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This study was focused on explaining food selectivity in endemic Sri Lanka Grey Hornbill Ocyceros gingalensis to fill the gaps in the behavioral ecology of this endemic species. The study was conducted within Mihintale Sanctuary for five months from December 2015 to April 2016. Ringed hornbills were used to monitor the number of food items that were consumed from within the Food Abundance Index (FAI) and quantify the distribution and availability of resources to examine the potential of fruit selectivity. Thirteen fruiting plant families were recorded as preferred food. Food consumption and FAI values are not significantly correlated (r = 0.60, p = 0.285). The dietary composition increased in the breeding season due to a higher requirement for nutrients by the nestlings. Nutrient analysis results revealed that moisture (H = 7.50, p = 0.006), fiber (H = 6.53, p = 0.011), and ash (H = 6.07, p = 0.013) components were significant between eaten and non-eaten fruits. The amount of all the nutrients available in the fruits as well as FAI does not directly affect the fruit selectivity of the Sri Lanka Grey Hornbill in the Mihintale Sanctuary. This fruit selection and the seed dispersal ability of the Sri Lanka Grey Hornbill contributes to maintaining the ecosystem diversity and forest regeneration, especially in the Dry Zone in Sri Lanka.

Indian Black Robin (Copsychus fulicata leucoptera) ( Lesson, 1840) is one of the territorial birds often found in all climatic zones in Sri Lanka. Territory size of this birds species is vary according to the breeding season and habitats that they occupy. The present study was carried out to understand the breeding ecology and territorial behavior of Indian Black robin both in breeding and non-breeding periods. The study was carried out at the Mihintale sanctuary and the Faculty premises of Rajarata university of Sri Lanka. Eleven breeding pairs of Black robins were observed to collect using scan and focal animal sampling methods from 2014 to 2017. Territory mapping was done using ArcGIS 10.3 and % behavioral act was calculated using Microsoft excel. Two breeding seasons were identified during March to September. The average nest building period was13.25±0.96 days. Total of 10 nests were recorded, seven were successful nests but chicks were observed from only three of them while in other four of them were damaged due to several reasons. Three nests were abandon by the female bird with eggs which may considered as pseudo nests. The eggs were whitish in colour with small brownish blotches. The clutch size ranged from 2-4. The average incubation period was 11± 3.4 days. The identified foraging sites are nearby roads, human settlements and live foliage. Fifteen territories were recorded during the study period in the open land areas, sparse grasslands or scrublands. The territory sizes of non-breeding season ranged from 617 to 5504 m2 while territories of breeding season ranged from 1335 to 8736 m2.

Land use and land cover (LULC) play a significant role in carbon regulation. South-China accounts for ~65% of China’s carbon sink. In Xishuangbanna (South-China), rubber is expanding rapidly creating an urgent need to understand and monitor LULC change and how spatial variation affects carbon storage (CS). This is vital for the formation and implementation of better land use management practices. We studied LULC changes of 22-year period; addressing how these changes have affected the CS. We quantified LULC changes between1988 and 2010 using remote sensing methods and calculated CS changes using InvEST. Results showed that between 1988 and 2010, the rate of deforestation accelerated to 203.2 km 2 y −1 and ~23% of forest were lost. Conversion of natural forest to rubber was responsible for 78% of this deforestation. Rubber expansion rate was 153.4 km 2 y −1 . Changes to LULC drove a temporal CS reduction 0.223 Tg C/km 2 . Local stakeholders have strong economic interest in converting land to more profitable plantations. Government efforts is required to control land conversion through new policies and incentives to retain natural forest. Assessment of specific potential land use change will be required to avoid promoting the conversion of high carbon storage land uses to low carbon storage land uses.

Protected areas (PAs) are supposedly key refuges for the world's remaining biodiversity. Our study site, Xishuangbanna, harbors a high proportion of China's biodiversity but is threatened by rapid deforestation and expansion of monoculture rubber. We quantified the success of Xishuangbanna's PAs in preventing deforestation. Most previous analyses of PA effectiveness have insufficiently accounted for biases arising from PA location and establishment, because they overlooked the importance of site-matching in accounting for landscape change. We used matching methods to minimize such biases in comparing land use conversion rates inside and outside-PAs. By 2010, Xishuangbanna had 3,455.5km(2) (similar to 18%) designated as PAs. However, rubber occupied 22% of its land area and was expanding at a rate of 153.4km(2)/year. Between 1988 and 2010, conventional analysis showed a deforestation rate of 9.3km(2)/year. However, matching analysis showed a significantly higher rate of deforestation, 10.7km(2)/year, which resulted in the deforestation of similar to 11% of PA's land. We argue that PAs were less effective than had previously been thought. The situation worsened from 2002 to 2010, when the deforestation rate within PAs was actually higher than that of outside PAs, although this difference was not significant. The designated higher levels of protection in core' zones were also unsuccessful in preventing deforestation. At current rates, within the next 50years, a further 16% of PAs would be deforested in Xishuangbanna. This could even be an underestimate, as without intervention, drivers of deforestation tend to accelerate. Therefore, reviewing and strengthening current PA management policies is essential.

Tropical island countries are often highly populated and deliver immense ecosystem service benefits. As human wellbeing depends on these ecosystems, proper management is crucial in the resource-rich tropical lands where there is less related research. Though ecosystem service and biodiversity studies are a promising path to inform the ecosystem management for these mostly developing countries, published evidence of using ecosystem service studies in decision making is lacking. The purpose of this study is to provide an overview of ecosystem services and related research in Sri Lanka, examining trends and gaps in how these studies are conceptualized. Out of the considered 220 peer-reviewed articles, the majority of articles (48.2%) were terrestrial and forest related while coastal ecosystems were considered in 33.2% of studies. In most studies, the ecosystem service category studied was provisioning (31.5%) followed by regulatory service (28.7%). Studies investigating and quantifying ecosystem services, pressures on ecosystems, and their management were fewer compared to studies related to biodiversity or species introduction. Moreover, studies investigating the value of ecosystem services and biodiversity to the communities or involvement of stakeholders in the development of management actions regarding the ecosystem services were rare in Sri Lanka, and an intense focus from future studies in these aspects is timely and necessary.

Sri Lanka is an island nation where ~59% of the population live in coastal regions. The main income source in these areas is fishing, which contributes to ~44% of the national GDP. Fishery resources depend on mangroves, especially in estuaries and lagoons, as mangroves provide the best nursery grounds for both brackish and marine species that are significant for the island’s fishing industry. However, growing pressures from an increasing population and development are causing substantial damage to mangroves resulting in loss of mangrove diversity. We analyzed whether variation in mangrove diversity within a lagoon system affects fishery production and livelihoods. Along the lagoon we selected three sites, which were 5 km apart from each other, for the survey. We used three 50 m long transects at each site for faunal and floral diversity assessments. The fishery catch was recorded from three crafts in each side. The socio-economic survey was conducted in 30 households per site using a standard questionnaire. In the site with the highest floral and faunal diversity, we also recorded the highest fish catch, but not the highest crab or shrimp catches. Our results confirm that higher mangrove diversity—and not just area—supports higher income generation. Thus, future development should prioritize biodiversity conservation in coastal regions.

The hornbills are among the most extraordinary looking birds in the world. Out of two species of hornbill, the Ocyceros gingalensis is the only endemic grey hornbill in Sri Lanka. This study was conducted in Mihintale Sanctuary which is comprised of secondary dry mixed evergreen forest patches and semiurbanized area from 2013 to 2015. Ad libitum focal animal sampling was used to construct an ethogram for the behavior of Sri Lanka grey hornbill (SLGh). The study recorded 35 behavioral events in 11 acts under 4 types of their activities. Courtship and mating activities were recorded within the study period. Food items were changed throughout the parental care period. Within this period chicks were offered sufficient food comprised of fruits and flesh. These revealed that the nesting of the SLGh in suburb areas is not good sign since it potentially indicates the loss of adequate breeding conditions in the forest. Conservation of SLGh depends on protection of trees and tree cavities as an important ecological niche.

Indian Black Robin (Saxicoloides fulicata leucoptera) is one of the territorial bird found in scrub forest, rocky areas, open grasslands and near human residence and distributed throughout the country in all climatic zones. Breeding success of birds can be depended on the size of the territory. Territory size can be varying according to breeding season and different locations they occupied. Present study attempted to understand the breeding ecology and territorial behavior of black robin in both breeding and non-breeding seasons. The data were collected using scan sampling and focal animal sampling from 2014 to 2017 in adjacent to the Mihintale sanctuary. The behavioral and territory variations were checked by using a dummy of black robin. ArcGIS v10.3 and Minitab v17 were used for data analysis. The breeding season of black robin lasted nearly three months twice a year from March to June and July to September. Courtship behaviour was started beginning of April and nest building was performed by both male and female. The nest building period averaged 13.25±0.96 days. Ten nests were recorded within the study period whilst 4 of them were successful and 6 were pseudo nests. Nests were observed at different places such as rocky areas, rock fragments and joisters of resident places. The clutch size was 2-4 and eggs were whitish in background with small brownish blotches. Average incubation period was 11±3.4 days. Both male and female fed the chicks after hatching. Foraging sites were mostly nearby roads, human associated places and live foliage. As a percentage, male used to feed chicks 69.23% and female 30.77% within the observed period. There were 12 territories recorded within the study period. The territorial areas were changed according to the members of the group and the breeding season. Territory size ranged from 617 m2 to 5,050 m2 and smaller territories were recorded during the non breeding period while sizes were larger during the breeding period. Results suggest that this species require sufficient habitats to demarcate their territory and nesting. Hence maintain the gardens and shady areas are recommended to conserve this species in domestic areas. Keywords: Black Robin, Territory, Nests, Conservation

The present study was carried out in three different habitat types within the Mihintale Sanctuary, namely aquatic, undisturbed forest and disturbed habitat from November 2008 to May 2009. The main objective of the study was to determine the species diversity and identify the threats to the birds. Line transect, point counts and opportunistic survey methods were conducted daily both in the morning and evenings. A total of 130 species of birds belonging to 47 families including 111 breeding residents, 19 winter visitors, four endemic species and four species that are being proposed as endemic species were recorded. It also included 10 rare species, one very rare winter visitor, Zoothera citrina, six nationally threatened and one globally threatened species, Pelecanus philippensis. The number of bird species that were observed in the aquatic habitat, forested habitat and the disturbed habitat were 93, 40 and 76 respectively. The results indicate that diversity of birds was significantly higher (p less than 0.05)in the aquatic habitat. It was revealed that the aquatic habitat provides more suitable niches and food resources for a wide variety of birds. Therefore, species diversity near aquatic habitat was higher compared to that of the forest. Fragmentation of forest into small patches, hunting birds for food and presence of natural predators are the major threats to the avifauna in the sanctuary. Thus, strategies should be developed to conserve the avifaunal diversity in the forest patches. The sanctuary supports different types of native bird species of Sri Lanka and is identified as one of the IBAs in Sri Lanka, it therefore plays an important role in the conservation of birds in Sri Lanka.

Distribution patterns corresponding to habitat characteristics in tropical forests have not been largely studied. Natural forest structure as well as the anthropogenic alterations to the forests equally affects the distribution patterns of wet zone avifauna. The study reveals the importance of % canopy closure, distance from the forest edge, tree density, diversity, and elevation to the community composition of local forest birds inhabiting Gannoruwa Forest Reserve, Sri Lanka. The most important factors resulting in the study for shaping the avian distribution pattern are distance from the edge,elevation, and the % canopy closure. With the increase of favouring resources to the avian fauna at the edges and the juxtaposition of the edge, many forest loving species were observed to move towards the edge. The pattern is proven advantageous, but harmful in the long run. Thus, it is advisable that the conservation plans should focus on habitat destruction and the anthropogenic disturbance along forest edges.

Many mangroves were forced to act as informal pollution mitigation zones and double up as conservation areas. Long-term data are presented for a high-profile mangrove reserve acting as such a mitigation zone in urban Thailand. Efficient mineralization of organic wastes by mangrove soil in a semi-engineered and hydraulically contained zone made it possible not to compromise the reserve's natural status. The data demonstrate that the treatment zone could process organic waste with an eight-fold efficiency in comparison to previous reports. Clones of microbial taxa critically novel for mangrove ecosystems were recovered (anammox bacteria and archaeal ammonia oxidizers), suggesting their significant presence. Community structures of nitrogen-cycling and other taxa of natural and hypernutrified soils did not differ substantially. It is suggested that waste nitrogen removal may have occurred through bacterial and archaeal nitrification, conventional denitrification and anammox process. The article addresses the issue of multi-functional use of ever-shrinking habitats available for wildlife conservation. Data on key microbial, floral and faunal communities demonstrate that the mangrove exhibited stability under the major nutrient load. Supply of additional nutrients correlated with an enhancement of mangrove growth and diversity of selected key invertebrates/vertebrates which increase conservation potential of the reserve. Serving to determine ecologically safe nutrification limits, the study suggests that a successful rehabilitation of an urban mangrove to its near-natural status is feasible.

Ratufa macroura dandolena is one of the three distinct sub-species of Giant Squirrels present in Sri Lanka and it is the smallest of the Giant Squirrels in the world. They are being threatened due to habitat loss from deforestation for agricultural, residential and commercial purposes. Activity budgeting is an essential component to form an effective conservation and management system. We conducted six months of study between June and September 2014 and between December 2014 and March 2015 using focal animal sampling techniques to gather behavioral data. Field visits were made three days per week, during the study period and point samples on an individual were recorded at five-minute intervals. Observations on dreys were opportunistically conducted during field visits. The study took place in areas of disturbed regenerating forest within the premises of the Rajarata University in Mihintale. Data collection was done between 07:00 and 17:00 hrs. Grizzled Giant Squirrels were mostly involved in feeding during the period of observation (45.58%) and was least engaged in other activities (0.17%) namely branch shaking and watching the observer. They spent 29.57% in resting, 14.34% in locomotion, 3.73% in intraspecific activities, 1.53% in grooming, 0.73% in communicatory behavior and 4.32% in drey related activities. Feeding mostly occurred from 07:00 to 10:00 hrs and 15:00 to 16:00 hrs according to the diurnal time budget. Majority of the resting was between 11:00 to 15:00 hrs. The walls of the dreys were made by Grewia sp. twigs and the inner floor using leaves of Mangifera indica. Dreys were about 45.95±0.35 cm in length, 30.9±0.56 cm in width, 14.85±0.21 cm in depth and 412.5±3.5 g in weight. We recommend further study of this species at other sites with different forest types to better understand its behavioral ecology and conservation needs. Particular emphasis should be given to studying this species at different altitudes. Keywords: Mammal, Rodent, Behavior, Giant Squirrel, Sri Lanka

Resource partitioning in ecological communities bears profound connection with the coexistence of closely related species. As a mechanism, it assists species with similar characteristics to thrive in the environments where they can utilise resources in different levels in spatial and temporal scale via niche partitioning. As ecologically important insects, dragonflies are well-studied in many aspects globally but poorly assessed locally. The current study was conducted under the main objective of identifying the mechanism of resource partitioning in three sympatric most common skimmer species; Brachythemis contaminata , Crocothemis servilia servilia and Rhyothemis variegata variegata in two tank ecosystems in Anuradhapura district, Sri Lanka. The study was conducted from May-August 2014 simultaneously in Nabadagaswewa tank (NW) and Mihintale tank (MT). Data collection was carried out 08:00 to 10:00 hrs in the morning and 13:00 to 15:00 hrs in the evening. Land-water interface at the tank was used for the study in both sites. Scan sampling was used to obtain data on resource utilisation by the three skimmer species. Randomly selected individuals were observed for 30 seconds in each observation point. Vegetation variables (bank vegetation density and height, aquatic vegetation density and height) were measured using two belt transects (25×1 m2) in both habitats. The three species were more active in the morning hours (08:00 to 10:00 hrs) and shows different levels of perch and fly heights in the morning and evening hours. R.v. variegata was recorded using heights of

This paper presents authors experience about a completely online B. Sc. Degree program conducted in Sri Lanka at Rajarata University of Sri Lanka (RUSL). This degree program is offered in two main streams as Physical sciences and Bio sciences. Both degrees are three years in duration. Focus for this paper is two modules offered in the second year as a common module for both streams. Modules were conducted during February to May in 2013. Since the complete online nature of the program most of the students joined are employed. Moodle server is used to host all the course materials and assignments. Regular online discussion were carried out in order to answer students questions and to clarify unclear points. Students joined the discussion online from their homes mostly from all over the country. Twelve students were followed these modules and students who did not sit for the final exams were excluded from the statistical calculations.

Mihintale sanctuary is one of the important forest reserve located in Sri Lanka with scarceinformation on avifauna. Although this area has been subjected to anthropogenic activities,periphery areas provide more suitable habitats for different species of birds includingmigrants. Current study is carried from July 2010 to end of February 2012 in the Faculty ofApplied Science premises (disturbed) and remnant grass patch habitats locates adjacent to theMihintale forest to investigate the abundance species diversity, and habitat utilisation of birdspecies in two different habitats. Belt transect method (500 x 50 m), point counts and theopportunistic observation method were used for data collection. Vegetation analysis weredone by using quadrates sampling method and habitat utilisation data were gather by scansampling method. Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index and Margalef’s Diversity Indices werecalculated in order to determine the species diversity and richness. A total of 68 and 99 species belonging to 34 and 42 families were recorded from bothdisturbed and remnant grass patch nearby Mihintale Sanctuary. Among them 64 (94.2%)breeding residents and 4 (5.8%) winter visitors recorded in disturbed habitat while 87(87.8%) breeding residents and 12 (12.2%) winter visitors recorded in grass patch. In bothhabitats 7 endemic species were recorded. Out of the total species 45 species from grass patchand 69 species from disturbed area were common. Shannon Diversity Index (H') for disturbed and grass patch habitat were 2.48 and 2.76respectively. The results indicated that the diversity avifauna significantly (p=0.0237) higherin the grass patch. Mainly the observed bird species in the study area can be categorized intoseven trophic guilds. The majority was insectivores in both habitats (54% and 41.96%). 22and 19 species of plant were predominantly utilised by the birds inhabited the grass patch andin disturbed area respectively. During the breeding period majority of birds utilised all theplant species in grass patch for nesting while disturbed habitat used for collecting nestingmaterials. Ficus species were recorded as common feeding tree in both habitats. As birds areuseful indicator species of the health of an ecosystem they can be used as focal species togather data on status of habitat and disturbances. This will lead to conservation of birds andtheir habitats.

This review lists the currently known species of millepedes in Sri Lanka and discusses their current taxonomic status and distribution based on previous studies from 1865 to date. A total of 104 millipede species belonging to 44 genera, 18 families and nine orders have been recorded in Sri Lanka. Of these, 82 are known only from Sri Lanka; additionally, nine genera and one family are known only from Sri Lanka. Most of the millipede species have been recorded from two localities, namely Pundaluoya and Kandy in the central highlands of Sri Lanka. Current knowledge on the taxonomy, evolutionary relationships, distribution and conservation of the millipedes of Sri Lanka is still limited and scattered. Thus we suggest more intensive surveys to acquire comprehensive data on the millipedes of Sri Lanka.

The Dry zone grey langur (Semnopithecus priam thersites) is a subspecies endemic to Sri Lanka. In this research investigated the population distribution, threats and conservation status of the S. priam thersites in the contiguous forest of Mihintale Sanctuary in Sri Lanka. Population study done by direct counting and vocal sounds along the permanent line transects. Threats were identified by using a questionnaire survey. A total of 03 troops and least 60 individuals were recorded during the study period from December 2009 to May 2010. These three troops were sighted in Kaludiyapukuna forest (19 individuals), Rajagiri lena forest (21 individuals) and the boundery near kumarasirigama village (18 individuals). The remaining populations living almost completely in disturbed habitats due to human influences. The average group sizes were 16.8±2.65 and 19.14 ±3.76 in forested areas and forests neighboring human habitation respectively and the all three groups were recorded as multimale groups. The troop‟s distribution varied with the food availability and restricted to human habitation and disturbed forest patches. The species is vulnerable to hunting and retaliatory killing in response to crop damage.