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Early diagnosis of an abdominal pregnancy is difficult since it is associated with a wide range of signs and symptoms. However, ultrasound is the most effective method for diagnosing an abdominal ectopic pregnancy. We present a case of advanced abdominal ectopic pregnancy, which progressed to the second trimester and ended up with fetal death. Despite having repeated ultrasound scanning, the diagnosis was missed. This case report emphasizes the need for a high index of suspicion and correlation of the patient's signs and symptoms with ultrasound findings to make an early diagnosis of abdominal ectopic pregnancy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Tick-transmitted diseases are the main constraint in the development of the livestock industry in Tanzania. In this study, we investigated the occurrence of pathogens transmitted by ticks in local breeds of cattle kept under a free-range management system in the Tanga region, Tanzania. The study revealed a high infection rate of the pathogens that cause theileriosis (Theileria parva, Theileria mutans and Theileria taurotragi), anaplasmosis (Anaplasma marginale) and babesiosis (Babesia bigemina) in the sampled cattle. Moreover, the results show that a good number of cattle were infected with more than one pathogen. Notably, the study revealed different strains of Babesia bigemina and Theileria mutans in the population of cattle involved in the study. Furthermore, similar strains of Theileria parva and Anaplasma marginale were revealed. The information produced by this study will help policy makers to set up control strategies to contain these diseases. The control of tick-transmitted diseases will certainly improve cattle health and production. Therefore, the livelihood of the pastoralists of the Tanga region in Tanzania will be improved. Tick-borne diseases (TBDs) are a major hindrance to livestock production in pastoral communities of Africa. Although information on tick-borne infections is necessary for setting up control measures, this information is limited in the pastoral communities of Tanzania. Therefore, this study aimed to provide an overview of the tick-borne infections in the indigenous cattle of Tanzania. A total of 250 blood samples were collected from the indigenous zebu cattle in the Tanga region, Tanzania. Then, we conducted a molecular survey using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and gene sequencing to detect and identify the selected tick-borne pathogens. The PCR was conducted using assays, based on Theileria spp. (18S rRNA), Theileria parva (p104), Theileria mutans and T. taurotragi (V4 region of the 18S rRNA), Babesia bigemina (RAP-1a), B. bovis (SBP-2), Anaplasma marginale (heat shock protein groEL) and Ehrlichia ruminantium (pCS20). The PCR screening revealed an overall infection rate of (120/250, 48%) for T. mutans, (64/250, 25.6%) for T. parva, (52/250, 20.8%) for T. taurotragi, (33/250, 13.2%) for B. bigemina and (81/250, 32.4%) for A. marginale. Co-infections of up to four pathogens were revealed in 44.8% of the cattle samples. A sequence analysis indicated that T. parva p104 and A. marginale groEL genes were conserved among the sampled animals with sequence identity values of 98.92–100% and 99.88–100%, respectively. Moreover, the B. bigemina RAP-1a gene and the V4 region of the 18S rRNA of T. mutans genes were diverse among the sampled cattle, indicating the sequence identity values of 99.27–100% and 22.45–60.77%, respectively. The phylogenetic analyses revealed that the T. parva (p104) and A. marginale (groEL) gene sequences of this study were clustered in the same clade. In contrast, the B. bigemina (RAP-1a) and the T. mutans V4 region of the 18S rRNA gene sequences appeared in the different clades. This study provides important basement data for understanding the epidemiology of tick-borne diseases and will serve as a scientific basis for planning future control strategies in the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tick-borne diseases (TBDs) are a major hindrance to livestock production in pastoral communities of Africa. Although information on tick-borne infections is necessary for setting up control measures, this information is limited in the pastoral communities of Tanzania. Therefore, this study aimed to provide an overview of the tick-borne infections in the indigenous cattle of Tanzania. A total of 250 blood samples were collected from the indigenous zebu cattle in the Tanga region, Tanzania. Then, we conducted a molecular survey using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and gene sequencing to detect and identify the selected tick-borne pathogens. The PCR was conducted using assays, based on Theileria spp. (18S rRNA), Theileria parva (p104), Theileria mutans and T. taurotragi (V4 region of the 18S rRNA), Babesia bigemina (RAP-1a), B. bovis (SBP-2), Anaplasma marginale (heat shock protein groEL) and Ehrlichia ruminantium (pCS20). The PCR screening revealed an overall infection rate of (120/250, 48%) for T. mutans, (64/250, 25.6%) for T. parva, (52/250, 20.8%) for T. taurotragi, (33/250, 13.2%) for B. bigemina and (81/250, 32.4%) for A. marginale. Co-infections of up to four pathogens were revealed in 44.8% of the cattle samples. A sequence analysis indicated that T. parva p104 and A. marginale groEL genes were conserved among the sampled animals with sequence identity values of 98.92–100% and 99.88–100%, respectively. Moreover, the B. bigemina RAP-1a gene and the V4 region of the 18S rRNA of T. mutans genes were diverse among the sampled cattle, indicating the sequence identity values of 99.27–100% and 22.45–60.77%, respectively. The phylogenetic analyses revealed that the T. parva (p104) and A. marginale (groEL) gene sequences of this study were clustered in the same clade. In contrast, the B. bigemina (RAP-1a) and the T. mutans V4 region of the 18S rRNA gene sequences appeared in the different clades. This study provides important basement data for understanding the epidemiology of tick-borne diseases and will serve as a scientific basis for planning future control strategies in the study area.

Dutch scholar Ridder Samsom has noted that few of the writings of religious scholars among the Swahili speaking peoples of coastal East Africa have survived destruction caused by natural and human factors. Other factors that have complicated matters include the political developments and uncertainties of the colonial period (late 19th century to roughly 1960) that led to the abandonment of the use of the Arabic script, not to mention ongoing weak conservation practices. Nevertheless, the recent identification of a Swahili manuscript of the Qur'ān in Arabic script by Shaykh Ali Hemed al-Buhriy (1889-1957), undoubtedly the foremost Islamic religious scholar of mainland Tanzania during the colonial period, represents an important contribution to the still-growing Islamic scholarship in East Africa. The manuscript (in Mrima, the Swahili dialect spoken on the northern coast of mainland Tanzania) ranks alongside Swahili translations of the Qur'ān by other leading Islamic scholars of East Africa such as Shaykh al-Amin Mazrui of Mombasa, a colleague and personal friend of the Shaykh. It was handwritten by Shaykh al-Buhriy in the 1950s during the terminal phase of the colonial era. The Shaykh had served as the qadhi (Muslim judge) of Tanga (1921-1935), although his position approximated that of the chief qadhi of Tanganyika, a post that, unlike the case of Kenya, had never been created. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to assess the seasonal effects on quantity and quality of fodder resources and associated utilization practices among smallholder dairy farmers in Western Usambara Highlands (WUHs) in Tanzania. The WUHs are among the major milk producing areas under smallholder dairy farming systems (SDFS) in Tanzania. Dry season fodder scarcity is a widespread problem affecting the East African SDFS and has been shown to contribute to over 40% reduction in milk yield. There is limited information with regard to seasonal fodder fluctuation and its effects on productivity of dairy cows in different landscape levels of Tanzania. Field and household surveys were conducted in 150 dairy cattle farming households from five villages in three wards located in WUHs. Survey data were analyzed using IBM SPSS version 21. In addition, remote sensing techniques were employed on gap-filled and smoothed Landsat data to generate land cover maps and bimonthly normalized difference vegetation index—time series for the 2009-2016. SDFS landscape was highly heterogeneous typified by crops, bushes, and forests. On average, the household landholding was 1.3 ha, while herd size was three cattle. About 87% of household land was devoted to crop growing with limited pasture along the farm margins and contour strips. Fodder scarcity was the major challenge during the dry season (July to October) as indicated by 87% of the respondents. On-farm fodder resources contributed most of the cattle diet (73%) while rangeland, forest, and purchased feed provided small amount. Natural pasture and napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) were the most important feeds in wet season while maize stover was most significant during the dry season. Maize stover was profusely stored for dry season feeding and neither silage nor hay making was practiced. The nutritional values of the fibrous feeds declined during the dry season, whereby the metabolizable energy and crude protein contents were 6.0 MJ/kg and 10.1% dry matter, respectively, during wet season compared to 4.8 MJ/kg and 7.8% dry matter, respectively, during the dry season. Consequently, milk yield drops from 5.6 l per cow per day in the wet season to 3.0 l in the dry season. It is concluded that dry season fodder scarcity is a major problem in the WUHs and it hinders sustainable dairy production. It is therefore suggested that increase in fodder production as well as adoption of fodder conservation and feeding technologies are inevitable if sustainable dairy production is to be met in the Western Usambara Highlands and elsewhere with similar environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: A demand-driven epidemiological field and laboratory investigation of a 'bovine blindness syndrome, BBS' was conducted in Mkinga district of Tanzania during the period of June through August, 2009. Materials and methods: Participatory epidemiological (PE) methods including focus group discussion (FGD), proportional piling and matrix scoring were used to characterize clinical signs, disease impact and risk factors for BBS as perceived by livestock keepers. PE investigation was complimented by microbiological culture of ocular discharges (n = 96 swab samples), clinical examination of animals and entomological investigation of the 'butterfly insects like' that were suspected by livestock keepers to be associated with BBS. Results: Matrix scoring showed moderate to good agreement between informant groups on the clinical signs, risk factors, disease impact and occurrence which coincides with rainy season. Clinical examination of cattle (n=177) from six villages revealed that 72 (40.7%) presented discharges from eyes, of which the majority had serous discharges (n=35; 48.6%) while muco-purulent and dried discharges were recorded in 19.2% and 32.2% of the animals, respectively. Of the 37 cattle that were found to be blind (based on obstacle test), most were affected in the right eye and the prevalence of blindness was significantly higher in indigenous than in cross-bred cattle (26.1% vs 5.4%, p=0.0027). Entomological examination of insect specimens identified the suspected 'butterfly insects' to be moths that belong to the species Arcyophora longivalvis, reported to serve as mechanical carriers for Moraxella bovis, a bacterium that causes Infectious Bovine Keratoconjuctivitis (IBK or Pinkeye) which among others, it causes blindness in cattle. M. bovis was isolated from 83.7% of 96 samples cultured. Conclusion: It is concluded that blindness in cattle in the area under study district was due to M. bovis infection. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study in East Africa which has associated A. longivalvis moths with transmission of IBK. Appropriate disease prevention and control measures for pinkeye should be adopted in order to safeguard animal health in Mkinga. [Vet World 2012; 5(10.000): 581-589]

Highlights: [•] LF situation in medium-sized city assessed after seven rounds of MDA. [•] Considerable reduction in infection and transmission of LF noted. [•] Mf and CFA prevalences still well above cut-off level for stopping MDA. [•] Urban individuals to be motivated and engaged to comply with intervention measures. [•] High residual chronic disease burden emphasizes importance of morbidity management. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The mosquito Skusea pembaensis Theobald inhabits mangrove habitats in East Africa, where the adults oviposit on crabs and the larvae undergo development in the water at the bottom of crab burrows. In Tanga, Tanzania, Sk. pembaensis adults were observed in and around the burrows of the land crab Cardisoma carnifex Herbst, a previously unreported association. C. carnifex adults were transported from the mangrove to a laboratory holding container, immersed in tap water, and released 2 days later. Larvae of Skusea pembaensis were recovered from 91 % of C. carnifex of diverse sizes and both sexes, preliminary evidence of the close association between these two species in coastal Northeastern Tanzania. Sk. pembaensis is a neglected species but may be a vector of medical importance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: A demand-driven epidemiological field and laboratory investigation of a 'bovine blindness syndrome, BBS' was conducted in Mkinga district of Tanzania during the period of June through August, 2009. Materials and methods: Participatory epidemiological (PE) methods including focus group discussion (FGD), proportional piling and matrix scoring were used to characterize clinical signs, disease impact and risk factors for BBS as perceived by livestock keepers. PE investigation was complimented by microbiological culture of ocular discharges (n = 96 swab samples), clinical examination of animals and entomological investigation of the 'butterfly insects like' that were suspected by livestock keepers to be associated with BBS. Results: Matrix scoring showed moderate to good agreement between informant groups on the clinical signs, risk factors, disease impact and occurrence which coincides with rainy season. Clinical examination of cattle (n=177) from six villages revealed that 72 (40.7%) presented discharges from eyes, of which the majority had serous discharges (n=35; 48.6%) while muco-purulent and dried discharges were recorded in 19.2% and 32.2% of the animals, respectively. Of the 37 cattle that were found to be blind (based on obstacle test), most were affected in the right eye and the prevalence of blindness was significantly higher in indigenous than in cross-bred cattle (26.1% vs 5.4%, p=0.0027). Entomological examination of insect specimens identified the suspected 'butterfly insects' to be moths that belong to the species Arcyophora longivalvis, reported to serve as mechanical carriers for Moraxella bovis, a bacterium that causes Infectious Bovine Keratoconjuctivitis (IBK or Pinkeye) which among others, it causes blindness in cattle. M. boviswas isolated from 83.7% of 96 samples cultured. Conclusion: It is concluded that blindness in cattle in the area under study district was due to M. bovis infection. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study in East Africa which has associated A. longivalvis moths with transmission of IBK. Appropriate disease prevention and control measures for pinkeye should be adopted in order to safeguard animal health in Mkinga. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A cross-sectional study was conducted between May 2003 and January 2004 on 130 households and 655 (246 indigenous and 409 crossbred) cattle to determine the prevalence of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) and assess risk factors associated with prevalence in smallholder dairy and traditionally managed herds in the Tanga region of North-eastern Tanzania. Random sampling, single intradermal tuberculin (SIT), comparative intradermal tuberculin (SCIT) tests and a questionnaire were used to gather individual animal and herd level information. From 642 animal tested by SIT, 35 (5.4%) were positive reactors for tuberculosis. Out of those 35 bTB positive reactors, eight (1.25%) proved to be positive reactors for tuberculosis upon further testing by SCIT. Based on the SCIT test, individual animal prevalences of bTB in the smallholder dairy and traditionally managed cattle was 2% and 0%, respectively. The corresponding overall herd prevalence was 5.7% and 0%, respectively. In conclusion, bTB prevalence seems low; however, its potential risk to public health is of concern; underscoring the need for further research, active surveillance to better understand the epidemiology of the disease in different cattle production systems in Tanzania. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Objective: To estimate the prevalence of hydatidosis, cysticercosis, tuberculosis, leptospirosis, brucellosis and toxoplasmosis in slaughtered bovine stock (aged ≥ 3 years) at Tanga city abattoir, Tanzania. Methods: Prevalence estimation of the five zoonotic diseases was undertaken through an active abattoir and sero-survey was carried out in Tanga city, during the period of January 2002 and March 2004. Serum samples collected from a sub-sample (n=51) of the slaughter stock were serologically screened for antibodies against brucellosis, leptospirosis and toxoplasmosis using Rose Bengal plate test, microscopic agglutination test (for 5 serovars of Leptospira interrogans) and Eiken latex agglutination test, respectively. The same animals were tested for tuberculosis using the single intradermal tuberculin test. Results: Post mortem examination of 12 444 slaughter cattle (10 790 short horn zebu and 1 654 graded) over a period of twenty two months, showed a prevalence of 1.56% (194) for hydatidosis, 1.49% (185) for cysticercosis and 0.32% (40) for tuberculosis. In all three zoonoses, a statistically significant difference in infection rates was noted between the short horn zebu and graded breeds (P<0.05). The overall seroprevalences of animals with brucellosis, toxoplasmosis and leptospirosis antibodies were found to be 12%, 12% and 51%, respectively. The most common leptospiral antibodies detected were those against antigens of serovars Leptospira hardjo (29%), Leptospira tarassovi (18%), Leptospira bataviae (4%) and Leptospira pomona (0%). With regard to tuberculosis, 10% (n=5) of the animals tested were classified as non-specific reactors or inconclusive. Conclusions: The study findings suggest that brucellosis, toxoplasmosis and leptospirosis are prevalent in Tanga and provide definitive evidence of slaughtered stock exposure to these zoonotic agents with concurrent public health consequences. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Objective: To evaluate microbial quality and associated health risks of raw milk marketed in the Tanga region of Tanzania. Methods: A microbial quality assessment of marketed raw milk was undertaken by evaluating 59 samples of milk from selling points (collecting centres =15), bicycle boys (12) and kiosks/restaurants (32) in Tanga city during April-May 2005. Quality and milk-borne hazards were assessed using a combination of tests in order to quantify the occurrence of Brucellosis (milk ring test), Escherichia coli (E. coli) O157:H7 (culture), the coliform bacteria as well as standard plate count (SPC). Specific gravity (SG) determination was used as an indicator of adulteration. Results: The mean coliform plate count (c.f.u/mL) of milk handled by bicycle boys (4.2 × 106) was significantly higher than that handled by collecting centres (3.0 × 106) and kiosk/restaurants (1.4 × 106), respectively (P < 0.05). Of the 59 milk samples collected, 33 (56%) were Brucella milk ring test (MRT)-positive and 78% and 17% of the samples graded satisfactorily based on SG and coliform plate counts as prescribed by East African Community standards for raw milk. There was no verocytotoxigenic E. coli (VTEC) O157: H7 in any of the milk samples collected and analysed during the present study. Conclusions: It can be concluded that raw market milk in the study area is of poor bacteriological quality and hazardous for human consumption. This highlights the need to implement good hygiene practices and effective monitoring from production through the delivery chain to the consumer. Further studies are needed for detection of toxins that are produced by E. coli, other pathogenic spore forming bacteria (Bacillus spp. and Clostridium spp.) and other harmful microorganisms. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Leptospirosis is the zoonosis of worldwide distribution and common cause of economic loss and ill health among animals and human populations. A cross-sectional seroprevalence study, using a microscopic agglutination test (MAT) with a threshold titre of ≥1:160, to elucidate disease magnitude, distribution and associated risk factors in cattle in Tanga, Tanzania was conducted from May 2003 to January 2004. Serum ( n = 655) samples collected from randomly selected herds ( n = 130) were tested for antibodies against four different Leptospira interrogans serovars (Bataviae, Tarassovi, Hardjo and Pomona) used in the agglutination test. Positive titres were detected in 30.3% [95% confidence intervals (CI) = 26.7–33.9] of cattle and 58.5% (95% CI = 49.5–67.1) of herds, respectively. Of the 198 MAT positive serum samples, 98 (49.5%) were positive against serovar Hardjo, 80 (40.4%) were positive against serovar Tarassovi, 12 (6.1%) was positive against serovar Bataviae and eight (4%) were positive against serovar Pomona. Associations found to be statistically significant in univariate analyses (at P < 0.1) were assessed by multivariable logistic regression to control for confounding factors. The results showed that risk factors for cattle were pasture grazing [odd ratio (OR) = 2.83, 95% CI = 1.57–5.12, P = 0.001], presence of goats/sheep on the farm (OR = 1.73, 95% CI = 1.17–2.56, P = 0.001) and age of the animal (OR = 2.05, 95% CI = 1.42–2.96, P = 0.001), while concrete floor housing was protective (OR = 0.47, 95% CI = 0.30–0.74, P = 0.001). Herds managed under pasture grazing system were more likely to be sero-positive than those managed under zero grazed practices (OR = 9.31; 95% CI = 3.67–23.64 for grazing herd). We concluded that bovine leptospirosis is an endemic and locally widespread disease in Tanga and suggest that it may play a role in zoonotic transmission to humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study was to describe the prevalence of brucellosis in various occupations in Tanga, Tanzania. During the year 2004, serum samples were collected from volunteers in various occupations and screened for brucella antibodies using Rose Bengal Plate Agglutination Test. Information on occupation, kind of work and contacts with livestock was collected and age and sex were recorded. The overall sero prevalence of antibodies to Brucella abortus was 5.52%. One variable in a multivariate regression model was significantly associated with seropositivity to B. abortus: abattoir workers. The prevalence of antibody was significantly higher ( P < 0.05) among personnel employed in high-risk jobs such as cutting animal throats and cleaning slaughtered animals parts. None of the other factors investigated was associated with seropositivity to B. abortus. This study documents the serological evidence of B. abortus infection for the first time in abattoir workers in Tanzania. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2018, 70% of global fatalities due to pneumonia occurred in about fifteen countries, with Tanzania being among the top eight countries contributing to these deaths. Environmental and individual factors contributing to these deaths may be multifaceted, but they have not yet been explored in Tanzania. Therefore, in this study, we explore the association between climate change and the occurrence of pneumonia in the Tanga Region, Tanzania. A time series study design was employed using meteorological and health data of the Tanga Region collected from January 2016 to December 2018 from the Tanzania Meteorological Authority and Health Management Information System, respectively. The generalized negative binomial regression technique was used to explore the associations between climate indicators (i.e., precipitation, humidity, and temperature) and the occurrence of pneumonia. There were trend differences in climate indicators and the occurrence of pneumonia between the Tanga and Handeni districts. We found a positive association between humidity and increased rates of non-severe pneumonia (incidence rate ratio (IRR) = 1.01; 95% CI: 1.01-1.02; p ≤ 0.05) and severe pneumonia (IRR = 1.02; 95% CI: 1.01-1.03; p ≤ 0.05). There was also a significant association between cold temperatures and the rate of severe pneumonia in Tanga (IRR = 1.21; 95% CI: 1.11-1.33; p ≤ 0.001). Other factors that were associated with pneumonia included age and district of residence. We found a positive relationship between humidity, temperature, and incidence of pneumonia in the Tanga Region. Policies focusing on prevention and control, as well as promotion strategies relating to climate change-related health effects should be developed and implemented.