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Artificial organs are complex systems of natural or manufactured materials used to supplement failing organs while they recover, sustain failing organs until transplantation, or replace failing organs that cannot recover. Some whole organs have artificial counterparts: heart, kidneys, liver, lungs, and pancreas. Smaller body parts also have artificial counterparts: blood, bones, heart valves, joints, skin, and teeth. In addition, there are mechanical support systems for circulation, hearing, and breathing. Artificial organs are composed of biomaterials, biological or synthetic materials that are adapted for use in medical applications.

Vehicle accident reconstruction is the forensic science of determining the factors contributing to individual motor vehicle accidents. By collecting, documenting, and analyzing evidence recovered from and relating to the scene of a motor vehicle accident, experts can reconstruct the event and determine the primary cause as well as any malfunction, negligence, or criminal intent attached to it. Typically performed in cases involving death or injury, this type of accident investigation applies knowledge from various sciences to discern the roles of drivers, vehicles, and the environment in the collision. Data analysis determines how and why a collision occurred and, in some cases, how similar collisions might be prevented.

DEFINITION: A cigarette is a cylinder of cured, finely cut tobacco wrapped in paper. The paper is ignited, and the smoke is inhaled through the mouth and into the lungs. A cigar is a larger cylinder of dried and fermented tobacco wrapped in whole-leaf tobacco that is also ignited. Cigar smoke is drawn into the mouth, and nicotine is absorbed through the oral membranes; cigar smoke is not inhaled because its alkalinity highly irritates the inner mucous membranes.

DEFINITION: Gamblers Anonymous is a twelve-step recovery program based on Alcoholics Anonymous. There are no requirements for membership other than the desire to stop gambling. The purpose of Gamblers Anonymous is to support personal changes and daily behaviors that lead to a healthy way of living without gambling.

DEFINITION: A technique in which practitioners apply pressure to specific points on the body to balance the body’s flow of energy.

Public health is a practice that focuses on the promotion of physical, mental, and social health and well-being and on the prevention of disease and disability among groups of people. It differs from the practice of medicine because it focuses on prevention rather than cures and addresses the needs of people as a whole rather than as individual persons.

SIGNIFICANCE: Immunogenetics is a branch of science devoted to the connections between genetics and the immune system.

Decontamination is the process of eliminating or inactivating unsafe materials and substances on a person or object. Depending on the contaminant, this process involves physical, chemical, or thermal means, and it should be performed quickly and thoroughly. Substances removed or destroyed by decontamination include poisons, radioactivity, and microbial pathogens (bacteria, viruses, and parasites). Decontamination renders objects safe for use and handling and keeps persons from spreading contaminants.

Water treatment is the process of removing contaminants from water to make it safe for drinking, cooking, bathing, and swimming. Without water treatment, waterborne pathogens such as Cryptosporidium species, Escherichia coli, hepatitis A virus, and Giardia intestinalis (also known as G. lamblia) can proliferate and cause illness and death, often from the dehydration that follows diarrhea.

DEFINITION: Manual techniques that release muscle tension and increase circulation to stimulate the body’s natural healing abilities.

DEFINITION: The force exerted by blood upon the walls of blood vessels as the heart pumps blood through the circulatory system.

GENERAL INDUSTRY: Health Science

Sewage engineering is the discipline of civil engineering that addresses the separation, decontamination, and disposal of waste, especially human excrement, from water supplies. Domestic sewage contains solid and dissolved materials, such as fecal matter, urine, toilet paper, vomitus, food waste, soaps, and other cleaning agents. Separation methods include filtration, adsorption, and precipitation. Decontamination methods include biocides, chemical neutralization, and phagocytosis. Disposal involves collecting, handling, and destroying the final waste products in a manner that is safe for humans and the environment. These processes aim to provide improved water quality for drinking, cooking, and bathing.

Sanitary engineering is the discipline of civil engineering that addresses matters of public health, including water quality (such as potable drinking water, wastewater treatment, storm-sewer drainage, and swimming pool cleanliness), sewage collection, recycling, and disposal. In some jurisdictions, sanitary engineering is now called environmental engineering and also covers issues of air pollution, water pollution, hazardous waste management, and land management. The importance of this discipline, which involves the practical application of engineering and life sciences, is its responsibility for providing a healthy environment for people.

Audio engineering is the capture, enhancement, and reproduction of sounds. It requires an aesthetic appreciation of music and sound quality, a scientific understanding of sound physics, and a technical familiarity with recording equipment and computer software. This applied science is essential to the music industry, film, television, video game production, live television, radio broadcasting, and advertising. In addition, it contributes to educational services for the visually impaired and to forensic evidence analysis.

Audiology is the study of hearing, balance, and related ear disorders. Hearing disorders may be the result of congenital abnormalities, trauma, infections, exposure to loud noise, some medications, and aging. Some of these disorders may be corrected by hearing aids and cochlear implants. Hearing aids amplify sounds so damaged ears can discern them. Some aids fit over the ear with the receiver behind the ear, and some fit partially or completely within the ear canal. Cochlear implants directly stimulate the auditory nerve, and the brain interprets the stimulation as sound.

DEFINITION: Overeaters Anonymous (OA) is a twelve-step recovery program based on the methods and philosophy of Alcoholics Anonymous. OA members profess to be “powerless over food” and that their “lives have become unmanageable.” The purpose of the group is not to promote weight loss and dieting but to support inner changes and daily actions that remove the feeling that one must consume excess and addictive foods.

DEFINITION: A pattern of behavior in which a person routinely ingests large quantities of food beyond the feeling of fullness without the ability to stop.

DEFINITION: Recognizing and removing allergens, pathogens, and other pollutants found in the home or other living environment.

SIGNIFICANCE: Forensic genetics uses DNA or the inherited traits derived from DNA to identify individuals involved in criminal or civil legal cases. Blood tests and DNA testing are used to determine the source of evidence, such as blood stains or semen, left at a crime scene. Forensic DNA analysis is also used to determine paternity or other kinship.

Hygiene involves more than cleanliness; it encompasses the habits humans practice to reduce the risk of receiving and transmitting infectious diseases.