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Gathering reliable information about the topographic context greatly enhances the readability and interpretation of Cassini synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data, and allows for a better understanding of the overall Titan satellite. The Cassini Titan Radar Mapper has observed several morphological structures, such as dunes, lakes, craters and river-like channels [1] . In addition, regions exhibiting relatively high topography, referred to as mountains, have been discovered and analyzed [2] . Since the beginning of the mission in 2004, different methods have been developed to retrieve Titan’s topography using Cassini RADAR, e.g., SARtopo, altimetry, stereophotogrammetry [1] – [5] . An updated complete topographic map of Titan’ surface obtained by combining and interpolating all the available data has been recently presented in [4] .

The investigation of Titan’s surface chemical composition is of great importance for the understanding of the atmosphere-surface-interior system of the moon. The Cassini cameras and especially the Visual and infrared Mapping Spectrometer has provided a sequence of spectra showing the diversity of Titan’s surface spectrum from flybys performed during the 13 years of Cassini’s operation. In the 0.8-5.2 μm range, this spectro-imaging data showed that the surface consists of a multivariable geological terrain hosting complex geological processes. The data from the seven narrow methane spectral “windows” centered at 0.93, 1.08, 1.27, 1.59, 2.03, 2.8 and 5 μm provide some information on the lower atmospheric context and the surface parameters. Nevertheless, atmospheric scattering and absorption need to be clearly evaluated before we can extract the surface properties. In various studies (Solomonidou et al., 2014; 2016; 2018; 2019; 2020a, 2020b; Lopes et al., 2016; Malaska et al., 2016; 2020), we used radiative transfer modeling in order to evaluate the atmospheric scattering and absorption and securely extract the surface albedo of multiple Titan areas including the major geomorphological units. We also investigated the morphological and microwave characteristics of these features using Cassini RADAR data in their SAR and radiometry mode. Here, we present a global map for Titan’s surface showing the chemical composition constraints for the various units. The results show that Titan’s surface composition, at the depths detected by VIMS, has significant latitudinal dependence, with its equator being dominated by organic materials from the atmosphere and a very dark unknown material, while higher latitudes contain more water ice. The albedo differences and similarities among the various geomorphological units give insights on the geological processes affecting Titan’s surface and, by implication, its interior. We discuss our results in terms of origin and evolution theories. References: [1] Solomonidou, A., et al. (2014), J. Geophys. Res. Planets, 119, 1729; [2] Solomonidou, A., et al. (2016), Icarus, 270, 85; [3] Solomonidou, A., et al. (2018), J. Geophys. Res. Planets, 123, 489; [4] Solomonidou, A., et al. (2020a), Icarus, 344, 113338; [5] Solomonidou, A., et al. (2020b), A&A 641, A16; [6] Lopes, R., et al. (2016) Icarus, 270, 162; [7] Malaska, M., et al. (2016), Icarus 270, 130; [8] Malaska, M., et al. (2020), Icarus, 344, 113764. Acknowledgements: This work was conducted at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) under contract with NASA. Y.M. and A.S. (partly) was supported by the Czech Science Foundation (grant no. 20-27624Y). ©2021 California Institute of Technology. Government sponsorship acknowledged.

Saturn’s moon Titan has a methane cycle with clouds, rain, rivers, lakes, and seas; it is the only world known to presently have a volatile cycle akin to Earth’s tropospheric water cycle. Anomalously specular radar reflections (ASRR) from Titan’s tropical region were observed with the Arecibo Observatory (AO) and Green Bank Telescope (GBT) and interpreted as evidence for liquid surfaces. The Cassini spacecraft discovered lakes/seas on Titan, however, it did not observe lakes/seas at the AO/GBT anomalously specular locations. A satisfactory explanation for the ASRR has been elusive for more than a decade. Here we show that the ASRR originate from one terrain unit, likely paleolakes/paleoseas. Titan observations provide ground-truth in the search for oceans on exoearths and an important lesson is that identifying liquid surfaces by specular reflections requires a stringent definition of specular; we propose a definition for this purpose., Anomalously specular radar reflections (ASRR) from Titan’s tropical region were interpreted earlier as evidence for liquid surfaces, but the Cassini spacecraft did not observe lakes/seas at the anomalously specular locations. Here, the authors show that ASRR originate from one terrain unit, likely paleolakes/paleoseas.

In this paper, we focus on the estimation of the Fractal Dimension of ice sheet surfaces from Synthetic Aperture Radar data. Thanks to the relation with the geophysical phenomena, which are responsible and drive the ice layer formation and evolution, the Fractal Dimension is a convenient parameter to classify, and discriminate icy layers of different types. Meaningful results obtained on a SentineI-1 C-band SAR image of the Antarctica ice sheet are presented.

We present a radar map of the Titan’s seas, with bathymetry estimated as proportional to distance from the nearest shore. This naive analytic bathymetry, scaled to a recent radar sounding of Ligeia Mare, suggests a total liquid volume of ∼32,000 km 3 , at the low end of estimates made in 2008 when mapping coverage was incomplete. We note that Kraken Mare has two principal basins, separated by a narrow (∼17 km wide, ∼40 km long) strait we refer to as the ‘throat’. Tidal currents in this strait may be dramatic (∼0.5 m/s), generating observable effects such as dynamic topography, whirlpools, and acoustic noise, much like tidal races on Earth such as the Corryvreckan off Scotland. If tidal flow through this strait is the dominant mixing process, the two basins take ∼20 Earth years to exchange their liquid inventory. Thus compositional differences over seasonal timescales may exist, but the composition of solutes (and thus evaporites) over Croll–Milankovich timescales should be homogenized.

We derive fields of solutions for the surface properties (roughness and permittivity) of the liquid hydrocarbon bodies Ligeia, Kraken and Punga Mare on Titan by applying the Radar Statistical Reconnaissance (RSR) technique to the Cassini RADAR observations in altimeter mode during the northern early summer. At the time of observation, Kraken and Ligeia were confined within root-mean-square heights of 1.5–2.5 mm (similar to wave heights of 6–10 mm), correlation lengths of 45–115 mm, and corresponding to effective slopes of 1.1–2.4°. The latter extends up to 3.6–4.9° if the rougher Punga is included. The lower bound of those ranges has to be considered if the composition of the seas is methane-dominant. These are the first measurements to simultaneously constrain both the vertical and horizontal roughness parameters of Titan's seas from the same observations. Our results are representative for the global properties of the sea-scaled portion of the studied tracks and suggest that quiet surfaces are a dominant trend over the seas during the northern early summer. Fields of rougher textures, if existent, might develop mainly over local patches and/or might not be sustained over significant periods of time.

International audience; We report infrared spectrophotometric variability on the surface of Saturn's moon Titan detected in images returned by the Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS) onboard the Cassini Saturn Orbiter. The changes were observed at 7°S, 138°W and occurred between October 27, 2005 and January 15, 2006. After that date the surface was unchanged until the most recent observation, March 18, 2006. We previously reported spectrophotometric variability at another location (26°S, 78°W). Cassini Synthetic Aperture RADAR (SAR) images find that the surface morphology at both locations is consistent with surface flows possibly resulting from cryovolcanic activity (Wall et al., companion paper, this issue). The VIMS-reported time variability and SAR morphology results suggest that Titan currently exhibits intermittent surface changes consistent with present ongoing surface processes. We suggest that these processes involve material from Titan's interior being extruded or effused and deposited on the surface, as might be expected from cryovolcanism.

Complex conceptual system design trade studies traditionally consider risk after a conceptual design has been created. Further, one person is often tasked with collecting risk information and managing it from each subsystem. This paper proposes a method to explicitly consider and trade risk on the same level as other important system-level variables during the creation of conceptual designs in trade studies. The proposed risk trading method advocates putting each subsystem engineer in control of risk for each subsystem. A risk vector is proposed that organizes many different risk metrics for communication between subsystems. A method of coupling risk models to dynamic subsystem models is presented. Several risk visualization techniques are discussed. A trade study example is presented based upon a simplified spacecraft model. Results from introducing the risk trading methodology into a simulated Collaborative Design Center are presented. The risk trading method offers an approach to more thoroughly consider risk during the creation of conceptual designs in trade studies.

A technique, referred to as SARTopo, has been developed for obtaining surface height estimates with 10 km horizontal resolution and 75 m vertical resolution of the surface of Titan along each Cassini Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) swath. We describe the technique and present maps of the co-located data sets. A global map and regional maps of Xanadu and the northern hemisphere hydrocarbon lakes district are included in the results. A strength of the technique is that it provides topographic information co-located with SAR imagery. Having a topographic context vastly improves the interpretability of the SAR imagery and is essential for understanding Titan. SARTopo is capable of estimating surface heights for most of the SAR-imaged surface of Titan. Currently nearly 30% of the surface is within 100 km of a SARTopo height profile. Other competing techniques provide orders of magnitude less coverage. We validate the SARTopo technique through comparison with known geomorphological features such as mountain ranges and craters, and by comparison with co-located nadir altimetry, including a 3000 km strip that had been observed by SAR a month earlier. In this area, the SARTopo and nadir altimetry data sets are co-located tightly (within 5–10 km for one 500 km section), have similar resolution, and as expected agree closely in surface height. Furthermore the region contains prominent high spatial resolution topography, so it provides an excellent test of the resolution and precision of both techniques.

Cassini radar images show a variety of fluvial channels on Titan's surface, often several hundreds of kilometers in length. Some (predominantly at low- and mid-latitude) are radar-bright and braided, resembling desert washes where fines have been removed by energetic surface liquid flow, presumably from methane rainstorms. Others (predominantly at high latitudes) are radar-dark and meandering and drain into or connect polar lakes, suggesting slower-moving flow depositing fine-grained sediments. A third type, seen predominantly at mid- and high latitudes, have radar brightness patterns indicating topographic incision, with valley widths of up to 3 km across and depth of several hundred meters. These observations show that fluvial activity occurs at least occasionally at all latitudes, not only at the Huygens landing site, and can produce channels much larger in scale than those observed there. The areas in which channels are prominent so far amount to about 1% of Titan's surface, of which only a fraction is actually occupied by channels. The corresponding global sediment volume inferred is not enough to account for the extensive sand seas. Channels observed so far have a consistent large-scale flow pattern, tending to flow polewards and eastwards.

The Cassini Titan Radar mapper has observed elevated blocks and ridge-forming block chains on Saturn's moon Titan demonstrating high topography we term “mountains.” Summit flanks measured from the T3 (February 2005) and T8 (October 2005) flybys have a mean maximum slope of 37° and total elevations up to 1930 m as derived from a shape-from-shading model corrected for the probable effects of image resolution. Mountain peak morphologies and surrounding, diffuse blankets give evidence that erosion has acted upon these features, perhaps in the form of fluvial runoff. Possible formation mechanisms for these mountains include crustal compressional tectonism and upthrusting of blocks, extensional tectonism and formation of horst-and-graben, deposition as blocks of impact ejecta, or dissection and erosion of a preexisting layer of material. All above processes may be at work, given the diversity of geology evident across Titan's surface. Comparisons of mountain and blanket volumes and erosion rate estimates for Titan provide a typical mountain age as young as 20–100 million years.

Titan's vast equatorial fields of RADAR-dark longitudinal dunes seen in Cassini RADAR synthetic aperture images correlate with one of two dark surface units discriminated as “brown” and “blue” in Visible and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS) color composites of short-wavelength infrared spectral cubes (RGB as 2.0, 1.6, 1.3 μm). In such composites bluer materials exhibit higher reflectance at 1.3 μm and lower at 1.6 and 2.0 μm. The dark brown unit is highly correlated with the RADAR-dark dunes. The dark brown unit shows less evidence of water ice suggesting that the saltating grains of the dunes are largely composed of hydrocarbons and/or nitriles. In general, the bright units also show less evidence of absorption due to water ice and are inferred to consist of deposits of bright fine precipitating tholin aerosol dust. Some set of chemical/mechanical processes may be converting the bright fine-grained aerosol deposits into the dark saltating hydrocarbon and/or nitrile grains. Alternatively the dark dune materials may be derived from a different type of air aerosol photochemical product than are the bright materials. In our model, both the bright aerosol and dark hydrocarbon dune deposits mantle the VIMS dark blue water ice-rich substrate. We postulate that the bright mantles are effectively invisible (transparent) in RADAR synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images leading to lack of correlation in the RADAR images with optically bright mantling units. RADAR images mostly show only dark dunes and the water ice substrate that varies in roughness, fracturing, and porosity. If the rate of deposition of bright aerosol is 0.001–0.01 μm/yr, the surface would be coated (to optical instruments) in hundreds-to-thousands of years unless cleansing processes are active. The dark dunes must be mobile on this very short timescale to prevent the accumulation of bright coatings. Huygens landed in a region of the VIMS bright and dark blue materials and about 30 km south of the nearest occurrence of dunes visible in the RADAR SAR images. Fluvial/pluvial processes, every few centuries or millennia, must be cleansing the dark floors of the incised channels and scouring the dark plains at the Huygens landing site both imaged by Descent Imager/Spectral Radiometer (DISR).

International audience; The Cassini Titan Radar Mapper obtained Synthetic Aperture Radar images of Titan's surface during four fly-bys during the mission's first year. These images show that Titan's surface is very complex geologically, showing evidence of major planetary geologic processes, including cryovolcanism. This paper discusses the variety of cryovolcanic features identified from SAR images, their possible origin, and their geologic context. The features which we identify as cryovolcanic in origin include a large (180 km diameter) volcanic construct (dome or shield), several extensive flows, and three calderas which appear to be the source of flows. The composition of the cryomagma on Titan is still unknown, but constraints on rheological properties can be estimated using flow thickness. Rheological properties of one flow were estimated and appear inconsistent with ammonia-water slurries, and possibly more consistent with ammonia-water-methanol slurries. The extent of cryovolcanism on Titan is still not known, as only a small fraction of the surface has been imaged at sufficient resolution. Energetic considerations suggest that cryovolcanism may have been a dominant process in the resurfacing of Titan.

The Ku-band (13.8 GHz - 2.2 cm) RADAR instrument onboard the Cassini-Huygens spacecraft has revealed the richness of the surface of Titan, as numerous seas, lakes, rivers, cryo-volcanic flows and vast dune fields have been discovered. Linear dunes are a major geomorphological feature present on Titan, covering up to 17% of its surface, mainly in equatorial regions. However, the resolution of the RADAR instrument is not good enough to allow a detailed study of the morphology of these features. In addition, other linear wind-related landforms, such as mega-yardangs (linear wind-abraded ridges formed in cohesive rocks), are likely to present a comparable radar signature that could be confused with the one of dunes. We conducted a comparative study of the radar radiometry of both linear dunes and mega-yardangs, based on representative terrestrial analogues: the linear dunes located in the Great Sand Sea in western Egypt and in the Namib Desert in Namibia, and the mega-yardangs observed in the Lut Desert in eastern Iran and in the Borkou Desert in northern Chad. We analysed the radar scattering of both terrestrial linear dunes and mega-yardangs, using high-resolution radar images acquired by the X-band (9.6 GHz - 3.1 cm) sensor of the TerraSAR-X satellite. Variations seen in the radar response of dunes are the result of a contrast between the dune and interdune scattering, while for mega-yardangs these variations are the result of a contrast between ridges and erosion valleys. We tested a simple surface scattering model, with parameters derived from the local topography and surface roughness estimates, to accurately reproduce the radar signal variations for both landforms. It appears that we can discriminate between two types of dunes - bare interdunes as in Egypt and sand-covered interdunes as in Namibia, and between two types of mega-yardangs - young yardangs..., Comment: In press in Icarus (August 2015)

Cassini 2.2-cm radar and radiometric observations of seven of Saturn's icy satellites yield properties that apparently are dominated by subsurface volume scattering and are similar to those of the icy Galilean satellites. Average radar albedos decrease in the order Enceladus/Tethys, Hyperion, Rhea, Dione, Iapetus, and Phoebe. This sequence most likely corresponds to increasing contamination of near-surface water ice, which is intrinsically very transparent at radio wavelengths. Plausible candidates for contaminants include ammonia, silicates, metallic oxides, and polar organics (ranging from nitriles like HCN to complex tholins). There is correlation of our targets' radar and optical albedos, probably due to variations in the concentration of optically dark contaminants in near-surface water ice and the resulting variable attenuation of the high-order multiple scattering responsible for high radar albedos. Our highest radar albedos, for Enceladus and Tethys, probably require that at least the uppermost one to several decimeters of the surface be extremely clean water ice regolith that is structurally complex (i.e., mature) enough for there to be high-order multiple scattering within it. At the other extreme, Phoebe has an asteroidal radar reflectivity that may be due to a combination of single and volume scattering. Iapetus' 2.2-cm radar albedo is dramatically higher on the optically bright trailing side than the optically dark leading side, whereas 13-cm results reported by Black et al. [Black, G.J., Campbell, D.B., Carter, L.M., Ostro, S.J., 2004. Science 304, 553] show hardly any hemispheric asymmetry and give a mean radar reflectivity several times lower than the reflectivity measured at 2.2 cm. These Iapetus results are understandable if ammonia is much less abundant on both sides within the upper one to several decimeters than at greater depths, and if the leading side's optically dark contaminant is present to depths of at least one to several decimeters. As argued by Lanzerotti et al. [Lanzerotti, L.J., Brown, W.L., Marcantonio, K.J., Johnson, R.E., 1984. Nature 312, 139–140], a combination of ion erosion and micrometeoroid gardening may have depleted ammonia from the surfaces of Saturn's icy satellites. Given the hypersensitivity of water ice's absorption length to ammonia concentration, an increase in ammonia with depth could allow efficient 2.2-cm scattering from within the top one to several decimeters while attenuating 13-cm echoes, which would require a six-fold thicker scattering layer. If so, we would expect each of the icy satellites' average radar albedos to be higher at 2.2 cm than at 13 cm, as is the case so far with Rhea [Black, G., Campbell, D., 2004. Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 36, 1123] as well as Iapetus.

(Smith & Koenig 1998) formulated a model-based design process describing a triad of people, process, and technology (PPT) within an aerospace culture.

Aerodynamic roughness (z0) is an important parameter in studies of sand and dust transport, as well as atmospheric circulation models. Aerodynamic roughness is a function of the size and spacing of surface roughness elements and is typically determined at point locations in the field from wind velocity profiles. Because field measurements require complex logistics, z0 values have been obtained for very few localities. If radar can be used to map z0, estimates can be obtained for large areas. In addition, because aerodynamic roughness can change in response to surface processes (e.g., flooding of alluvial surfaces), radar remote sensing could obtain new measurements on short timescales. Both z0 and the radar backscatter coefficient σ0 are dependent on topographic roughness at the submeter scale, and correlation between, these two parameters was developed based on radar data obtained from aircraft (AIRSAR). The Spaceborne Radar Laboratory (SRL) afforded the opportunity to test the correlation for data obtained from orbit. SRL data for sites in Death Valley, California; Lunar Lake, Nevada; and Gobabeb, Namibia, were correlated with wind data and compared with previous radar z0 relations. Correlations between σ0 and z0 for L band (λ = 24 cm) HV (H, vertically and V, vertically polarized modes) L band HH, and C band (λ = 5.6 cm) HV compare favorably with previous studies. Based on these results, maps of z0 values were derived from SRL data for each site, demonstrating the potential to map z0 for large vegetation-free areas from orbit using radar systems.

DARPA has funded a number of teams to further refine its Fractionated Spacecraft vision. Several teams, including this team led by JPL, have been tasked to develop a tool for the evaluation of the Business case for a fractionated system architecture. This evaluation is to understand under what conditions and constraints the fractionated architecture make more sense (in a cost/benefit sense) than the traditional monolithic paradigm. Our approach to this evaluation is to generate and evaluate a variety of trade space options. These options include various sets of stimuli, various degrees of fractionation and various subsystem element properties. The stimuli include many not normally modeled such as technology obsolescence, funding profile changes and changes in mission objectives during the mission itself. The degrees of fractionation enable various traditional subsystem elements to be distributed across different free flyers which then act in concert as needed. This will enable key technologies to be updated as need dictates and availability allows. We have described our approach in a previous IEEE Aerospace conference paper but will briefly summarize here. Our approach to generate the Business Case evaluation is to explicitly model both the implementation and operation phases for the life cycle of a fractionated constellation. A variety of models are integrated into the Phoenix ModelCenter framework and are used to generate various intermediate data which is aggregated into the Present Strategic Value (PSV). The PSV is essentially the value (including the value of the embedded real options) minus the cost. These PSVs are calculated for a variety of configurations and scenarios including variations of various stimuli or uncertainties (e.g. supply chain delays, launch vehicle failures and orbital debris events). There are various decision options (e.g. delay, accelerate, cancel) which can now be exercised for each stimulus. We can compute the PSV for the various combinations and populate a tradespace. We have developed tooling to allow models to be automatically created and executed allowing us to explore large numbers of options with no human intervention. The methodology, models and the process by which they are integrated were a key subset of the previous paper. We will present the results of the Business Case analyses for a variety of configurations and scenarios, present the populated tradespace, show the GUI we have developed to facilitate the use of the tool and discuss the implications of both the results and our work to date. We will also discuss future work and possible approaches for that work.

A nonadaptive operations strategy was used by the Magellan mission to Venus, whereas an adaptive strategy was used for the Spaceborne Imaging Radar-C mission to Earth. The operational strategies employed by these missions are described, along with overviews of both missions and a summary of their systems and capabilities. The effects of adaptivity on the operations systems are discussed, and a summary of advantages of each strategy is given.

The Spaceborne Imaging Radar-C, X-Band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SIR-C/X-SAR) was launched on the Space Shuttle Endeavour for two ten day missions in the spring and fall of 1994. Radar data from these missions are being used to better understand the dynamic global environment. During each mission, radar images of over 300 sites around the Earth were obtained, returning over a terabit of data. SIR-C/X-SAR science investigations were focused on quantifying radar's ability to estimate surface properties of importance to understanding global change; and focused studies in geology, ecology, hydrology and oceanography, as well as radar calibration and electromagnetic theory studies. In addition, the second flight featured an interferometry experiment, where digital elevation maps were obtained by interfering data from the first and second shuttle flight, and from successive days on the second flight. SIR-C/X-SAR data have been used to validate algorithms which produce maps of vegetation type and biomass; snow, soil and vegetation moisture; and the distribution of wetlands, developed with earlier aircraft data. >

The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) has recently begun an effort to further refine its Fractionated Spacecraft vision. This vision (called the "F6" program) seeks to explore distributed spacecraft architectures capable of performing complex functions similar to current monolithic spacecrafts. However, the ability of fractionated systems to work separately would provide significant benefits not achievable by monolithic systems. The question of interest to this study was "Can these benefits be quantified and evaluated in a meaningful fashion in order to compare them to monolithic architectures?" Rather than narrowing the approach to one or two concepts, the strategy was to expand the decision space in order to generate and evaluate a variety of alternatives under different scenarios and design choices. The stimuli were specifically selected to capture many issues not included in such studies such as technology obsolescence, funding profile changes, equipment failure scenarios, and even changes to mission objectives during the mission. Each stimulus has a variety of decision options or responses which a manager can exercise including delay, cancellation, acceleration of a development, or even new developments. It is argued that the very nature of fractionation will result in systems far more agile to external (and internal) stimuli, but this has never been shown explicitly. This study explores the use of Real Options in conjunction with traditional Net Present Value techniques to quantify the desirability of alternative candidate designs in terms of their adaptability and survivability. Our approach to evaluating the business case for each use case was to explicitly model both the implementation and operation phases for the life cycle of a fractionated cluster. The models were integrated into Phoenix Integration's ModelCenter® framework and used to generate Implementation Value Metrics (IVMs) and Operational Value Metrics (OVMs) associated with the use cases under evaluation. A number of models were developed to support these evaluations using Excel, Matlab, and Arena® (a commercial discrete-event simulation software product). The Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) approach used in this study yielded transformations between high-level frameworks (OWL and SysML) and the models used to generate the data we needed for the evaluation. This rule-based transformation process will be critical for exploring the large decision trade spaces in a reasonable amount of time. This paper presents the results of the business case analyses; the underlying OVM's and IVM's, the approaches used to model the problem, explore the tradespace, refine the exploration, and generate results. We also discuss possible directions for future work. Specifically, it should be noted that while the approach described herein is being developed for, and funded by, DARPA, it has general applicability to a much wider variety of applications.

Complex system conceptual design trade studies traditionally consider risk after a conceptual design has been created. Further, one person is often tasked with collecting risk information and managing it from each subsystem. This paper proposes a method to explicitly consider and trade risk on the same level as other important system-level variables during the creation of conceptual designs in trade studies. The proposed risk trading method advocates putting each subsystem engineer in control of risk for each subsystem. A risk vector is proposed that organizes many different risk metrics for communication between subsystems. A method of coupling risk models to dynamic subsystem models is presented. Several risk visualization techniques are discussed. An example is presented based upon a simplified spacecraft model. The risk trading method discussed offers an approach to more thoroughly consider risk during the creation of conceptual designs in trade studies.Copyright © 2010 by ASME

[1] For four years, the Cassini Radar instrument has slowly revealed the surface of Titan. It has discovered cryovolcanic flows, craters, dunes, channels, rivers, lakes and seas. In order to analyze and model the microwave behaviour of Titan's surface, we need to know the dielectric constant of its surface materials. We present here Ku-band (10 and 13 GHz) measurements of the dielectric constant of various materials that are likely to be present on Titan. Most of the measured values are in the 1.5–4.3 range with a very low loss tangent (less than 10−2), consistent with results obtained from the Radar scatterometer and radiometer modes, indicating that the Cassini Ku-band Radar should penetrate several meters of Titan's surface.

[1] Cassini RADAR observations now permit an initial assessment of the inventory of two classes, presumed to be organic, of Titan surface materials: polar lake liquids and equatorial dune sands. Several hundred lakes or seas have been observed, of which dozens are each estimated to contain more hydrocarbon liquid than the entire known oil and gas reserves on Earth. Dark dunes cover some 20% of Titan's surface, and comprise a volume of material several hundred times larger than Earth's coal reserves. Overall, however, the identified surface inventories (>3 × 104 km3 of liquid, and >2 × 105 km3 of dune sands) are small compared with estimated photochemical production on Titan over the age of the solar system. The sand volume is too large to be accounted for simply by erosion in observed river channels or ejecta from observed impact craters. The lakes are adequate in extent to buffer atmospheric methane against photolysis in the short term, but do not contain enough methane to sustain the atmosphere over geologic time. Unless frequent resupply from the interior buffers this greenhouse gas at exactly the right rate, dramatic climate change on Titan is likely in its past, present and future.

The Lunar Surface Operations Simulator (LSOS) is being developed to support planning and design of space missions to return astronauts to the moon. Vehicles, habitats, dynamic and physical processes and related environment systems are modeled and simulated in LSOS to assist in the visualization and design optimization of systems for lunar surface operations. A parametric analysis tool and a data browser were also implemented to provide an intuitive interface to run multiple simulations and review their results. The simulator and parametric analysis capability are described in this paper.

International audience; Cassini RADAR reveals the surface of Titan since flyby Ta acquired on October 2004. The RADAR instrument discovered volcanic structures, craters, dunes, channels, lakes and seas. In particular, flyby T16 realized in July 2006 imaged tens of radar-dark features close to Titan's north pole. They are interpreted as lakes filled with liquid hydrocarbons - mainly methane, a key material in the geologic and climatic history of Titan. In order to perform quantitative analysis and modeling of the radar response of Titan's lakes, the dielectric constant of liquid hydrocarbons is a crucial parameter, in particular to estimate the radar wave attenuation. We present here first measurements of the dielectric constant of LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas), mainly composed of methane, at Ku-band (10-13 GHz): we obtained a value = 1.75 - 0.002j. This value is used to model the radar backscattering of lakes observed during T16 flyby. Using a two-layer scattering model, we derive a relationship that is used to estimate a minimum depth for Titan's lakes. The proposed relationship is also coherent with the observation that the larger and then the deeper lakes are also the darker in radar images.

The atmosphere of Venus is likely to exert a major influence on the surface. Arecibo and Venera 15/16 observations of the population of impact craters with bright halos give direct evidence of surface modification, on the scale of centimeters, to smooth the surface on time scales of 50 - 250 my. Both chemical and mechanical modifications probably occur. Diurnal winds in the planetary boundary layer can transport particles. Using boundary layer theory, including the effects of topography, surface stresses and resulting transport and deposition of sand-size particles are calculated. Regional slopes are sites of largest surface stresses. Sand will be generally transported downhill, although there is a preferential net transport from east to west, in the same direction as the atmospheric superrotation. It is predicted here that streaks may be seen in the Magellan radar images which will indicate directions of net eolian transport on the surface of Venus.

Fractal geometry provides the correct scientific approach to model natural environments. The altimeter of the Cassini mission is acquiring profiles of the Titan surfaces. In this paper the rationale for a fractal analysis of the profiles acquired by the Cassini altimeter is presented. The quantitative analysis proves that the fractal models provide meaningful information on the Titan surface. It is also shown that the classical (non-fractal) analysis leads to erroneous results.© (2007) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

This paper discusses two recent formulation phase model-based engineering design pilot projects at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. It describes how model-based functional and state analyses were synthesized and integrated with system performance simulation and mission planning then piloted in the formulation phase of two deep space missions.

International audience; The study of Titan, Saturn's largest satellite, is a major goal of the Cassini-Huygens mission. This joint project between NASA, the European Space Agency, and the Italian Space Agency consists of a Saturn orbiter (Cassini) and a Titan probe (Huygens). Since the mission's arrival at Saturn in July 2004, one of its most spectacular discoveries has been the finding of the first extraterrestrial nonmagmatic standing bodies of liquid: Titan's hydrocarbon lakes and seas. In July 2006, the first synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images of Titan's north polar region btained by the Cassini spacecraft showed dozens of lakes above latitudes of 70° [Stofan et al., 2007]. Subsequent SAR images obtained by Cassini have covered approximately 68% of Titan's north polar region at latitudes above 60 degrees. These images show more than 400 radar-dark areas that we interpret as being liquid lakes (shown in dark blue in Figure 1), including a few that are so large that they rightfully may be called seas. We discuss here the evidence for liquids on Titan, the distribution and morphology of lakes, and recent data that indicate the presence of lakes in the south polar regions.

The synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imaging mode of the Cassini RADAR instrument enables us to map the surface of Titan through its thick atmosphere. The first Cassini close flyby, acquired on 26 October 2004, revealed a complex surface, with areas of low relief and dome-like volcanic constructs, flows, and sinuous channels. In particular, fan-like features with strong radar backscattering were observed. Such structures, extending from tens of kilometers to more than 200 km in length, could be the result of cryovolcanism. Several radar dark spots, up to 30 km across, were also observed; they may correspond to smooth hydrocarbon deposits. We present here a first modeling of these radar-bright and radar-dark features on the basis of classical radar backscattering models. We considered two main materials which could constitute the surface of Titan, tholins and water-ammonia ice, and modeled both single- and two-layer cases, taking into account volume and subsurface scattering. Our results show that SAR-bright regions could better be explained by the effect of a thin layer of water-ammonia ice covering a tholin substratum. Radar-dark spots can be modeled in two ways: a rough tholin surface or a smooth one with some volume scattering. We show that multi-incidence SAR data could help discriminate between the various scenarios proposed.

A common problem in acquiring ground-truth data for use in microwave interaction modeling is the capture of surface roughness data that are both sampled at distances comparable to a fraction of the wavelength and extensive enough to represent the surface statistics in at least one resolution cell of the microwave remote sensor used. A technique has been developed for acquiring the necessary photogrammetric data using twin 70-mm film cameras mounted on a helicopter boom. The apparatus is described, and the accuracy with which ground surface roughness can be characterized using this device is estimated. Both standard and cross-correlation methods were used for data reduction. Stereogrammetry is compared with a completely automated image-matching technique. Dense disparity images were generated from the helicopter stereo pairs. Using interior orientation parameters supplied by the camera manufacturers, and assuming that exterior orientation parameters remain constant between control target and test field photography, an extremely dense DEM (digital elevation model) for a test field has been derived. Results are compared, and accuracy estimates are presented.

The basic elements of model-based design for space missions have existed for almost a decade, awaiting an opportunity to implement them in the same place at the same time. In early design phases, combinations of models, concurrent engineering methods, and scenario-driven design have been used for several years with results that have exceeded even optimistic expectations; but the goal of extending these methods to later phases of design has been more elusive. JPL's model-based engineering design (MBED) initiative provides opportunity to reach that goal. It enables advanced systems engineering practice through a series of integrated, increasingly detailed models that provide continuity from architectural concept through detailed design. It extends current capability for rapid conceptual design, allowing thorough exploration of design tradespaces and selection of an optimal design point with associated cost and rationale; and it provides seamless connection to subsystem models and detailed design tool suites. We review the goals and status of MBED and show the expected interconnectivity between conceptual and detailed design.

This paper presents ongoing work to standardize model-based system engineering as a complement to point design development in the conceptual design phase of deep space missions. It summarizes two first steps towards practical application of this capability within the framework of concurrent engineering design teams and their customers. The first step is standard generation of system sensitivities models as the output of concurrent engineering design sessions, representing the local trade space around a point design. A review of the chosen model development process, and the results of three case study examples, demonstrate that a simple update to the concurrent engineering design process can easily capture sensitivities to key requirements. It can serve as a valuable tool to analyze design drivers and uncover breakpoints in the design. The second step is development of rough-order- of-magnitude, broad-range-of-validity design models for rapid exploration of the trade space, before selection of a point design. At least one case study demonstrated the feasibility to generate such models in a concurrent engineering session. The experiment indicated that such a capability could yield valid system-level conclusions for a trade space composed of understood elements. Ongoing efforts are assessing the practicality of developing end-to-end system-level design models for use before even convening the first concurrent engineering session, starting with modeling an end-to-end Mars architecture.

One-bit coded processing of SAR data is revisited. Quantitative results on real data are discussed.

An experimental real time one-bit (hardware) processor has been realized and is planned to operate in connection and during the Space Radar Topography Mission (SRTM). This is the first single pass interferometric Synthetic Aperture radar (SAR) in the space mounting on-board two radar receivers. During the mission, part of the XSAR raw data will be down-linked, re-coded at one bit and convolved (in time domain) with a one-bit coded filter function, to generate real-time images and associate interferometric fringes. The experiment is expected to be relevant to the emerging area of on-board real time processing (reduced weight and power consumption) and deep space microwave imaging (bandwidth saving). Results of the experiment are presented. The processor performance and (geometric and radiometric) image quality are discussed.

Saturn and its largest satellite, Titan, are the principal objectives of the NASA-ESA-ASI Cassini-Huygens mission. Launched in 1997, the spacecraft will reach its destination in July 2004 and the mission will end in 2008, after 44 Titan flybys. A Ku-band radar, in particular, will investigate the nature of Titan surface, using four operative modes: imaging radar, scatterometer, altimeter and radiometer. During the Earth flyby, in August 1999, Cassini Radar acquired radiometric and scatterometric data over Pacific Ocean and South America for calibration purposes. These data have been compared with the co-located X-SAR, Seasat, other sensors' and reference database, retrieving information for Cassini Radar calibration. Furthermore, an e.m. simulation is applied in order to assess the possibility of radar discrimination among three different surface scenarios expected for Titan: oceans or lakes of ethane, water ice or ammonia-rich ice. The surfaces have been simulated using fractals, described as 3-D Fractional Brownian Motion processes, and their e.m. response has been calculated using the Kirchhoff approximation. The results indicate a good possibility of discrimination because of the higher sensitivity of backscattering coefficient to dielectric constant variations than to surface roughness. For very smooth surfaces, liquid methane in absence of wind, signals at the low limit of the radar detectivity are expected.

We consider team dynamics a component of the engineering design process for space missions and explore the possibility of improvements in management of team dynamics to gain additional efficiencies. At the conceptual level, design times have been reduced by properly defining the required design depth, understanding the Linkages between tools, and managing team dynamics. Team structures such as concurrent engineering, tool linkage and a scripted team process have been demonstrated to cut concept-level engineering design time from a few months to a few weeks. Costs for preparing the designs are substantially reduced. A proposal is presented whereby design methodologies in implementation-phase design can be revised along similar lines using a similar process. System requirements can be held in crosscutting models which are linked to subsystem design tools through a central database that captures the design and supplies needed configuration management and control. Mission goals, which may be thought of as the rough equivalent of level-one system requirements, are then captured in timelining software that drives the models, testing their capability to execute the goals. The team dynamics revolve around the use of three teams; each is managed in ways similar to those mentioned above. Metrics are used to measure and control both processes and to ensure that design parameters converge through the design process within schedule constraints. Traditional linear waterfall design methods management of an ever-reducing margin as the design proceeds to an anticipated endpoint, the methodology described here manages margins controlled by acceptable risk levels. Thus, teams can evolve risk tolerance (and cost) as they would any engineering parameter. This new approach allows more design freedom for a longer period, which tends to encourage revolutionary and unexpected improvements in design.