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The present study describes the ultrastructural organization of the mature spermatozoon of the lepocreadioid digenean Prodistomum polonii (Lepocreadiidae) by means of transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Live digeneans were collected from the digestive tract of the Atlantic horse mackerel Trachurus trachurus (Teleostei, Carangidae) captured in the coastal zone of the Mediterranean Sea, off La Chebba (Tunisia). The study reveals that the mature sperm cell of P. polonii is a filiform cell, which is tapered at both extremities. It exhibits the Bakhoum et al.’s type III of the digeneans spermatozoon characterized by the presence of: two 9+'1' axonemes, external ornamentation of the plasma membrane associated with cortical microtubules and located in the posterior part of the anterior region, two bundles of parallel cortical microtubules with their maximum number (15 microtubules) located in the middle part, and the presence of two mitochondria (one of them of moniliform type). According to the location of the external ornamentation, the male gamete of P. polonii presents a Quilichini et al.'s type 2 spermatozoon. Moreover, in the anterior spermatozoon extremity, there is a discontinuous and submembranous layer of electron-dense material. Whereas, the posterior spermatozoon extremity belongs to the Quilichini et al.’s cryptogonimid type. Our results are compared with the available data on digenean spermatology, in particular with species belonging to the superfamily Lepocreadioidea to highlight the potential criteria useful for phylogeny.

The insulin-like growth factor (Igf) binding protein (Igfbp) family has a broad range of physiological functions and a fascinating evolutionary history. This review focuses on the Igfbps of teleost fishes, where genome duplication events have diversified gene repertoire, function, and physiological regulation with six core Igfbps expanded into a family of over twenty genes in some lineages. In addition to briefly summarizing the current state of knowledge on teleost Igfbp evolution, function, and expression-level regulation, we highlight gaps in our understanding and promising areas for future work.

The aim of the present thesis is directed towards the comprehension of the mechanisms involved in the regulation of lipid and carbohydrate metabolism in relevant species in European aquaculture. Special attention has been placed on adipose tissue due to its key role in the control of the overall energy homeostasis and its endocrine functions. Six diets were formulated to determine the feasibility of replacing dietary lipids (from 23 to 17%) by starch (from 12 to 28%) and subsequent replacements in starch by fibre up to levels of 18% in gilthead sea bream. The dietary treatments did not affect fish growth nor feed utilization efficiency and triggered only moderate changes in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. Gilthead sea bream adipose tissue exhibited an activation of the lipogenic pathway and a transcriptional regulation of relevant transcription factors directed to modulate the preferential use of lipids or carbohydrates according to availability. Despite of a lack of hepatic regulation of gluconeogenesis, an efficient metabolic hepatic adaptation to dietary starch was found through the modulation of enzymes directed to increase glucose metabolization and balance fatty acid uptake and lipolysis. These metabolic adaptations encourage the formulation of diets with a relatively high content of starch or fibre. In addition, the capacity of Atlantic salmon adipocytes to synthesise fatty acids from glucose has been demonstrated for the first time. However, the capacity of the pathway is relatively low, which might be contributing to the previously reported glucose intolerance in salmonids. Atlantic salmon adipocytes mainly transformed glucose to glycerol and Krebs-cycle intermediates. The effect of glucose on the transcriptional regulation of enzymes involved in glycolysis, the pentose phosphate pathway and glyceroneogenesis, highlights the relevance of carbohydrate metabolism in fish adipocytes as well as the metabolic adaptation of these cells to ensure the availability of necessary factors and other substrates for lipid synthesis and storage. The implication of adiponectin and TNFα in the regulation of glucose uptake in rainbow trout adipocytes has been explored, showing that both adipokines stimulated glucose uptake without modifying AKT or TOR phosphorylation. However, adiponectin failed to stimulate glucose uptake in insulin-treated adipocytes. Insulin regulated the transcription of the adiponectin system enhancing the mRNA levels of the peptide and reducing those of adiponectin receptors, following the mammalian model. However, neither adiponectin nor TNFα mRNA levels were affected by each other, concluding that the reciprocal suppressive effects reported in mammals are not conserved in fish. TNFα supressed PPARγ at a protein level, corroborating its anti-adipogenic role. However, TNFα enhanced glucose uptake in insulin-stimulated adipocytes, suggesting that the interactions between this cytokine and insulin are not so well defined in fish. Finally, the transcriptomic profile along primary culture of rainbow trout preadipocytes has been characterized revealing that adipogenesis is a complex process involving the coordinated activation or repression of genes associated to the different stages of cell development. It presented high similarities to the mammalian model, being characterized by two main phases: proliferation and differentiation. Proliferation phase was enriched with genes involved in cellular remodelling, autophagy and angiogenesis. In addition, the implication of the eicosanoid signalling pathway was highlighted during this phase. Differentiation phase was enriched with genes involved in energy production, lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. During this phase, the activation of the TR/RXR and the PPAR signalling pathways were revealed. The whole process was driven by a coordinated activation of transcription factors and epigenetic modulators. Overall, these studies have contributed to better understand the mechanisms regulating lipid and carbohydrate metabolisms in teleost fish, as well as adipose tissue growth and development. All this information might be applied to modulate and optimize farming practices.

[spa] La hidratación de los oocitos de teleósteos marinos que producen huevos pelágicos es clave para la supervivencia de los embriones en el océano. Estudios previos han descu-bierto el papel de una acuaporina específica de teleósteos (Aqp1b) durante este proceso, pero se carece todavía de evidencias experimentales directas, así como información sobre la regulación molecular de la Aqp1ab. En la presente tesis, estudios iniciales con el fletan Atlántico (Hippoglossus hippoglossus) confirman que los parálogos aqp1aa y -1ab de teleósteos han surgido probablemente por duplicación génica en tándem, y han demostrado el papel esencial de la Aqp1ab durante la hidratación del oocito. Para investigar el control transcripcional del gen aqp1ab en los oocitos de la dorada (Sparus aurata) se ha aislado su región promotora, la cual contiene elementos cis-reguladores de unión al receptor nuclear de progestinas (Pgr), como la 17α,20β-dihidroxi-4-pregnen-3-ona (17,20β-P), y factores de transcripción Sox. Estudios de localización subcelular indican que el Pgr aparece en el citoplasma de las oogonias, así como en el núcleo de oocitos en crecimiento primario (pre-vitelogénicos) coincidiendo con la activación de la expresión de aqp1ab. En este estadio también se expresan cuatro isoformas diferentes del Pgr, dos de las cuales pueden inhibir la transcripción mediada por el Pgr de forma dominante negativa. Las oogonias también expresan sox3 y -8b, mientras que el sox9b aparece en el estadio de alveolo cortical, cuando se reduce la expresión de aqp1ab. Ex-perimentos de transactivación indican que el Pgr activa la transcripción de aqp1ab, con Sox3 y -8b actuando de forma sinérgica, mientras que el Sox9b reprime este mecanismo. El papel del Pgr se ha investigado sobre explantes ováricos pre-vitelogénicos incubados in vitro, lo cual ha demostrado que la 17,20β-P, producida en las células de la granulosa en respuesta a la hormona folículo estimulante, activa el promotor de aqp1ab en el oocito induciendo la síntesis de Aqp1ab. Los resultados de esta tesis revelan por primera vez una estricta regulación transcripcional del gen aqp1ab durante la oogénesis de teleósteos marinos, lo cual remarca la función fisiológica esencial de este canal de agua durante la formación de los huevos pelágicos, [eng] In marine teleosts that spawn pelagic eggs (pelagophils), the process of oocyte hydration that occurs during meiosis resumption is a key physiological process for the survival of the eggs in the ocean. Previous studies have discovered the role of a teleost-specific aquaporin water channel (Aqp1b) during fish oocyte hydration, but direct experimental evidence for the function of Aqp1b in oocytes is still lacking. In addition, the molecular regulation of the Aqp1b-mediated mechanism remains poorly understood. In this context, the main objectives of the present thesis were to investigate the evolutionary origin of aqp1ab in teleosts, to provide functional evidence of the role of Aqp1b during oocyte hydration, and to begin to dissect the molecular mechanisms involved in the transcriptional regulation of aqp1b in the oocyte of marine teleosts. By integrating the molecular phylogeny with synteny and structural analyses we show that the teleost aqp1aa and -1ab paralogs (previously annotated as aqp1a and -1b, respectively) arose by tandem duplication, and that the Aqp1ab C-terminus is the most rapidly evolving subdomain within the vertebrate aquaporin superfamily. The functional role of Aqp1ab was investigated in Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus), a marine acanthomorph teleost that spawns one of the largest pelagic eggs known. Using immunological inhibition of Aqp1ab in halibut oocytes and artificial expression of the halibut paralog Aqp1aa, we demonstrate that Aqp1ab is required for full hydration of oocytes undergoing meiotic maturation. To investigate the aqp1ab transcriptional regulation in oocytes, we isolated the 5’-flanking region of the gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) aqp1ab gene which contains regulatory cis-elements for the nuclear progestin receptor (Pgr) and SOX transcription factors. The Pgr, as well as sox3 and -8b transcripts, are co-expressed in seabream oo-gonia, whereas in primary growth oocytes, when aqp1ab mRNA and protein are synthesized, the Pgr is translocated into the nucleus. In contrast, sox9b is highly expressed in more advanced oocytes showing the depletion of aqp1ab transcripts. In the seabream, four different pgr transcript variants are expressed in primary growth ovaries which are generated by alternative pre-mRNA splicing. Seabream wild-type Pgr shows the highest transactivation response to progestins such as 17α,20β-dihydroxy-4-pregnen-3-one (17,20β-P) and 17α,20β,21-trihydroxy-4-pregnen-3-one (17,20β,21-P), whereas two of the N-terminally truncated Pgr isoforms regulate novel nuclear and cytosolic mechanisms of dominant-negative repression of Pgr-mediated transcription. Transactivation assays on the aqp1ab promoter demonstrated that aqp1ab transcription is dependent on wild-type Pgr, with Sox3 and -8b acting synergistically, while Sox9b acts as a repressor. Incubation of primary ovarian explants in vitro with 17,20β-P, followed by chromatin immunoprecipitation, confirmed that 17,20β-P-activated Pgr enhanced aqp1ab promoter activation. The production of 17,20β-P in seabream primary growth ovaries in vivo was consistent with the expression of P450c17-II (Cyp17a2) and 20β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (Cbr1), enzymes needed for progestins synthesis, in granulosa cells associated with primary growth oocytes, and with a high concentration of 17,20β-P. Incubation of primary ovarian explants with recombinant piscine follicle-stimulating hormone (rFsh) in vitro stimulated 17,20β-P synthesis, which was reduced in the presence of Cbr1 inhibitors. The rFsh-mediated production of 17,20β-P correlated with the up-regulation of cyp17a2 and cbr1 transcription, as well as of wild-type pgr mRNA and protein levels. Altogether, these data suggest that aqp1ab transcription in seabream primary growth oocytes is under Fsh regulation through the synthesis of progestins. The results of this thesis show that the Aqp1ab mediated mechanism for oocyte hy-dration is likely conserved in marine teleosts. In addition, the tight transcriptional reg-ulation of Aqp1ab during oogenesis highlights the essential physiological role of this water channel and opens new research avenues for understanding the molecular basis of egg formation in marine fish.

[eng] The aim of this thesis was to study the function and regulation of two of the major players in the carbohydrate metabolism regulated by insulin, the facilitative glucose transporters GLUT2 and GLUT4, in teleost fish. In order to investigate the role of factors exerting a control on the transcription of the GLUT4 gene, we cloned the GLUT4 promoter in Fugu. The 5 ́-flanking region of the Fugu GLUT4 gene showed similar features to that in mammals. Structurally, comparative analysis between the cloned promoter sequence and that of other fish promoters revealed a high degree of conservation among teleost species. Furthermore, we demonstrated the functionality of the cloned Fugu GLUT4 promoter, and by generating several deletion constructs we were able to determine the minimal promoter. In this study, we have observed that the activity of the Fugu GLUT4 promoter is inhibited by insulin in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Furthermore, all the deletion constructs were repressed by insulin, suggesting the presence of regulatory elements downstream of the TSS. Next, we investigated the effects of PPARγ activation in L6 murine muscle cells transfected with the cloned Fugu GLUT4 promoter. Our results showed that stimulation with PG-J2 significantly stimulated the activity of the Fugu GLUT4 promoter and that this effect was abolished in the Fugu GLUT4 promoter deletions lacking the PPAR/RXR motifs. Finally, we investigated the in vitro effects of experimentally controlled muscle fiber contraction using C2C12 contractile cells expressing the construct containing the Fugu GLUT4 promoter. Using this system to mimic the effects of exercise in vitro in differentiated myotubes we showed an increase in the transcriptional activity of the Fugu GLUT4 promoter. Next studying the function of GLUT2 at early developmental stages we investigated the expression pattern of GLUT2 during embryonic development in zebrafish by ISH, observing transcripts in the liver, pronephric tubules, anterior intestine, endocrine pancreas and neurons surrounding the hindbrain region. To study its function during the early developmental stages in zebrafish we knocked down GLUT2 using antisense morpholinos. Our results showed that embryos lacking GLUT2 display a delay of the whole body development with severe alterations in the midbrain and hindbrain ventricles. Next, by studying the functional alterations triggered by the lack of GLUT2 we observed that morphant embryos displayed an impairment of glucose uptake in the whole body but especially in the head region. Interestingly, a similar pattern was found when assaying cell viability in these embryos, showing a significant increase in apoptotic cell death, mainly located in the cephalic area. Furthermore, blocking the expression of GLUT2 resulted in alterations in the asymmetric distribution of some endoderm-derived organs shown to express this glucose transporter, namely the liver and the endocrine and exocrine pancreas. Additionally, we studied the transcriptional alterations in these embryos by microarray analysis. Finally, we set out to establish an in vitro system using the mammalian β-cell line MIN6 in order to further study the physiological function of zebrafish GLUT2. Our results showed that we were able to knockdown endogenous GLUT2 leading to a loss of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in MIN6 cells. Furthermore, we successfully established the conditions for the expression of zebrafish GLUT2 in MIN6 and observed a significantly increase in the basal glucose uptake in the pancreatic cells. In addition, preliminary results point to a possible increase in the glucose uptake in cells expressing the rat GLUT2 construct., [spa] El objetivo de esta tesis fue estudiar la función y regulación de dos de los principales implicados en el metabolismo glucídico regulado por la insulina, los transportadores de glucosa GLUT2 y GLUT4, en los peces teleósteos. En vertebrados no mamíferos, GLUT2 ha sido poco caracterizado hasta la fecha. Se ha demostrado en varias especies de teleósteos que GLUT2 se expresa en los principales tejidos sensibles a la insulina, similar a lo que se describe en los mamíferos. Sin embargo, las propiedades funcionales y el papel fisiológico de GLUT2 apenas han sido descritos en peces. En vista de ello, se ha caracterizado GLUT2 en el pez cebra, ya que dicha especie es uno de los modelos más reconocidos para el estudio de la fisiología, el desarrollo y el metabolismo. En cuanto a GLUT4, nuestro grupo ha sido pionero en la investigación de este transportador en peces teleósteos desde que Planas et al. caracterizaron el primer homologo de GLUT4 en vertebrados inferiores. A pesar de que se ha estudiado más este transportador de glucosa que GLUT2, la información sobre los factores que intervienen en la regulación de la transcripción del gen GLUT4 han sido escasamente caracterizados en mamíferos, mientras que no hay datos disponibles en los vertebrados inferiores. Para ello, en este estudio hemos analizado la regulación de un promotor de GLUT4 de teleósteos bajo la acción de estímulos con conocida capacidad para modular la transcripción y la expresión de GLUT4 en los mamíferos, como la insulina, la contracción de fibras musculares y PPARs.

Genome duplications increase genetic diversity and may facilitate the evolution of gene subfunctions. Little attention, however, has focused on the evolutionary impact of lineage-specific gene loss. Here, we show that identifying lineage-specific gene loss after genome duplication is important for understanding the evolution of gene subfunctions in surviving paralogs and for improving functional connectivity among human and model organism genomes. We examine the general principles of gene loss following duplication, coupled with expression analysis of the retinaldehyde dehydrogenase Aldh1a gene family during retinoic acid signaling in eye development as a case study. Humans have three ALDH1A genes, but teleosts have just one or two. We used comparative genomics and conserved syntenies to identify loss of ohnologs (paralogs derived from genome duplication) and to clarify uncertain phylogenies. Analysis showed that Aldh1a1 and Aldh1a2 form a clade that is sister to Aldh1a3-related genes. Genome comparisons showed secondarily loss of aldh1a1 in teleosts, revealing that Aldh1a1 is not a tetrapod innovation and that aldh1a3 was recently lost in medaka, making it the first known vertebrate with a single aldh1a gene. Interestingly, results revealed asymmetric distribution of surviving ohnologs between co-orthologous teleost chromosome segments, suggesting that local genome architecture can influence ohnolog survival. We propose a model that reconstructs the chromosomal history of the Aldh1a family in the ancestral vertebrate genome, coupled with the evolution of gene functions in surviving Aldh1a ohnologs after R1, R2, and R3 genome duplications. Results provide evidence for early subfunctionalization and late subfunction-partitioning and suggest a mechanistic model based on altered regulation leading to heterochronic gene expression to explain the acquisition or modification of subfunctions by surviving ohnologs that preserve unaltered ancestral developmental programs in the face of gene loss., Author Summary Gene duplication may facilitate the acquisition of genetic diversity. Little is known, however, about the impact of gene loss on the functions of surviving genes. When a gene is lost, can other closely related genes evolve to perform the functions of the lost gene? Answering this question can be difficult because the proof for gene loss is based on negative evidence and thus can easily pass unnoticed. Here, we illustrate how the comparison of genomic neighborhoods in different species can help reconstruct the chromosomal history of a gene family and provide robust evidence for gene loss, even without an appropriate early-diverging comparator group. Identifying gene loss is important because it helps distinguish between gene gain as a lineage-specific innovation and gene loss as a lineage-specific simplification. As a case study, we investigated the expression of the Aldh1a family, which is crucial for retinoic acid signaling in development of eyes, limbs, the brain, and in cancer. Results showed that gene loss is indeed associated with the evolution of functional change in surviving gene family members. Our results highlight the relevance of comparative genomics for identifying gene loss and improving the functional connectivity among human and model organism genomes.

Biologia de la reproducció.-- 13 pages, 4 figures, 1 table, [CA] El recent descobriment de la kisspeptina (producte del gen KISS1), conjuntament amb el seu receptor (producte del gen KISS1R), i de la seva relació amb el control de l'inici de la maduresa sexual en tots els vertebrats, ha estat descrit com una de les troballes més rellevants de la biologia reproductiva en els últims anys. La kisspeptina té un efecte directe sobre l'hormona alliberadora de gonadotrofines, la qual desencadena una cascada hormonal que finalment acaba a les gònades amb la secreció dels esteroides sexuals, els quals provoquen la consegüent maduració de l'individu. En aquest treball s'explica el descobriment dels gens KISS1 i KISS1R, l'estructura d'aquests gens i dels seus productes proteics, i es fa referència als mecanismes endocrins responsables tant de la regulació endògena com dels possibles factors externs que afecten el sistema kisspeptina-KISS1R. També, i amb especial èmfasi en els peixos teleostis, es discuteixen les possibles causes de les diferències i similituds trobades en l'expressió cerebral del sistema kisspeptina-KISS1R. Finalment, s'avaluen les perspectives futures en el camp del control de la reproducció mitjançant la manipulació del sistema kisspeptina-KISS1R, [EN] The discovery of kisspeptin (the product of the KISS1 gene) together with its receptor (product of the KISS1R gene), and the relationship with the control of the onset of puberty in all vertebrates has been described as one the most important findings in reproductive biology in the last years. Kisspeptin stimulates gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH), initiating the hormonal cascade which ends in the gonads with the secretion of the sex steroids which, in turn, drive sexual maturation. This paper describes the origin and discovery of the KISS1 and KISS1R genes, the structure of these genes as well as their protein products. The endocrine mechanisms and the exogenous factors affecting the kisspeptin- KISS1R complex are also discussed. Finally, we describe the multiple functions in relationship with this system in all vertebrates and discuss the differences and similarities regarding the neural expression of kisspeptin-KISS1R complex in several teleost fishes. Finally, the future perspectives in the field of the control reproduction by the manipulation of the kisspeptin-KISS1R complex are discussed

Els transportadors de glucosa de difusió facilitada (GLUTs) són proteïnes essencials per permetre l'entrada de glucosa dins la cèl·lula. Concretament, el GLUT4 s'ha descrit com la isoforma més important per al manteniment de la glucèmia, ja que és el mediador de l'acció de la insulina per incrementar la taxa de captació de glucosa. Fins ara en peixos només s'han identificat quatre isoformes de GLUTs, i entre elles hi destaca el GLUT4, el qual va ser clonat per primera vegada en truita comuna ("Salmo trutta"). A l'inici d'aquesta tesi ja existien algunes evidències sobre la regulació de la insulina sobre l'expressió d'aquest transportador in vivo. No obstant, es desconeixia si l'acció de la insulina era un efecte directe sobre el teixit muscular o bé actuava a través d'altres mediadors. Per altra banda, tampoc es coneixia l'acció de la insulina sobre la proteïna GLUT4 de truita. Per tant, en aquesta tesi hem intentat resoldre aquestes qüestions per poder contribuir a un millor coneixement d'un dels elements importants que intervé en el metabolisme dels carbohidrats en els peixos teleostis.En aquest estudi es va demostrar que els nivells d'insulina circulants són capaços de modular el contingut de proteïna GLUT4 in vivo en el múscul esquelètic de truita i que aquesta regulació és específica del tipus de fibra muscular. També es va demostrar que els efectes de la insulina sobre l'expressió de GLUT4 en el múscul esquelètic de truita són deguts a l'acció directa d'aquesta sobre les cèl·lules musculars. L'expressió basal de GLUT4 augmenta al llarg de la diferenciació de les cèl·lules musculars de truita i, paral·lelament, també augmenta lleugerament l'expressió de GLUT1. La insulina i l'IGF-I estimulen l'expressió de GLUT4 i els seus efectes són més evidents en miotubs. La insulina, en general, promou l'acumulació d'ARN missatger de GLUT1 en les cèl·lules musculars de truita. Per altra banda, l'IGF-I augmenta l'expressió de GLUT1 en mioblasts.En aquesta tesi també es va estudiar la regulació del tràfic del GLUT4 de truita per la insulina en cèl·lules musculars L6. Amb aquest objectiu es va generar una línia estable de cèl·lules L6 que expressaven el GLUT4 de truita amb un epítop myc a la seva porció extracel·lular (btGLUT4myc). La insulina va estimular l'aparició del btGLUT4myc a la membrana plasmàtica, augmentant així la captació de glucosa en aquestes cèl·lules. No obstant, en estat basal un major percentatge de btGLUT4myc estava ja present a la superfície cel·lular comparat amb el GLUT4myc de rata. Els experiments d'internalització de GLUT4myc van demostrar que l'endocitosi del btGLUT4myc és més lenta que la del GLUT4myc de rata. Per tant, aquests resultats suggereixen que les diferències observades entre el tràfic del GLUT4 de truita i el GLUT4 de rata poden ser degudes a diferències en alguns motius aminoacídics dels quals en mamífers s'ha demostrat que participen en la internalització i la retenció intracel·lular del transportador en estat basal. També s'ha vist que la insulina estimula la translocació de btGLUT4 en les cèl·lules musculars de truita i com a conseqüència augmenta el transport de glucosa en aquestes cèl·lules. Per altra banda, els estudis d'immunofluorescència van demostrar que en estat basal el btGLUT4 es troba a l'interior de les cèl·lules de truita i concentrat a la regió perinuclear, tal i com s'ha descrit prèviament en mamífers.En conjunt podem concloure que els mecanismes de regulació de la insulina sobre el GLUT4 en el múscul esquelètic ja existeixen en els vertebrats inferiors, malgrat que presenten algunes diferències respecte als mamífers. Així, podem veure que al llarg de l'evolució s'ha perfeccionat la regulació de la captació de glucosa fins arribar a ser un mecanisme eficient que permet una recuperació ràpida de la glucèmia., In the present work, we demostrated that insulin plasma levels may modulate GLUT4 protein content in vivo in trout skeletal muscle, but in a fiber-type dependent manner. Furthermore, insulin stimulates GLUT4 gene expression in trout skeletal muscle by acting directly on muscle cells. Basal GLUT4 expression increases throughout differentiation of muscle cells, as well as GLUT1 expression. Insulin and IGF-I increase GLUT4 mRNA levels, but their effects are more pronounced in fully differentiated myotubes. Insulin promotes mRNA accumulation in trout muscle cells. IGF-I increases GLUT1 expression in myoblasts.We also studied the regulation of trout GLUT4 traffic by insulin in L6 muscle cells. To address this issue we generated a stable cell line of L6 cells that express the myc-tagged trout GLUT4 (btGLUT4myc). Insulin stimulates btGLUT4myc translocation to the plasma membrane, resulting in an enhanced glucose uptake in these cells. However, in the basal state a higher percentage of btGLUT4myc is already present at the cell surface compared to rat-GLUT4myc. Internalization experiments of GLUT4myc demonstrated that btGLUT4myc endocytosis is slower than that of rat-GLUT4myc. Therefore, these data suggest that these differences between mammalian and fish GLUT4 in terms of traffic could be related to differences in the sequence of certain protein motifs shown to be important for internalization and intracellular retention of GLUT4. Moreover, insulin also stimulates the translocation of endogenous GLUT4 in trout muscle cells leading to an increased glucose transport activity in these cells. On the other hand, immunofluorescence experiments revealed that under basal conditions btGLUT4 is located in the cytoplasm of trout muscle cells and concentrated in the perinuclear region.Overall, we may conclude that the mechanisms of insulin regulation on GLUT4 in skeletal muscle already exist in lower vertebrates, although they present some differences compared to mammals. Thus, glucose transport regulation has been improved through evolution to become an efficient mechanism that allows a rapid recovery of glycaemia.

En aquest treball de tesi doctoral es descriu l'estructura gonadal, gametogènesi i cicle anual de Scorpaena porcus, S. scrofa i S. elongata per tal d'aprofundir en el coneixement dels diferents graus d'especialització dins l'oviparisme en peixos. Es pretén fer èmfasi en aquells trets inusuals que difereixen del què s'ha descrit fins ara per la majoria de les espècies ovípares de teleostis, i relacionar-los amb l'estratègia reproductiva de les espècies que els presentenEl mostreig s'ha dut a terme de forma intensiva entre l'any 2000 i 2002, tot i que s'ha continuat recol·lectant mostres fins a l'agost de 2004, amb més o menys freqüència segons la necessitat. En total s'han obtingut 258 exemplars de S. porcus, 119 de S. scrofa i 46 de S. elongata.S'ha pogut veure com S. porcus, S. scrofa i S. elongata són espècies ovípares ovulípares especialitzades, ja que la seva estructura ovàrica presenta tot una sèrie de trets molt particulars i poc comuns a la resta de peixos ovípars estudiats fins ara: posició central del raquis musculo-connectiu que es troba envoltat completament pel lumen i la paret ovàrica; presència de peduncles en oòcits en fase de creixement secundari; escassetat i mida petita dels alvèols corticals; poc gruix de la zona radiata; i secreció d'una massa gelatinosa que engloba els ous en el moment de la posta. Totes aquestes característiques també s'han observat en Scorpaena notata, suggerint que l'especialització de l'oviparisme ovulípar es dóna en tot el gènere Scorpaena.L'estructura testicular i l'espermatogènesi d'aquestes espècies també és força particular. Per una banda els testicles són del tipus lobular no-restringit, tot i que presenten algunes característiques com la ordenació parcial dels cists segons l'estadi de maduració de les cèl·lules germinals que contenen i l'absència de lumen central, que actualment només s'ha observat en testicles del tipus lobular restringit de les espècies de la sèrie Aterinomorpha. Per l'altre banda, l'espermatogènesi és del tipus semicística, és a dir, els cists s'obren abans d'acabar tot el procés i les cèl·lules germinals s'acaben de desenvolupar a la llum del lòbul fins a espermatozoides.La posta d'aquestes espècies és múltipla i constisteix en una massa gelatinosa d'ous pelàgica, que en el cas de S. porcus s'alliberen entre els mesos de juny i agost, i en S. scrofa, a partir del mes de juliol. S'ha relacionat la presència d'aquesta massa amb un aparellament mascle-femella, de manera que el mascle alliberaria l'esperma directament sobre la massa d'ous, assegurant així la fartilització total dels mateixos., The present work describes gonadal structure, gametogenesis and annual cycle of Scorpaena porcus, S. scrofa and S. elongate, to go more deeply into the knowledge of different degree of oviparity specialization in fishes. We pretend to emphasize unusual features that diverge from those that have been described until now for oviparous teleosts.Sampling was performed intensively between years 2000 and 2002. However, collection of specimens was continued until August 2004 sporadically according to experimental needs. We obtained a total of 258 specimens of S. porcus, 119 of S. scrofa and 46 of S. elongata.S. porcus, S. scrofa and S. elongata are specialized ovuliparous species. The ovary showed many characteristics that are not typical for oviparous fishes: central ovarian stroma, pedunculate oocytes, scarcity and small size of cortical alveoli, thinness of the zona radiata, and a gelatinous matrix secreted during the maturation. All these features also were observed in Scorpaena notata suggesting that specialized ovuliparity probably occurs in the entire genus Scorpaena.Testicular structure and spermatogenesis are unusual too. On one hand, these three species have an unrestricted lobular testis. However, they present a partial arrangement of cists according to the stage of development of germinal cells, and they don't have central lumen, two features that currently have only been described for the restricted lobular testes of aterinomorph fishes. On the other hand, spermatogenesis is semicystic: cysts open before the end of spermatogenesis, which is then completed in the lobule lumen.These species are multiple spawning fishes, and they release a pelagic gelatinous mass of eggs. Spawning in S. porcus occurs between June and August, and in S. scrofa begins in July. The presence of the gelatinous mass of eggs has been related to a mating behaviour between male and female that guarantees the fertilization of the whole pond.

Resum de la tesi de doctorat de la Universitat de Girona, de Marta Muñoz i titulada 'Biologie de la reproduction de quelques Scorpaeniformes de Méditerranée occidentale (Teleostei)'

[spa] A través de estudios de ayuno y realimentación, y de tipo y cantidad de dieta suministrada, hemos comprobado cómo afecta el estado nutricional a enzimas clave implicadas en glucólisis-gluconeogénesis, vía de las pentosas fosfato y metabolismo de aminoácidos en hígado del pez teleósteo Sparus aurata. La investigacion se ha centrado en el control de la expresión génica de la enzima bifuncional 6-PF 2-K/FRU 2,6-P2ASA, responsable de la sintesis y degradación de FRU 2,6-P2, principal activador de la glucólisis e inhibidor de la gluconeogénesis. Flujo glucolítico, ruta de las pentosas, así como actividad quinasa, cantidad de proteína y niveles de mRNA de 6-PF 2-K/FRU 2,6-P2ASA, parámetros todos disminuídos por el ayuno, correlacionaron con la cantidad de dieta suministrada y con el nivel de carbohidratos aportado por la dieta. Esta enzima ha mostrado ser regulada a corto plazo fundamentalmente por alosterismo y/o modificación covalente, y a largo plazo por el nivel de proteína y mensajero. El análisis de los niveles de mRNA por Northern Blot se ha realizado con una sonda homóloga obtenida por RT-PCR, cuya secuencia es la primera descrita para el mensajero de 6-PF 2-K/FRU, 2,6-P2ASA en peces.