scale geography. Less structuring was observed within geographic regions, probably due to insufficient strain resolution of the 16S rRNA gene. Symbiont richness in individual hosts appeared to be unrelated to host size, suggesting that provannid snails might acquire their symbionts only during a permissive time window in early developmental stages in contrast to other vent molluscs that obtain their symbionts throughout their lifetime. Despite the extent of our dataset, symbiont accumulation curves did not reach saturation, highlighting the need for increased sampling efforts to uncover the full diversity of symbionts within these and other hydrothermal vent species.

DATA AVAILABILITY: Genotypic data are deposited in DRYAD: https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.j0zpc86gk and the raw reads have been deposited in the SRA (Bioproject: PRJNA81085).; International audience; Genetic data are useful for detecting sudden population declines in species that are difficult to study in the field. Yet this indirect approach has its own drawbacks, including population structure, mutation patterns, and generation overlap. The ivory gull (Pagophila eburnea), a long-lived Arctic seabird, is currently suffering from rapid alteration of its primary habitat (i.e., sea ice), and dramatic climatic events affecting reproduction and recruitment. However, ivory gulls live in remote areas, and it is difficult to assess the population trend of the species across its distribution. Here we present complementary microsatellite- and SNP-based genetic analyses to test a recent bottleneck genetic signal in ivory gulls over a large portion of their distribution. With attention to the potential effects of population structure, mutation patterns, and sample size, we found no significant signatures of population decline worldwide. At a finer scale, we found a significant bottleneck signal at one location in Canada. These results were compared with predictions from simulations showing how generation time and generation overlap can delay and reduce the bottleneck microsatellite heterozygosity excess signal. The consistency of the results obtained with independent methods strongly indicates that the species shows no genetic evidence of an overall decline in population size. However, drawing conclusions related to the species' population trends will require a better understanding of the effect of age structure in long-lived species. In addition, estimates of the effective global population size of ivory gulls were surprisingly low (similar to 1000 ind.), suggesting that the evolutionary potential of the species is not assured.

WOS:000777071200001; International audience; Hydrothermal vents form archipelagos of ephemeral deep-sea habitats that raise interesting questions about the evolution and dynamics of the associated endemic fauna, constantly subject to extinction-recolonization processes. These metal-rich environments are coveted for the mineral resources they harbour, thus raising recent conservation concerns. The evolutionary fate and demographic resilience of hydrothermal species strongly depend on the degree of connectivity among and within their fragmented metapopulations. In the deep sea, however, assessing connectivity is difficult and usually requires indirect genetic approaches. Improved detection of fine-scale genetic connectivity is now possible based on genome-wide screening for genetic differentiation. Here, we explored population connectivity in the hydrothermal vent snail Ifremeria nautilei across its species range encompassing five distinct back-arc basins in the Southwest Pacific. The global analysis, based on 10,570 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers derived from double digest restriction-site associated DNA sequencing (ddRAD-seq), depicted two semi-isolated and homogeneous genetic clusters. Demogenetic modeling suggests that these two groups began to diverge about 70,000 generations ago, but continue to exhibit weak and slightly asymmetrical gene flow. Furthermore, a careful analysis of outlier loci showed subtle limitations to connectivity between neighbouring basins within both groups. This finding indicates that migration is not strong enough to totally counterbalance drift or local selection, hence questioning the potential for demographic resilience at this latter geographical scale. These results illustrate the potential of large genomic data sets to understand fine-scale connectivity patterns in hydrothermal vents and the deep sea.

This protocol describes a double digested restriction-site associated DNA (ddRADseq) procedure, that is a variation on the original RAD sequencing method (Davey & Blaxter 2011), which is used for de novo SNP discovery and genotyping. This protocol differs from the original ddRADseq protocol (Peterson et al 2012), in which the samples are pooled just after the ligation to adaptors (i.e. before size selection and PCR). The present ddRAD protocol as been slightly adapted from Alan Brelsford's protocol published in the supplementary material of this paper: Brelsford, A., Dufresnes, C. & Perrin, N. 2016. High-density sex-specific linkage maps of a European tree frog (Hyla arborea) identify the sex chromosome without information on offspring sex. Heredity 116, 177–181 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/hdy.2015.83 In the present protocol, all samples are treated separately, in a microplate, until final PCR amplification performed before pooling. Despite being slightly more costly and time-consuming in the lab, it allows for fine adjustement of each sample representation in the final library pool, ensuring similar number of sequencing reads per sample in the final dataset. Briefly, genomic DNA from the samples are individually digested with 2 restriction enzymes (one rare-cutter and one more frequent cutter) then ligated to a barcoded adaptor (among 24 available) at one side, and a single adaptor at the other side, purified with magnetic beads, and PCR-amplified allowing the addition of a Illumina index (among 12 available) for multiplexing a maximum of 288 sample per library. Samples are then pooled in equimolar conditions after visualisation on an agarose gel. Purification and size selection is then performed before final quality control of the library and sequencing.

International audience; Sexual barriers associated with mate choice are often found to be associated with some level of ecological isolation between species. The independence and relative strength of sexual isolation are thus difficult to assess. Here we take advantage of a pair of marine isopod species (Jaera albifrons and J. praehirsuta) that show sexual isolation and coexist in populations where they share the same microhabitat or not (i.e. without or with ecological isolation). We estimated the strength of sexual isolation between J. albifrons and J. praehirsuta using no-choice trials and a multiple-choice experimental population. We found that sexual isolation is strong in both the presence and absence of ecological isolation, but that it is asymmetric and fails to prevent interspecific gene flow entirely. First-generation intrinsic post-zygotic barriers were low, and there was no sexual isolation within J. praehirsuta across habitats. The J. albifrons / J. praehirsuta species pair thus provides an example where the role of sexual isolation as a barrier to gene flow i) does not depend upon current ecological isolation, ii) seems to have evolved independently of local ecological conditions, but iii) is insufficient to complete speciation entirely on its own.

A species' dispersal capability is difficult to quantify but important for a general understanding of a species' ecology and for applied conservation and management efforts. One approach is to use the information from individual genotypes to estimate recent dispersal rates. These genetic methods differ in the way they use the genotype data, their assumptions, and the information they give, but choosing one method over another is complicated by the lack of work that compares these methods on simulated or real data sets. We collected detailed, spatially resolved, individual data on the greater white-toothed shrew (Crocidura russula) in western Switzerland for which past studies have found an unusual female sex-biased dispersal. We analyzed the movement from 1 cohort of juvenile shrews with 7 published methods (i.e., mark-recapture, parentage analysis; genetic assignment; hierarchical F-statistics; and the programs BayesAss, IMIG, and STRUCTURE) and used a binomial test to make quantitative comparisons between the results of the methods. Our study indicates that the methods are broadly consistent, but parentage analysis appears the most powerful method for analyzing fine-scale dispersal patterns. In a conservation context, where the evaluation of long-term translocation success is critical for species management, the species studied and spatial scale considered will dictate which is the best suited method to estimate dispersal. © 2016 The Wildlife Society.

International audience; Empirical studies of landscape connectivity are limited by the difficulty of directly measuring animal movement. ‘Indirect' approaches involving genetic analyses provide a complementary tool to ‘direct' methods such as capture–recapture or radio-tracking. Here the effect of landscape on dispersal was investigated in a forest-dwelling species, the American marten (Martes americana) using the genetic model of isolation by distance (IBD). This model assumes isotropic dispersal in a homogeneous environment and is characterized by increasing genetic differentiation among individuals separated by increasing geographic distances. The effect of landscape features on this genetic pattern was used to test for a departure from spatially homogeneous dispersal. This study was conducted on two populations in homogeneous vs. heterogeneous habitat in a harvested boreal forest in Ontario (Canada). A pattern of IBD was evidenced in the homogeneous landscape whereas no such pattern was found in the near-by harvested forest. To test whether landscape structure may be accountable for this difference, we used effective distances that take into account the effect of landscape features on marten movement instead of Euclidean distances in the model of isolation by distance. Effective distances computed using least-cost modeling were better correlated to genetic distances in both landscapes, thereby showing that the interaction between landscape features and dispersal in Martes americana may be detected through individual-based analyses of spatial genetic structure. However, the simplifying assumptions of genetic models and the low proportions in genetic differentiation explained by these models may limit their utility in quantifying the effect of landscape structure.

Sexual barriers associated with mate choice are nearly always found to be associated with some level of ecological isolation between species. The independence and relative strength of sexual isolation are thus difficult to assess. Here we take advantage of a pair of isopod species (Jaera albifronsandJ. praehirsuta) that show sexual isolation and coexist in populations where they share the same microhabitat or not (i.e. without or with ecological isolation). Using no-choice trials and a free-choice experimental population, we estimated the strength of sexual isolation betweenJ. albifronsandJ. praehirsutaindividuals originating from these different ecological contexts. We found that sexual isolation is strong in presence and absence of ecological isolation, but that it is asymmetric and fails to prevent gene flow entirely. First-generation post-zygotic barriers were low, and there was no sexual isolation withinJ. praehirsutaacross habitats. TheJ. albifrons/J. praehirsutaspecies pair thus provides an example where the role of sexual isolation as a barrier to gene flow i) does not depend upon current ecological isolation, ii) seems to have evolved independently of local ecological conditions, but iii) is insufficient to complete speciation entirely on its own.

International audience; Female-biased sex ratios and reproductive isolation in arthropods can be caused by endosymbiotic Wolbachia bacteria that manipulate the reproductive system of their host. Wolbachia is particularly common in terrestrial host species, but its frequency in marine arthropods is less well known. Here we asked whether Wolbachia bacteria are accountable for the female-biased sex ratio and variation in reproductive isolation levels observed in the four European species of the Jaera albifrons complex (marine intertidal isopods). We analysed the sex ratio in young adults reared in the laboratory (indicative of the sex ratio at birth), compared it with the adult sex ratio in natural populations, and performed a molecular survey of Wolbachia infection based upon amplification of three gene targets using 11 different protocols tested in 817 individuals from all species of the Jaera albifrons complex. One species (J. ischiosetosa) had a female-biased sex ratio at birth but showed no sign of infection by Wolbachia bacteria. This species, together with two others (J. albifrons and J. forsmani) also displayed female-biased sex ratio in adults in nature, while the adult sex ratio in the fourth European species (J. praehirsuta) was unbiased. A new Wolbachia strain was identified in J. albifrons and J. praehirsuta, albeit at very low frequency in populations. We conclude that Wolbachia bacteria are present in at least two species of the Jaera albifrons complex, but their prevalence is too low to have any effect on sex ratio and reproductive isolation. A sex ratio distorter other than Wolbachia may be acting in some J. ischiosetosa populations, and we hypothesize that the adult female excess seen in most species results from habitat-dependent, male-biased mortality in natural conditions.

International audience; The evolution of strong reproductive isolation (RI) is fundamental to the origins and maintenance of biological diversity, especially in situations where geographical distributions of taxa broadly overlap. But what is the history behind strong barriers currently acting in sympatry? Using whole-genome sequencing and single nucleotide polymorphism genotyping, we inferred (i) the evolutionary relationships, (ii) the strength of RI, and (iii) the demographic history of divergence between two broadly sympatric taxa of intertidal snail. Despite being cryptic, based on external morphology, Littorina arcana and Littorina saxatilis differ in their mode of female reproduction (egg-laying versus brooding), which may generate a strong post-zygotic barrier. We show that egg-laying and brooding snails are closely related, but genetically distinct. Genotyping of 3092 snails from three locations failed to recover any recent hybrid or backcrossed individuals, confirming that RI is strong. There was, however, evidence for a very low level of asymmetrical introgression, suggesting that isolation remains incomplete. The presence of strong, asymmetrical RI was further supported by demographic analysis of these populations. Although the taxa are currently broadly sympatric, demographic modelling suggests that they initially diverged during a short period of geographical separation involving very low gene flow. Our study suggests that some geographical separation may kick-start the evolution of strong RI, facilitating subsequent coexistence of taxa in sympatry. The strength of RI needed to achieve sympatry and the subsequent effect of sympatry on RI remain open questions. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Towards the completion of speciation: the evolution of reproductive isolation beyond the first barriers'.

International audience; A recommendation of: Dagilis AJ, Kirkpatrick M. 2016. Prezygotic isolation, mating preferences, and the evolution of chromosomal inversions. Evolution 70: 1465–1472. doi: 10.1111/evo.12954

Chaotic genetic patchiness denotes unexpected patterns of genetic differentiation that are observed at a fine scale and are not stable in time. These patterns have been described in marine species with free-living larvae, but are unexpected because they occur at a scale below the dispersal range of pelagic larvae. At the scale where most larvae are immigrants, theory predicts spatially homogeneous, temporally stable genetic variation. Empirical studies have suggested that genetic drift interacts with complex dispersal patterns to create chaotic genetic patchiness. Here we use a co-ancestry model and individual-based simulations to test this idea. We found that chaotic genetic patterns (qualified by global FST and spatio-temporal variation in FST's between pairs of samples) arise from the combined effects of (1) genetic drift created by the small local effective population sizes of the sessile phase and variance in contribution among breeding groups and (2) collective dispersal of related individuals in the larval phase. Simulations show that patchiness levels qualitatively comparable to empirical results can be produced by a combination of strong variance in reproductive success and mild collective dispersal. These results call for empirical studies of the effective number of breeders producing larval cohorts, and population genetics at the larval stage.

Correlated dispersal paths between two or more individuals are widespread across many taxa. The population genetic implications of this collective dispersal have received relatively little attention. Here we develop two-sample coalescent theory that incorporates collective dispersal in a finite island model to predict expected coalescence times, genetic diversities, and F-statistics. We show that collective dispersal reduces mixing in the system, which decreases expected coalescence times and increases FST . The effects are strongest in systems with high migration rates. Collective dispersal breaks the invariance of within-deme coalescence times to migration rate, whatever the deme size. It can also cause FST to increase with migration rate because the ratio of within- to between-deme coalescence times can decrease as migration rate approaches unity. This effect is most biologically relevant when deme size is small. We find qualitatively similar results for diploid and gametic dispersal. We also demonstrate with simulations and analytical theory the strong similarity between the effects of collective dispersal and anisotropic dispersal. These findings have implications for our understanding of the balance between drift-migration-mutation in models of neutral evolution. This has applied consequences for the interpretation of genetic structure (e.g., chaotic genetic patchiness) and estimation of migration rates from genetic data.

International audience; Sex identification of birds is relevant to studies of evolutionary biology and ecology and is often a central issue for the management and conservation of populations. The Ivory Gull Pagophila eburnea (Phipps, 1774) is a rare high-Arctic species whose main habitat is sea ice throughout the year. This species is currently listed Near Threatened by the IUCN, because populations have drastically declined in part of the species distribution in the recent past. Here we tested molecular sexing methods with different types of samples. Molecular sexing appeared to be very efficient with DNA extracted from muscle, blood, and buccal swabs, both for adults and young chicks. We also performed morphological analyses to characterize sexual size dimorphism in Ivory Gulls sampled in three distinct regions: Greenland, Svalbard, and Russia. Males were larger than females for all morphometric measurements, with little overlap between sexes. Discriminant analysis based on six morphometric variables correctly classified ~95 % of the individuals, even when using two variables only, i.e., gonys height and skull length. Therefore, both molecular and biometric methods are useful for sexing Ivory Gulls. Interestingly, our results indicate a male-biased sex ratio across all Ivory Gull populations studied, including two samples of offspring (67.8 % males).

International audience; Species may cope with rapid habitat changes by distribution shifts or adaptation to new conditions. A common feature of these responses is that they depend on how the process of dispersal connects populations, both demographically and genetically. We analyzed the genetic structure of a near-threatened high-Arctic seabird, the ivory gull (Pagophila eburnea) in order to infer the connectivity among gull colonies. We analyzed 343 individuals sampled from 16 localities across the circumpolar breeding range of ivory gulls, from northern Russia to the Canadian Arctic. To explore the roles of natal and breeding dispersal, we developed a population genetic model to relate dispersal behavior to the observed genetic structure of worldwide ivory gull populations. Our key finding is the striking genetic homogeneity of ivory gulls across their entire distribution range. The lack of population genetic structure found among colonies, in tandem with independent evidence of movement among colonies, suggests that ongoing effective dispersal is occurring across the Arctic Region. Our results contradict the dispersal patterns generally observed in seabirds where species movement capabilities are often not indicative of dispersal patterns. Model predictions show how natal and breeding dispersal may combine to shape the genetic homogeneity among ivory gull colonies separated by up to 2800 km. Although field data will be key to determine the role of dispersal for the demography of local colonies and refine the respective impacts of natal versus breeding dispersal, conservation planning needs to consider ivory gulls as a genetically homogeneous, Arctic-wide metapopulation effectively connected through dispersal.

International audience; Chaotic genetic patchiness (CGP) refers to surprising patterns of spatial and temporal genetic structure observed in some marine species at a scale where genetic variation should be efficiently homogenized by gene flow via larval dispersal. Here we review and discuss four mechanisms that could generate such unexpected patterns: selection, sweepstakes reproductive success, collective dispersal, and temporal shifts in local population dynamics. First, we review examples where genetic differentiation at specific loci was driven by diversifying selection, which was historically the first process invoked to explain CGP. Second, we turn to neutral demographic processes that may drive genome-wide effects, and whose effects on CGP may be enhanced when they act together. We discuss how sweepstakes reproductive success accelerates genetic drift and can thus generate genetic structure provided gene flow is not too strong. Collective dispersal is another mechanism whereby genetic structure can be maintained regardless of dispersal intensity, because it may prevent larval cohorts from becoming entirely mixed. Theoretical analyses of both the sweepstakes and the collective dispersal ideas are presented. Finally, we discuss an idea that has received less attention than the other ones just mentioned, namely temporal shifts in local population dynamics.

We investigated sex specificities in the evolutionary processes shaping Y chromosome, autosomes, and mitochondrial DNA patterns of genetic structure in the Valais shrew (Sorex antinorii), a mountain dwelling species with a hierarchical distribution. Both hierarchical analyses of variance and isolation-by-distance analyses revealed patterns of population structure that were not consistent across maternal, paternal, and biparentally inherited markers. Differentiation on a Y microsatellite was lower than expected from the comparison with autosomal microsatellites and mtDNA, and it was mostly due to genetic variance among populations within valleys, whereas the opposite was observed on other markers. In addition, there was no pattern of isolation by distance for the Y, whereas there was strong isolation by distance on mtDNA and autosomes. We use a hierarchical island model of coancestry dynamics to discuss the relative roles of the microevolutionary forces that may induce such patterns. We conclude that sex-biased dispersal is the most important driver of the observed genetic structure, but with an intriguing twist: it seems that dispersal is strongly male biased at large spatial scale, whereas it is mildly biased in favor of females at local scale. These results add to recent reports of scale-specific sex-biased dispersal patterns, and emphasize the usefulness of the Y chromosome in conjunction with mtDNA and autosomes to infer sex specificities.

We report 22 new polymorphic microsatellites for the Ivory gull (Pagophila eburnea), and we describe how they can be efficiently co-amplified using multiplexed polymerase chain reactions. In addition, we report DNA concentration, amplification success, rates of genotyping errors and the number of genotyping repetitions required to obtain reliable data with three types of noninvasive or nondestructive samples: shed feathers collected in colonies, feathers plucked from living individuals and buccal swabs. In two populations from Greenland (n = 21) and Russia (Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago, n = 21), the number of alleles per locus varied between 2 and 17, and expected heterozygosity per population ranged from 0.18 to 0.92. Twenty of the markers conformed to Hardy‐Weinberg and linkage equilibrium expectations. Most markers were easily amplified and highly reliable when analysed from buccal swabs and plucked feathers, showing that buccal swabbing is a very efficient approach allowing good quality DNA retrieval. Although DNA amplification success using single shed feathers was generally high, the genotypes obtained from this type of samples were prone to error and thus need to be amplified several times. The set of microsatellite markers described here together with multiplex amplification conditions and genotyping error rates will be useful for population genetic studies of the Ivory gull.

Functional connectivity affects demography and gene dynamics in fragmented populations. Besides species-specific dispersal ability, the connectivity between local populations is affected by the landscape elements encountered during dispersal. Documenting these effects is thus a central issue for the conservation and management of fragmented populations. In this study, we compare the power and accuracy of three methods (partial correlations, regressions and Approximate Bayesian Computations) that use genetic distances to infer the effect of landscape upon dispersal. We use stochastic individual-based simulations of fragmented populations surrounded by landscape elements that differ in their permeability to dispersal. The power and accuracy of all three methods are good when there is a strong contrast between the permeability of different landscape elements. The power and accuracy can be further improved by restricting analyses to adjacent pairs of populations. Landscape elements that strongly impede dispersal are the easiest to identify. However, power and accuracy decrease drastically when landscape complexity increases and the contrast between the permeability of landscape elements decreases. We provide guidelines for future studies and underline the needs to evaluate or develop approaches that are more powerful.

Connectivity among populations plays a crucial role in maintaining genetic variation at a local scale, especially in small populations affected strongly by genetic drift. The negative consequences of population disconnection on allelic richness and gene diversity (heterozygosity) are well recognized and empirically established. It is not well recognized, however, that a sudden drop in local effective population size induced by such disconnection produces a temporary disequilibrium in allelic frequency distributions that is akin to the genetic signature of a demographic bottleneck. To document this effect, we used individual-based simulations and empirical data on allelic richness and gene diversity in six pairs of isolated versus well-connected (core) populations of European tree frogs. In our simulations, population disconnection depressed allelic richness more than heterozygosity and thus resulted in a temporary excess in gene diversity relative to mutation drift equilibrium (i.e., signature of a genetic bottleneck). We observed a similar excess in gene diversity in isolated populations of tree frogs. Our results show that population disconnection can create a genetic bottleneck in the absence of demographic collapse.

International audience; Sequential hermaphroditism is adaptive when the reproductive value of an individual varies with size or age, and this relationship differs between males and females. In this case, theory shows that the lifetime reproductive output of an individual is increased by changing sex (a hypothesis referred to as the size-advantage model). Sex-linked differences in size-fitness curves can stem from differential costs of reproduction, the mating system, and differences in growth and mortality between sexes. Detailed empirical data is required to disentangle the relative roles of each of these factors within the theory. Quantitative data are also needed to explore the role of sperm storage, which has not yet been considered with sequential hermaphrodites. Using experimental rearing and paternity assignment, we report relationships between size and reproductive success of Crepidula fornicata, a protandrous (male-first) gastropod. Male reproductive success increased with size due to the polygamous system and stacking behavior of the species, but females nonetheless had greater reproductive success than males of the same size, in agreement with the size-advantage theory. Sperm storage appeared to be a critical determinant of success for both sexes, and modeling the effect of sperm storage showed that it could potentially accelerate sex change in protandrous species.

Background The Jaera albifrons complex contains five species of marine isopods (J. albifrons, J. praehirsuta, J. ischiosetosa, J. forsmani, and J. posthirsuta). These species, occurring on the shores of the North-Atlantic Ocean, are partially reproductively isolated by barriers due to sexual isolation (mate choice), genetic incompatibilities, and ecological specialization. Microsatellite loci would be useful for parentage-based analyses of sexual selection and studies of genetic structure in the context of speciation. Findings Twenty-four microsatellite markers were developed for J. albifrons using pyrosequencing of enriched libraries. Patterns of polymorphisms were analyzed in 49 J. albifrons adult males sampled in two populations from Brittany (Western France). The average number of alleles per locus was 4.73 ± 2.45 and the average gene diversity was 0.55 ± 0.23. Most markers also successfully amplified in the three sibling species J. praehirsuta, J. ischiosetosa, and J. forsmani. Conclusions These polymorphic and cross-amplifiable markers will be useful for population genetics and parentage studies in the J albifrons complex.

Natal dispersal in a vagile carnivore, the American marten (Martes americana), was studied by comparing radio-tracking data and microsatellite genetic structure in two populations occupying contrasting habitats. The genetic differentiation determined among groups of individuals using F(ST) indices appeared to be weak in both landscapes, and showed no increase with geographical distance. Genetic structure investigated using pairwise genetic distances between individuals conversely showed a pattern of isolation by distance (IBD), but only in the population occurring in a homogeneous high-quality habitat, therefore showing the advantage of individual-based analyses in detecting within-population processes and local landscape effects. The telemetry study of juveniles revealed a leptokurtic distribution of dispersal distances in both populations, and estimates of the mean squared parent-offspring axial distance (sigma2) inferred both from the genetic pattern of IBD and from the radio-tracking survey showed that most juveniles make little contribution to gene flow.

The use of noninvasively collected samples greatly expands the range of ecological issues that may be investigated through population genetics. Furthermore, the difficulty of obtaining reliable genotypes with samples containing low quantities of amplifiable DNA may be overcome by designing optimal genotyping schemes. Such protocols are mainly determined by the rates of genotyping errors caused by false alleles and allelic dropouts. These errors may not be avoided through laboratory procedure and hence must be quantified. However, the definition of genotyping error rates remains elusive and various estimation methods have been reported in the literature. In this paper we proposed accurate codification for the frequencies of false alleles and allelic dropouts. We then reviewed other estimation methods employed in hair- or faeces-based population genetics studies and modelled the bias associated with erroneous methods. It is emphasized that error rates may be substantially underestimated when using an erroneous approach. Genotyping error rates may be important determinants of the outcome of noninvasive studies and hence should be carefully computed and reported.

International audience; A population of white-clawed crayfish (Austropotamobius pallipes) was studied from January to October 2000 in a stream from the Pays de Loire region (Western France). An experimental modification of habitat was performed in four stream sections by providing refuges for crayfish, followed by a regular survey of population dynamics in these areas. The crayfish distribution along the brook was studied in relation to several parameters, including water quality, current speed, brook depth and presence of refuges for crayfish. Presence of hiding places was the only habitat parameter correlated with crayfish distribution along the stream whereas colonization process in modified sections was determined by sun exposure and current speed conditions. Despite a presumably high growth rate and its ability to reach locally important densities, the population appeared to be fragmented.; Une population d’écrevisses à pattes blanches (Austropotamobius pallipes) a été étudiée de janvier à octobre 2000 dans un cours d’eau de la région des Pays-de-Loire (ouest de la France). Une modification expérimentale de l’habitat consistant à créer des refuges disponibles pour les écrevisses a été réalisée dans quatre sections du ruisseau. Un suivi régulier de l’évolution des populations a par la suite été réalisé dans ces zones expérimentales. La répartition des écrevisses tout au long du ruisseau a par ailleurs été analysée en fonction des paramètres de qualité de l’eau, vitesse de courant, profondeur et présence de refuges pour les écrevisses. Seule la présence des abris disponibles pour les écrevisses était corrélée avec la présence d’individus tout au long du cours d’eau, tandis que la colonisation des zones expérimentales était liée à leur exposition au soleil et à la vitesse du courant. Malgré un fort taux de croissance présumé et la capacité à atteindre localement de fortes densités, la population s’est révélée fragmentée.

International audience; Models of isolation-by-distance formalize the effects of genetic drift and gene flow in a spatial context where gene dispersal is spatially limited. These models have been used to show that, at an appropriate spatial scale, dispersal parameters can be inferred from the regression of genetic differentiation against geographic distance between sampling locations. This approach is compelling because it is relatively simple and robust and has rather low sampling requirements. In continuous populations, dispersal can be inferred from isolation-by-distance patterns using either individuals or groups as sampling units. Intrigued by empirical findings where individual samples seemed to provide more power, we used simulations to compare the performances of the two methods in a range of situations with different dispersal distributions. We found that sampling individuals provide more power in a range of dispersal conditions that is narrow but fits many realistic situations. These situations were characterized not only by the general steepness of isolation-by-distance but also by the intrinsic shape of the dispersal kernel. The performances of the two approaches are otherwise similar, suggesting that the choice of a sampling unit is globally less important than other settings such as a study's spatial scale.

Chaotic genetic patchiness denotes unexpected patterns of genetic differentiation that are observed at a fine scale and are not stable in time. These patterns have been described in marine species with free-living larvae, but are unexpected because they occur at a scale below the dispersal range of pelagic larvae. At the scale where most larvae are immigrants, theory predicts spatially homogeneous, temporally stable genetic variation. Empirical studies have suggested that genetic drift interacts with complex dispersal patterns to create chaotic genetic patchiness. Here we use a co-ancestry model and individual-based simulations to test this idea. We found that chaotic genetic patterns (qualified by global FST and spatio-temporal variation in FST's between pairs of samples) arise from the combined effects of (1) genetic drift created by the small local effective population sizes of the sessile phase and variance in contribution among breeding groups and (2) collective dispersal of related individuals in the larval phase. Simulations show that patchiness levels qualitatively comparable to empirical results can be produced by a combination of strong variance in reproductive success and mild collective dispersal. These results call for empirical studies of the effective number of breeders producing larval cohorts, and population genetics at the larval stage.

We investigated sex specificities in the evolutionary processes shaping Y chromosome, autosomes, and mitochondrial DNA patterns of genetic structure in the Valais shrew (Sorex antinorii), a mountain dwelling species with a hierarchical distribution. Both hierarchical analyses of variance and isolation-by-distance analyses revealed patterns of population structure that were not consistent across maternal, paternal, and biparentally inherited markers. Differentiation on a Y microsatellite was lower than expected from the comparison with autosomal microsatellites and mtDNA, and it was mostly due to genetic variance among populations within valleys, whereas the opposite was observed on other markers. In addition, there was no pattern of isolation by distance for the Y, whereas there was strong isolation by distance on mtDNA and autosomes. We use a hierarchical island model of coancestry dynamics to discuss the relative roles of the microevolutionary forces that may induce such patterns. We conclude that sex-biased dispersal is the most important driver of the observed genetic structure, but with an intriguing twist: it seems that dispersal is strongly male biased at large spatial scale, whereas it is mildly biased in favor of females at local scale. These results add to recent reports of scale-specific sex-biased dispersal patterns, and emphasize the usefulness of the Y chromosome in conjunction with mtDNA and autosomes to infer sex specificities.

International audience; Amphibians display wide variations in life-history traits and life cycles that should prove useful to explore the evolution of sex-biased dispersal, but quantitative data on sex-specific dispersal patterns are scarce. Here, we focused on Salamandra atra, an endemic alpine species showing peculiar life-history traits. Strictly terrestrial and viviparous, the species has a promiscuous mating system, and females reproduce only every 3 to 4 years. In the present study, we provide quantitative estimates of asymmetries in male vs. female dispersal using both field-based (markrecapture) and genetic approaches (detection of sex-biased dispersal and estimates of migration rates based on the contrast in genetic structure across sexes and age classes). Our results revealed a high level of gene flow among populations, which stems exclusively from male dispersal. We hypothesize that philopatric females benefit from being familiar with their natal area for the acquisition and defence of an appropriate shelter, while male dispersal has been secondarily favoured by inbreeding avoidance. Together with other studies on amphibians, our results indicate that a species' mating system alone is a poor predictor of sex-linked differences in dispersal, in particular for promiscuous species. Further studies should focus more directly on the proximate forces that favour or limit dispersal to refine our understanding of the evolution of sex-biased dispersal in animals.

International audience; Investigating the mechanisms underlying female mate choice is important for sexual-selection theory, but also for population-genetic studies, because distinctive breeding strategies affect differently the dynamics of gene diversity within populations. Using field-monitoring, genetic-assignment, and laboratory-rearing methods, we investigated chorus attendance, mating success and offspring fitness in a population of lek-breeding tree-frogs (Hyla arborea) to test whether female choice is driven by good genes or complementary genes. Chorus attendance explained approximately 50% of the variance in male mating success, but did not correlate with offspring fitness. By contrast, offspring body mass and growth rate correlated with male attractiveness, measured as the number of matings obtained per night of calling. Genetic similarity between mating partners did not depart from random, and did not affect offspring fitness. We conclude that females are able to choose good partners under natural settings and obtain benefits from the good genes, rather than compatible genes, their offspring inherit. This heritability of fitness is likely to reduce effective population sizes below values previously estimated.

We present a novel and straightforward method for estimating recent migration rates between discrete populations using multilocus genotype data. The approach builds upon a two-step sampling design, where individual genotypes are sampled before and after dispersal. We develop a model that estimates all pairwise backwards migration rates (m(ij), the probability that an individual sampled in population i is a migrant from population j) between a set of populations. The method is validated with simulated data and compared with the methods of BayesAss and Structure. First, we use data for an island model and then we consider more realistic data simulations for a metapopulation of the greater white-toothed shrew (Crocidura russula). We show that the precision and bias of estimates primarily depend upon the proportion of individuals sampled in each population. Weak sampling designs may particularly affect the quality of the coverage provided by 95% highest posterior density intervals. We further show that it is relatively insensitive to the number of loci sampled and the overall strength of genetic structure. The method can easily be extended and makes fewer assumptions about the underlying demographic and genetic processes than currently available methods. It allows backwards migration rates to be estimated across a wide range of realistic conditions.

International audience; The dispersal process, by which individuals or other dispersing agents such as gametes or seeds move from birthplace to a new settlement locality, has important consequences for the dynamics of genes, individuals, and species. Many of the questions addressed by ecology and evolutionary biology require a good understanding of species' dispersal patterns. Much effort has thus been devoted to overcoming the difficulties associated with dispersal measurement. In this context, genetic tools have long been the focus of intensive research, providing a great variety of potential solutions to measuring dispersal. This methodological diversity is reviewed here to help (molecular) ecologists find their way toward dispersal inference and interpretation and to stimulate further developments.

International audience; Sexual selection in lek-breeding species might drastically lower male effective population size, with potentially important consequencesfor evolutionary and conservation biology. Using field-monitoring and parental-assignment methods, we analyzedsex-specific variances in breeding success in a population of European treefrogs, to (1) help understanding the dynamics of geneticvariance at sex-specific loci, and (2) better quantify the risk posed by genetic drift in this species locally endangered by habitatfragmentation. The variance in male mating success turned out to be markedly lower than values obtained from other amphibianspecies with polygamous mating systems. The ratio of effective breeding size to census breeding size was only slightly lower inmales (0.44) than in females (0.57), in line with the patterns of genetic diversity previously reported from H. arborea sex chromosomes.Combining our results with data on age at maturity and adult survival, we show that the negative effect of the matingsystem is furthermore compensated by the effect of delayed maturity, so that the estimated instantaneous effective size broadlycorresponded to census breeding size. We conclude that the lek-breeding system of treefrogs impacts only weakly the patterns ofgenetic diversity on sex-linked genes and the ability of natural populations to resist genetic drift.

International audience; The effects of patch size and isolation on metapopulation dynamics have received wide empirical support and theoretical formalization. By contrast, the effects of patch quality seem largely underinvestigated, partly due to technical difficulties in properly assessing quality. Here we combine habitat-quality modeling with four years of demographic monitoring in a metapopulation of greater white-toothed shrews (Crocidura russula) to investigate the role of patch quality on metapopulation processes. Together, local patch quality and connectivity significantly enhanced local population sizes and occupancy rates (R2 = 14% and 19%, respectively). Accounting for the quality of patches connected to the focal one and acting as potential sources improved slightly the model explanatory power for local population sizes, pointing to significant source-sink dynamics. Local habitat quality, in interaction with connectivity, also increased colonization rate (R2 = 28%), suggesting the ability of immigrants to target high-quality patches. Overall, patterns were best explained when assuming a mean dispersal distance of 800 m, a realistic value for the species under study. Our results thus provide evidence that patch quality, in interaction with connectivity, may affect major demographic processes.

We investigated sex-specific recombination rates inHyla arborea, a species with nascent sex chromosomes and male heterogamety. Twenty microsatellites were clustered into six linkage groups, all showing suppressed or very low recombination in males. Seven markers were sex linked, none of them showing any sign of recombination in males (r=0.00 versus 0.43 on average in females). This opposes classical models of sex chromosome evolution, which envision an initially small differential segment that progressively expands as structural changes accumulate on the Y chromosome. For autosomes, maps were more than 14 times longer in females than in males, which seems the highest ratio documented so far in vertebrates. These results support the pleiotropic model of Haldane and Huxley, according to which recombination is reduced in the heterogametic sex by general modifiers that affect recombination on the whole genome.

Recent developments in metacommunity theory have raised awareness that processes occurring at regional scales might interfere with local dynamics and affect conditions for the local coexistence of competing species. Four main paradigms are recognized in this context (namely, neutral, patch-dynamics, species-sorting, and mass-effect), which differ according to the role assigned to ecological or life-history differences among competing species, as well as to the relative time scale of regional vs. local dynamics. We investigated the patterns of regional and local coexistence of two species of shrews (Crocidura russula and Sorex coronatus) sharing a similar diet (generalist insectivores) over four generations, in a spatially structured habitat at the altitudinal limit of their distributions. Local populations were small, and regional dynamics were strong, with high rates of extinction and recolonization. Niche analysis revealed significant habitat differentiation on a few important variables, including temperature and availability of winter resting sites. In sites suitable for both species, we found instances of local coexistence with no evidence of competitive exclusion. Patterns of temporal succession did not differ from random, with no suggestion of a colonization-competition trade-off. Altogether, our data provide support for the mass-effect paradigm, where regional coexistence is mediated by specialization on different habitat types, and local coexistence by rescue effects from source sites. The strong regional dynamics and demographic stochasticity, together with high dispersal rates, presumably contributed to mass effects by overriding local differences in specific competitive abilities.

We developed 11 new microsatellite markers for the European tree frog (Hyla arborea), and tested patterns of polymorphism in 54 adults (27 males and 27 females) from two ponds close to Lausanne (Western Switzerland). One marker was sex linked and two pairs displayed linkage disequilibrium. Comparisons of allele numbers with heterozygosity values support a stepwise-mutation model at neutral equilibrium, with mutation rates spanning nearly two orders of magnitude. These markers will prove useful for population genetic studies and fine-scale investigations requiring genetic assignment techniques.

International audience; Noninvasive population genetics has found many applications in ecology and conservation biology. However, the technical difficulties inherent to the analysis of low quantities of DNA generally tend to limit the efficiency of this approach. The nature of samples and loci used in noninvasive population genetics are important factors that may help increasing the potential success of case studies. Here we reviewed the effects of the source of DNA (hair vs. faeces), the diet of focal species, the length of mitochondrial DNA fragments, and the length and repeat motif of nuclear microsatellite loci on genotyping success (amplification success and rate of allelic dropout). Locus-specific effects appeared to have the greatest impact, amplification success decreasing with both mitochondrial and microsatellite fragments' length, while error rates increase with amplicons' length. Dinucleotides showed best amplification success and lower error rates compared to longer repeat units. Genotyping success did not differ between hair- versus faeces-extracted DNA, and success in faeces-based analyses was not consistently influenced by the diet of focal species. While the great remaining variability among studies implies that other unidentified parameters are acting, results show that the careful choice of genetic markers may allow optimizing the success of noninvasive approaches.

Buccal swabs have recently been used as a minimally invasive sampling method in genetic studies of wild populations, including amphibian species. Yet it is not known to date what is the level of reliability for microsatellite genotypes obtained using such samples. Allelic dropout and false alleles may affect the genotyping derived from buccal samples. Here we quantified the success of microsatellite amplification and the rates of genotyping errors using buccal swabs in two amphibian species, the Alpine newt Triturus alpestris and the Green tree frog Hyla arborea, and we estimated two important parameters for downstream analyses, namely the number of repetitions required to achieve typing reliability and the probability of identity among genotypes. Amplification success was high, and only one locus tested required two to three repetitions to achieve reliable genotypes, showing that buccal swabbing is a very efficient approach allowing good quality DNA retrieval. This sampling method which allows avoiding the controversial toe-clipping will likely prove very useful in the context of amphibian conservation.

The evolution of strong reproductive isolation (RI) is fundamental to the origins and maintenance of biological diversity, especially in situations where geographical distributions of taxa broadly overlap. But what is the history behind strong barriers currently acting in sympatry? Using whole-genome sequencing and single nucleotide polymorphism genotyping, we inferred (i) the evolutionary relationships, (ii) the strength of RI, and (iii) the demographic history of divergence between two broadly sympatric taxa of intertidal snail. Despite being cryptic, based on external morphology,Littorina arcanaandLittorina saxatilisdiffer in their mode of female reproduction (egg-laying versus brooding), which may generate a strong post-zygotic barrier. We show that egg-laying and brooding snails are closely related, but genetically distinct. Genotyping of 3092 snails from three locations failed to recover any recent hybrid or backcrossed individuals, confirming that RI is strong. There was, however, evidence for a very low level of asymmetrical introgression, suggesting that isolation remains incomplete. The presence of strong, asymmetrical RI was further supported by demographic analysis of these populations. Although the taxa are currently broadly sympatric, demographic modelling suggests that they initially diverged during a short period of geographical separation involving very low gene flow. Our study suggests that some geographical separation may kick-start the evolution of strong RI, facilitating subsequent coexistence of taxa in sympatry. The strength of RI needed to achieve sympatry and the subsequent effect of sympatry on RI remain open questions.This article is part of the theme issue ‘Towards the completion of speciation: the evolution of reproductive isolation beyond the first barriers'.

Speciation is the evolutionary process through which a species splits into two lineages that diverge and accumulate reproductive barriers, until complete reproductive isolation is achieved. During this process, the diverging lineages can still exchange genes by hybridisation, but gene flow is progressively restricted by the accumulation of barriers. This results in semi-permeable genomes, whereby some loci exchange freely between lineages and remain undifferentiated while others do not introgress, thus contributing to the establishment of divergent genomic regions, called genomic islands of speciation. The study of the establishment, accumulation, erosion and maintenance of these barriers and their effects on the semipermeability of the genomes of lineages undergoing speciation helps to understand how new species are formed. The advent of high-throughput sequencing techniques has made it possible to characterise the genomic landscape of divergence in multiple lineages undergoing speciation across the tree of life. These studies have shown the influence of the demographic history and genomic architecture as major determinants of the genomic landscape of divergence. However, other factors could intervene and explain the diversity of evolutionary trajectories that may or may not lead to speciation. The main objective of this thesis is to assess the impact of species' life history traits on speciation. We have chosen to study 20 marine fish species subdivided into two lineages (Atlantic and Mediterranean), and presenting a wide diversity of degrees of divergence and life history traits. These traits are thought to impact on the intensity of genetic drift, dispersal abilities and generation time of the species. In the first chapter, we studied the determinants of genetic diversity, the substrate on which divergence is built during the initial separation of lineages. We observed that adult longevity of marine fishes is negatively correlated w ith genetic diversity, and we demonstrated that this relationship could be explained by a greater variance in reproductive success in long-lived species due to reproductive strategies specific to marine fishes (high juvenile mortality, low adult mortality and increased fecundity with age). Then, in a second chapter, we discovered a great diversity of evolutionary histories between species, characterised by a strong gradient of genetic divergence between Atlantic and Mediterranean lineages. This gradient partly reflects the level of semi-permeability of the genomes. Species with low differentiation show low reproductive isolation, whereas the most highly differentiated species show almost complete reproductive isolation. Species' life history traits partly explain this diversity in isolation levels via different mechanisms. Larval duration negatively influences genetic differentiation by modulating dispersal capacities, the effect of body size indicates a negative effect of long-term abundance on divergence, while longevity seems to impact the number of generations elapsed since ancestral separation. In conclusion, the 20 species studied show a surprising variability of evolutionary histories considering the similarities of their biogeographic history and genomic architecture. The relationships between life-history traits and the evolutionary history of the species proved to be complex, but we were nevertheless able to shed light on some of them by decomposing the involvement of traits in the different stages of speciation. The application of the comparative genomics approach developed in this thesis to other suture zones will further extend our knowledge of the determinants of the tempo and mode of speciation., La spéciation est le processus évolutif au cours duquel une espèce se scinde en deux lignées qui divergent en accumulant des barrières reproductives, jusqu'à l’acquisition d’un isolement reproductif total. Durant ce processus, les lignées divergentes peuvent toujours s’échanger des gènes par hybridation, mais le flux génique est progressivement limité par l’accumulation des barrières. Il en résulte une semi-perméabilité des génomes, où certains locus s’échangent librement entre lignées et restent indifférenciés tandis que d’autres n’introgressent pas, contribuant ainsi à l’établissement de régions génomiques divergentes, appelées îlots génomiques de spéciation. L'étude de l’établissement, l’accumulation, l’érosion et la maintenance de ces barrières et de leurs effets sur la semiperméabilité des génomes de lignées en cours de spéciation permet de comprendre comment de nouvelles espèces se forment. L'avènement des techniques de séquençage à haut débit a permis de caractériser le paysage génomique de divergence chez de multiples lignées en cours de spéciation à travers l’arbre du vivant. Ces études ont permis de mesurer l’influence de l’histoire démographique et de l’architecture génomique comme déterminants majeurs du paysage génomique de divergence. Toutefois, d'autres facteurs pourraient intervenir et expliquer la diversité des trajectoires évolutives pouvant conduire ou non à la spéciation. Le principal objectif de cette thèse est d'évaluer l'impact des traits d'histoire de vie des espèces sur la spéciation. Nous avons choisi d’étudier 20 espèces de poissons marins subdivisées en deux lignées (Atlantique et Méditerranéenne), et présentant une large diversité de niveaux de divergence et de traits d’histoire de vie. Dans le premier chapitre, nous avons étudié les déterminants de la diversité génétique, substrat sur lequel s’établit la divergence lors de la séparation initiale des lignées. Nous avons observé que la longévité adulte des po issons marins est corrélée négativement à la diversité génétique, et nous avons démontré que cette relation pouvait s’expliquer par une plus grande variance du succès reproducteur chez les espèces longévives à cause de stratégies reproductives particulières aux poissons marins (forte mortalité juvénile, faible mortalité adulte et augmentation de la fécondité avec l’âge). Puis, dans un second chapitre, nous avons détecté une grande diversité d’histoires évolutives entre espèces, caractérisée par un fort gradient de divergence génétique entre lignées atlantiques et méditerranéennes. Ce gradient reflète en partie le niveau de semi-perméabilité des génomes. Les espèces à faible différentiation présentent un isolement reproductif faible, alors que les espèces les plus fortement différenciées montrent un isolement reproductif quasi-complet. Les traits d’histoire de vie des espèces expliquent en partie cette diversité de niveaux d’isolement via différents mécanismes. La durée de vie larvai re influence négativement la différenciation génétique en modulant les capacités de dispersion, l’effet de la taille du corps indique un effet négatif de l’abondance long-terme sur la divergence, et la longévité semble impacter le nombre de générations écoulées depuis la séparation ancestrale. En conclusion, les 20 espèces étudiées présentent une variabilité surprenante d’histoires évolutives au regard des similitudes de leur histoire biogéographique et leur architecture génomique. Les relations entre traits d’histoire de vie et histoire évolutive des espèces sont complexes, mais nous avons pu éclairer certaines d’entre elles en décomposant l’implication des traits dans les différentes étapes de la spéciation. L’application de l’approche de génomique comparative développée au cours de cette thèse dans d’autres zones de suture permettra d’étendre nos connaissances des déterminants du tempo et du mode de la spéciation.

Within the field of speciation, sympatric areas with different levels of interspecific genetic differentiation offer a good opportunity to understand the nature and evolution of reproductive barriers between species. Jaera (albifrons) albifrons and Jaera (albifrons) praehirsuta are two species of marine isopods that coexist in sympatry along the northern European coasts. Ecological, behavioral and genetic barriers efficiently isolate these two species, except in a unique region (Normandy, France) where morphological phenotypes were described in the 60's.In this thesis, microsatellites and SNPs obtained from RAD-sequencing allowed me to demonstrate that the level of interspecific isolation varies widely between sites, from introgressive hybridization to quasi-complete isolation. A comparative analysis of these sites combining sampling from natural populations, experimental crosses, and genomic analyses then allowed me to: i) demonstrate the predominant role of sexual isolation (which remains strong in introgressed populations), together with a relatively weaker post-zygotic barrier, ii) discover the presence of Wolbachia bacteria within the two species, iii) demonstrate that the coexistence of these species originate from an allopatric speciation followed by secondary contacts with varying levels of heterospecific gene flow renewal, and iv) show that gene flow varies also strongly along the genome, with an effect of sex chromosomes and rearranged chromosomes apparently limiting introgression.; Dans l’étude de la spéciation, l'existence de zones dans lesquelles deux espèces en sympatrie montrent différents niveaux de différenciation génétique constitue une bonne opportunité pour comprendre la nature et l'évolution des barrières à la reproduction entre espèces. Jaera (albifrons) albifrons et Jaera (albifrons) praehirsuta sont deux espèces d’isopodes marins qui coexistent en sympatrie le long des côtes nord-européennes. Des barrières écologiques, comportementales, et génétiques cloisonnent efficacement ces deux espèces, à l'exception d'une région unique (Normandie, France) dans laquelle des morphotypes intermédiaires avaient été décrits dans les années 60.Au cours de cette thèse, l'utilisation de microsatellites et de SNPs obtenus par séquençage RAD ont permis de démontrer que le niveau d'isolement interspécifique varie fortement entre sites, de l'hybridation introgressive à l'isolement quasi-complet. Une analyse comparative de ces sites combinant échantillonnage en populations naturelles, croisements expérimentaux et analyses génomiques a ensuite permis de : i) mettre en avant le rôle prépondérant de l'isolement sexuel (qui reste fort dans les populations introgressées) accompagné d'une barrière post-zygotique relativement faible, ii) découvrir la présence de bactéries Wolbachia au sein des deux espèces, iii) démontrer que la coexistence des deux espèces résulte d'une spéciation allopatrique suivie de contacts secondaires avec reprise de flux de gènes d'intensité variable, et iv) montrer que ces flux de gènes varient également fortement au sein du génome, les chromosomes sexuels et des chromosomes réarrangés semblant limiter fortement l'introgression.

Within the field of speciation, sympatric areas with different levels of interspecific genetic differentiation offer a good opportunity to understand the nature and evolution of reproductive barriers between species. Jaera (albifrons) albifrons and Jaera (albifrons) praehirsuta are two species of marine isopods that coexist in sympatry along the northern European coasts. Ecological, behavioral and genetic barriers efficiently isolate these two species, except in a unique region (Normandy, France) where morphological phenotypes were described in the 60's.In this thesis, microsatellites and SNPs obtained from RAD-sequencing allowed me to demonstrate that the level of interspecific isolation varies widely between sites, from introgressive hybridization to quasi-complete isolation. A comparative analysis of these sites combining sampling from natural populations, experimental crosses, and genomic analyses then allowed me to: i) demonstrate the predominant role of sexual isolation (which remains strong in introgressed populations), together with a relatively weaker post-zygotic barrier, ii) discover the presence of Wolbachia bacteria within the two species, iii) demonstrate that the coexistence of these species originate from an allopatric speciation followed by secondary contacts with varying levels of heterospecific gene flow renewal, and iv) show that gene flow varies also strongly along the genome, with an effect of sex chromosomes and rearranged chromosomes apparently limiting introgression.; Dans l’étude de la spéciation, l'existence de zones dans lesquelles deux espèces en sympatrie montrent différents niveaux de différenciation génétique constitue une bonne opportunité pour comprendre la nature et l'évolution des barrières à la reproduction entre espèces. Jaera (albifrons) albifrons et Jaera (albifrons) praehirsuta sont deux espèces d’isopodes marins qui coexistent en sympatrie le long des côtes nord-européennes. Des barrières écologiques, comportementales, et génétiques cloisonnent efficacement ces deux espèces, à l'exception d'une région unique (Normandie, France) dans laquelle des morphotypes intermédiaires avaient été décrits dans les années 60.Au cours de cette thèse, l'utilisation de microsatellites et de SNPs obtenus par séquençage RAD ont permis de démontrer que le niveau d'isolement interspécifique varie fortement entre sites, de l'hybridation introgressive à l'isolement quasi-complet. Une analyse comparative de ces sites combinant échantillonnage en populations naturelles, croisements expérimentaux et analyses génomiques a ensuite permis de : i) mettre en avant le rôle prépondérant de l'isolement sexuel (qui reste fort dans les populations introgressées) accompagné d'une barrière post-zygotique relativement faible, ii) découvrir la présence de bactéries Wolbachia au sein des deux espèces, iii) démontrer que la coexistence des deux espèces résulte d'une spéciation allopatrique suivie de contacts secondaires avec reprise de flux de gènes d'intensité variable, et iv) montrer que ces flux de gènes varient également fortement au sein du génome, les chromosomes sexuels et des chromosomes réarrangés semblant limiter fortement l'introgression.