Search

The application of liposomes as potential carriers to deliver food components is considerably an innovative technology. While the application of liposome technology has been very limited to date, researches indicating the potential of liposomes for improving the flavor of ripened cheese using accelerated methods, the targeted delivery of functional food ingredients, the synergistic delivery of ascorbic acid and tocopherols for promoting antioxidant activity in foods, and the stabilization of minerals (such as iron) in milk have been performed. In the food industry, liposomes and nanoliposomes have been employed to encapsulate flavoring and nutritive agents, and also, they have been suitable candidates to deliver antimicrobials. In this paper, application of lipase, proteinase, nisin, and flavor-containing liposomes in products during the processing (such as cheese maturity) as well as the application of liposomes-encapsulated micronutrients (such as iron) in milk are reviewed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Skin is the largest organ of the body and is constantly exposed to physical, chemical, bacterial, and fungal challenges. It is well known that probiotics are helpful for specific disorders and different clinical studies have indicated that probiotics have special effects in cutaneous apparatus directly or indirectly that can be considerable from versatile aspects. Probiotic bacteriotherapy can have great potential in preventing and treating the skin diseases including eczema, atopic dermatitis, acne, and allergic inflammation or in skin hypersensitivity, UV-induced skin damage, wound protection, and as a cosmetic product. The current paper comprehensively reviews the different health effects of probiotics on the skin. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Probiotics are from functional foods that bring health benefits for humans. Nowadays, a major development in functional foods is related to food containing probiotic cultures, mainly lactic acid bacteria or bifidobacteria. Probiotics must be alive and ingested in sufficient amounts to exert the positive effects on the health and the well-being of the host. Therefore, viability of probiotic products (the minimum viable probiotic cells in each gram or milliliter of product till the time of consumption) is their most important characteristic. However, these organisms often show poor viability in fermented products due to their detrimental conditions. Today, the variety of fermented meat products available around the world is nearly equal to that of cheese. With meat products, raw fermented sausages could constitute an appropriate vehicle for such microorganisms into the human gastrointestinal tract. In present article, the viability of probiotic microorganisms in fermented sausage, the main factors affect their viability, and the sensorial characteristics of final product are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Viability of probiotic bacteria during the production and storage of fermented milks is the most important topic of discussion in the dairy industry. Addition of microalgae into milk for the production of fermented milk in order to enhance the viability of probiotics has been the subject of recent research. Spirulina and Chlorella are the most widely noted microalgae for fermented milks. They affect not only the viability of probiotics in final product but also the sensory attributes of them. Incorporation of microalgae into probiotic fermented milks along with enhancing the viability of probiotics would increase their functional characteristic. This is because they contain a wide range of nutrients and nutraceuticals and are considered as 'functional food.' This article reviews the effects of supplementation of Spirulina platensis and Chlorella vulgaris into probiotic fermented milks on their different quality characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Beer is a worldwide consumed and universally popular beverage due to its pleasant sensory properties and nutritional/medicinal functions. Chemical (flavor, safety, nutritional and medicinal aspects) and microbiological (brewing yeast and contaminating microorganisms) properties of beer are among its key attributes. In this article, application of advanced instrumental methods for the analysis of chemical and microbiological characteristics of beer is discussed. Advanced instrumental techniques for the quick, reliable, selective and relatively sensitive analysis of food products including beer are widely used for research or quality evaluation purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is one of the world's top novel technologies in the food industry due to the production of food in different conditions and places (restaurants, homes, catering, schools, for dysphagia patients, and astronauts' food) and the production of personalized food. Nowadays, 3D printers are used in the main food industries, including meat, dairy, cereals, fruits, and vegetables, and have been able to produce successfully on a small scale. However, due to the expansion of this technology, it has challenges such as high-scale production, selection of printable food, formulation optimization, and food production according to the consumer's opinion. Food additives (gums, enzymes, proteins, starches, polyphenols, spices, probiotics, algae, edible insects, oils, salts, vitamins, flavors, and by-products) are one of the main components of the formulation that can be effective in food production according to the consumer's attitude. Food additives can have the highest impact on textural and sensory characteristics, which can be effective in improving consumer attitudes and reducing food neophobia. Most of the 3D-printed food cannot be printed without the presence of hydrocolloids, because the proper flow of the selected formulation is one of the key factors in improving the quality of the printed product. Functional additives such as probiotics can be useful for specific purposes and functional food production. Food personalization for specific diseases with 3D printing technology requires a change in the formulation, which is closely related to the selection of correct food additives. For example, the production of 3D-printed plant-based steaks is not possible without the presence of additives, or the production of food for dysphagia patients is possible in many cases by adding hydrocolloids. In general, additives can improve the textural, rheological, nutritional, and sensory characteristics of 3D printed foods; so, investigating the mechanism of the additives on all the characteristics of the printed product can provide a wide perspective for industrial production and future studies., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

In recent years, lipophilic bioactive compounds have gained much attention due to their wide range of health-benefiting effects. However, their low solubility and susceptibility to harsh conditions such as high temperatures and oxidation stress have limited their potential application for the development of functional foods and nutraceutical products in the food industry. Nanoencapsulation can help to improve the stability of hydrophobic bioactive compounds and protect these sensitive compounds during food processing conditions, thus overcoming the limitation of their pure use in food products. The objective of this work was to co-entrap vitamin D 3 (VD 3 ) and omega 3 (ω3) as hydrophobic bioactive compounds providing significant health benefits in beeswax solid lipid nanoparticles (BW. SLNs) for the first time and to investigate the effect of different concentrations of VD 3 (5 and 10 mg/mL) and ω 3 (8 and 10 mg) on encapsulation efficiency (EE). Our findings revealed that the highest EE was obtained for VD 3 and ω3 at concentrations of 5 mg/mL and 10 mg, respectively. VD 3 /ω3 loaded BW. SLNs (VD 3 /ω3-BW. SLNs) were prepared with zeta potential and size of-32 mV and 63.5 nm, respectively. Results obtained by in-vitro release study indicated that VD 3 release was lower compared to ω3 in the buffer solution. VD 3 and ω3 incorporated in BW. SLNs demonstrated excellent stability under alkaline and acidic conditions. At highly oxidizing conditions, 96.2 and 90.4% of entrapped VD 3 and ω3 remained stable in nanoparticles. Moreover, nanoparticles were stable during 1 month of storage, and no aggregation was observed. In conclusion, co-loaded VD 3 and ω3 in BW. SLNs have the great potential to be used as bioactive compounds in food fortification and production of functional foods., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Shakeri, Ghobadi, Sohrabvandi, Khanniri and Mollakhalili-Meybodi.)

Heracleum percicum essential oil (HEO) at various levels was encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles and its potential application in yogurt was investigated. The values obtained for encapsulation efficiency, loading capacity, mean particle size, and zeta potential of nanoparticles were 39.12-70.22%, 9.14-14.26%, 201.23-336.17 nm, and + 20.19-46.37 mV, respectively. The nanoparticles had spherical shape with some holes as a result of drying process. In vitro release studies in acidic solution and phosphate buffer solution indicated an initial burst effect followed by slow release with higher release rate in acidic medium. Results of antibacterial activity revealed that Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella typhimurium with inhibition zones of 21.04-38.10 and 9.39-20.56 mm were the most sensitive and resistant bacteria to HEO, respectively. Incorporation of encapsulated HEO into yogurt decreased pH and increased titratable acidity due to stimulation of starters' activity. Interaction of nanoparticles with proteins decreased syneresis in yogurt. Regarding antioxidant activity, a higher value was observed in yogurt containing encapsulated HEO after 14 days of storage due to degradation and release of essential oil from nanoparticles. In conclusion, application of HEO nanoparticles in yogurt could be a promising approach for development of functional food products such as yogurt with enhanced antioxidant properties., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Yousefi, Khanniri, Sohrabvandi, Khorshidian and Mortazavian.)

The food-grade adsorbents of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (10 8 CFU/mL), Bifidobacterium longum (10 8 CFU/mL) and chitosan (1%w/v) alone or in combination were used for biosorption of cadmium (Cd) from aqueous solution. Among the tested adsorbents, combination of B. longum and chitosan had the highest efficiency. Therefore, biosorption process with B. longum /chitosan as the most efficient biosorbent was optimized by variables of pH (3-6), temperature (4-37 °C), contact time (5-180 min) and Cd concentrations (0.01-5 mg/L) using RSM. Twenty-seven tests were carried out and the data fitted to the second-order polynomial models. Results revealed that 99.11% of Cd was reduced within 180 min at concentration of 2.5 mg/L, pH 6 and temperature of 20.5 °C that were considered as the optimal conditions for Cd removal. The trend of isotherm was more fitted to the Langmuir model and maximum biosorption capacity was obtained about 3.61 mg/g. The pseudo-second-order fitted the biosorption kinetics for Cd ions. The B. longum /chitosan biosorbent exhibited the high affinity to Cd ion in the presence of coexisting metal ions. It could remove 81.18% of Cd from simulated gastrointestinal tract. Thus, B. longum /chitosan can have good potential as an effective adsorbent for Cd biosorption from aqueous solutions and human body.

Due to the concern of consumers about the presence of synthetic preservatives, researchers and food manufacturers have recently conducted extensive research on the limited use of these preservatives and the introduction and use of natural preservatives, such as herbal extracts and essential oils, bacteriocins, and antimicrobial enzymes. Lysozyme is a natural enzyme with antimicrobial activity that has attracted considerable attention to be potentially utilized in various industries. Since lysozyme is an intrinsic component of the human immune system and has low toxicity; it could be considered as a natural antimicrobial agent for use in food and pharmaceutical industries. Lysozyme exerts antimicrobial activity against microorganisms, especially Gram-positive bacteria, by hydrolyzing 1,4-beta-linkages between N-acetylmuramic acid and N-acetylglucosamine in the cell wall. In addition, increased antimicrobial activity of lysozyme against Gram-negative bacteria could be achieved by the modification of lysozyme through physical or chemical interactions. Lysozyme is presented as a natural preservative in mammalian milk and can be utilized as a bio-preservative in dairy products, such as cheese. Both bacteria and fungi can contaminate and spoil the cheese; especially the one that is made traditionally by raw milk. Furthermore, uncontrolled and improper processes and post-pasteurization contamination can participate in the cheese contamination. Therefore, besides common preservative strategies applied in cheese production, lysozyme could be utilized alone or in combination with other preservative strategies to improve the safety of cheese. Hence, this study aimed to review the antimicrobial properties of lysozyme as natural antimicrobial enzyme and its functionality in cheese., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Khorshidian, Khanniri, Koushki, Sohrabvandi and Yousefi.)

Milk is one of the most consumed sources among people, especially children. hence, its contamination with heavy metals can pose a serious risk to children. Therefore, this study aimed to measure the lead concentration as one of the most dangerous heavy metals in the raw milk of several major animal husbandries in Tehran province from Iran. A total of 57 raw milk samples were collected from different regions of Tehran province. The lead contents were measured using a graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometer. To evaluate the risk of the samples and hazard quotient (HQ) were calculated. The results showed that HQ for all samples was lower than 1 which was found within the acceptable level. Because the absorption of Pb is higher in children and this metal has a cumulative property in the body, even its small weekly intake can be dangerous in long-term consumption., Competing Interests: Conflict of interestThe authors declare that they have no conflict of interest., (© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021.)

The present investigation was performed to determine the stability of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) under several industrial processing situations in dairies, including pasteurization, freezing, and storage in acidic conditions. Ten treatments were selected, including high-temperature short-time (HTST)-pasteurized low-fat milk, low-temperature long-time-pasteurized low-fat milk, extended shelf life (ESL)-pasteurized low-fat milk, HTST-pasteurized full-fat milk, LTLT-pasteurized full-fat milk, ESL-pasteurized full-fat milk, pasteurized cream, ice cream frozen and stored at -20 or -80°C, and Doogh (as a fermented milk drink with initial pH < 3.5) refrigerated for 28 days. The viral particles were quantified by RT-PCR methodology. Besides, the virus infectivity was assessed through fifty-percent tissue culture infective dose (TCID 50 ) assay. These products were seeded with a viral load of 5.65 log TCID 50 /mL as a simulated cross-contamination condition. Pasteurization techniques were sufficient for complete inactivation of the SARS-CoV-2 in the most dairy products, and 1.85 log TCID 50 /mL virus reduction in full-fat milk (fat content = 3.22%). Freezing (either -20°C or -80°C) did not result in a virally safe product within 60 days of storage. Storage at high acidic conditions (initial pH < 3.5) completely hampered the viral load at the end of 28 days of refrigerated storage. This research represents an important practical achievement that the routine HTST pasteurization in dairies was inadequate to completely inactivate the viral load in full-fat milk, probably due to the protective effect of fat content. Furthermore, freezing retain the virus infectivity in food products, and therefore, relevant contaminated foods may act as carriers for SARS-CoV-2., Competing Interests: The authors declare no potential conflict of interest., (© 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Background: Lead (Pb 2+ ) is one of the most toxic heavy metals and can be found in various quantities in the environment. The five native probiotic bacteria and inulin were used to assess in vitro lead nitrate and lead acetate binding capacities, as well as removal potentials., Results: The highest decrease in media pH was seen for samples containing a combination of Lactobacillus paracasei IRBC-M 10784, lead nitrate and inulin (5.30 ± 0.012). The presence of inulin in the environment accelerated decreases in the pH of all samples with no significance. In all groups, lead nitrate-containing samples included maximum pH decreases. From the highest to the lowest, the ability of lead removal was linked to Lactobacillus acidophilus PTCC-1932 (88.48%), Bifidobacterium bifidum BIA-7 (85.32%), Bifidobacterium lactis BIA-6 (85.24%), Lactobacillus rhamnosus IBRC-M 10782 (83.18%) and L. paracasei IRBC-M 10784 (80.66%). Most species included the highest decrease in lead nitrate. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis demonstrated that various functional groups (hydroxyl, carboxylic, carbonyl, amino and amide binds) on the bacterial cell wall were involved in lead ion binding during incubation. Principal component analysis of the FTIR results showed differences with respect to treated groups and control groups., Conclusion: The results obtained in the present study reveal that the simultaneous use of native probiotics and inulin can be an effective and safe approach for removing various toxic substances, especially Pb. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.)

High-fructose syrups are used as sugar substitutes due to their physical and functional properties. High fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is used in bakery products, dairy products, breakfast cereals and beverages, but it has been reported that there might be a direct relationship between high fructose intake and adverse health effects such as obesity and the metabolic syndrome. Thus, fructose has recently received much attention, most of which was negative. Although studies have indicated that there might be a correlation between high fructose-rich diet and several adverse effects, however, the results of these studies cannot be certainly generalised to the effects of HFCS; because they have investigated pure fructose at very high concentrations in measurement of metabolic upsets. This review critically considered the advantages and possible disadvantages of HFCS application and consumption in food industry, as a current challenging issue between nutritionists and food technologists.

Background: The World Health Organization recommends a maximum daily salt intake of 5 g for adults; the Islamic Republic of Iran has national standards for salt content of foods., Aims: This study aimed to determine the salt content of industrial (made in large-scale food companies) and non-industrial (made in local stores using traditional methods) foods in Tehran province and compare it with the Iranian national standards., Methods: We determined the salt content of 555 industrial and non-industrial products from parts of Tehran province in 2016 and 2018. The types of foods examined were: canned vegetables, industrial and non-industrial pickled vegetables, industrial and non-industrial tomato paste/tomato sauce, industrial and non-industrial nuts, and non-industrial barberry juice. The salt content of each product and its compliance with Iranian national standards was evaluated., Results: The salt content of industrial tomato paste/sauce in 2016 (2.05 g/100 g) and non-industrial tomato paste/sauce in 2018 (2.37 g/100 g) was higher than the Iranian standard (1.5/2.0 g/100 g). The mean salt content of both industrial (1.97 g/100 g) and non-industrial (2.16 g/100 g) nuts was higher than the Iranian standard (1.88 g/100 g), as was the mean salt content of non-industrial juice (0.79 g/100 mL versus 0.25 g/100 mL). In 2018, only 48% and 40% of industrial and non-industrial tomato pastes/sauces met the Iranian standard. Overall, industrial products conformed better with the national standard than non-industrial products., Conclusions: Efforts are needed to reduce the salt content of processed food in the Islamic Republic of Iran and ensure they meet the Iranian standards., (Copyright © World Health Organization (WHO) 2021. Open Access. Some rights reserved. This work is available under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/igo).)

The new severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that was first found in 2019 in Wuhan, China, caused coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). It then spread worldwide rapidly, causing the 2019-2020 coronavirus pandemic. To date, it has been indicated that various transmission ways might be participated in outbreaks of COVID-19. Among these, food products, whether raw or processed, might be carriers for SARS-CoV-2. Therefore, this study was aimed to evaluate the effect of cooking and microwave process of meat products and bread on the stability of SARS-CoV-2. In this regard, sausages and hamburger as meat products and toast bread were inoculated with a viral load of 5.70 log fifty percent tissue culture infective dose (TCID 50 )/mL in order to create a simulated cross-contamination condition. The results showed that frying of hamburger at 225ºC for about either 6 or 10 min resulted in complete inactivation of SARS-CoV-2. Furthermore, a 5-log decrease in SARS-CoV-2 load was observed in sausages as a consequence of cooking process at 78ºC for either 20 or 30 min. Additionally, the effect of microwave oven at power of 630 watt on stability of SARS-CoV-2 showed that exposing toast bread for either 30 s or 1 min in this power led to a 5-log decrease in SARS-CoV-2 load in the toast bread., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest., (© 2021 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Background: Dietary intake of fat, salt and sugar is important for prevention of noncommunicable diseases; therefore, evaluation of these constituents in industrial packaged foods is necessary., Aims: To compare the levels of fat, salt and sugar in mayonnaise and salad dressings commercialized in the Islamic Republic of Iran in 2017 and 2019, and to monitor compliance with standard limits., Methods: The levels of fat, salt and sugar in 12 mayonnaise and 47 salad dressing samples collected from an Iranian market were evaluated according to the Iranian Institute of Standards and Industrial Research of Iran (ISIRI) and compared between 2017 and 2019., Results: We determined compliance with ISIRI limits and other standard targets. The salt content of mayonnaise samples significantly decreased from 2.03 (standard deviation; 0.3) g/100 g in 2017 to 1.61 (0.12) g/100 g in 2019 (P = 0.031). Total sugar level of mayonnaise samples significantly decreased from 5.97 (1.14) g/100 g in 2017 to 3.63 (0.53) g/100 g in 2019 (P = 0.005). The total sugar level of salad dressings significantly decreased from 8.97 (2.34) g/100 g in 2017 to 1.58 (2.65) g/100 g in 2019 (P = 0.039). Compliance of mayonnaise and salad dressing fat contents with ISIRI limits increased from 42.9% and 84.6% in 2017 to 100% and 90.5% in 2019, respectively. None of the mayonnaise samples met the British Food Standards Agency salt target (maximum 1.25 g/100 g) in 2017 and 2019., Conclusions: Reformulation of these products for reduction of salt and sugar content is necessary., (Copyright © World Health Organization (WHO) 2021. Open Access. Some rights reserved. This work is available under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/igo).)

The ability of chitosan (1% w/v), Bifidobacterium longum (10 8  CFU mL- 1 ) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (10 8  CFU mL- 1 ) separately or in combination (chitosan/B. longum, chitosan/S. cerevisiae, B. longum/S. cerevisiae) was assessed for lead (II) removal from aqueous solutions. The results showed chitosan/B. longum adsorbent had higher adsorption percentage in comparison with other adsorbents (p < 0.05). It was selected as the most efficient adsorbent and the effect of process variables including initial metal concentration (0.01-5 mg L -1 ), contact time (5-180 min), temperature (4-37 °C) and pH (3-6) on the its removal efficiency was evaluated with a Box-Behnken design. Twenty-seven test runs were performed and the optimal conditions for metal adsorption was observed at metal concentration of 2.5 mg L -1 , contact time of 180 min, temperature of 37 °C and pH 4.5. The maximum lead (II) adsorption yield under optimal conditions was 97.6%. The foreign ions didn't diminish lead (II) adsorption by chitosan/B. longum and it had high selectivity toward the lead (II). Adsorption behavior was analyzed using the Freundlich and the Langmuir isotherms. The correlation coefficients (R 2 ) demonstrated the Langmuir model had a better description on metal adsorption process. Overall, isotherms revealed chemisorption and physisorption were probably involved in metal adsorption on adsorbent., (Copyright © 2021. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Background: Studies have reported the occurrence of the mycotoxin patulin in apple products. The aim of this study was to produce synbiotic apple juice and investigate the detoxification of patulin by Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillus plantarum as probiotic strains. The impact of seven process variables on efficiency of toxin removal was investigated using Plackett-Burman design and presence of the surface-layer proteins as binding site of probiotics to patulin was confirmed during 6 weeks of cold storage., Results: Results showed that the removal of patulin by probiotic bacteria from apple juice depends significantly (P < 0.05) on the fructooligosaccharide content (as a prebiotic), concentration of patulin and the addition of ascorbic acid. Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of cell surface proteins of probiotic strains revealed that surface layer proteins have an important role in patulin removal from apple juice. In the best conditions, 91.23% of initial patulin concentration was removed from juice during 6 weeks refrigerated storage. No significant difference was observed in organoleptic properties of the synbiotic apple juice and raw sample., Conclusion: In the best condition reported in this study, contaminated synbiotic apple juice by patulin will be safe for consumers after the first day of probiotic inoculation. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.)

Milk is an important component of a balanced diet and contains numerous valuable constituents. Considerable acclaimed health benefits of milk are related to its proteins, not only for their nutritive value but also for their biological properties. Scientific evidence suggests that anticarcinogenic activities, antihypertensive properties, immune system modulation, and other metabolic features of milk, are affiliated with its proteins (intact proteins or its derivatives). In this article, the main health-related aspects of milk proteins, such as anticarcinogenic, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, anticariogenic, antihypertensive, and hypocholesterolemic effects are reviewed. Collectively, the findings indicate the effectiveness of milk proteins on reduction of risk factors for cancer, cardiovascular diseases and overall improvement of health aspects.

Removal of toxic metals and toxins using microbial biomass has been introduced as an inexpensive, new promising method on top of conventional methods for decontamination of food, raw material and concentrated. In this article the potential application of lactic acid bacteria and yeasts as the most familiar probiotics to eliminate, inactivate or reduce bioavailability of contamination in foods and feed has been reviewed. After fast glance to beneficial health effects and preservative properties of lactic acid bacteria, the mechanisms which explain antibacterial and antifungal efficiency as well as their antifungal metabolites are mentioned. Then the article has been focused on potential application of single strain or combination of lactic acid bacteria for removal of heavy metals (copper, lead, cadmium, chromium, arsenic), cyanotoxins (microcystin-LR, -RR, -LF) and mycotoxins (aflatoxin B1, B2, B2a, M1, M2, G1, G2, patulin, ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, fumonisin B1 and B2, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, deoxynivalenol, fusarenon, nivalenol, diacetoxyscirpenol, HT-2 and T-2 toxin, zearalenone and its derivative, etc) from aqueous solutions in vitro. Wherever possible the mechanism of decontamination and the factors influencing yield of removal are discussed. Some factors which can facilitate metal removal capacity of lactic acid bacteria including the strains, surface charge, pH, temperature, presence of other cations are introduced. The cell wall structure of lactic acid bacteria and yeasts are also introduced for further explanation of mechanism of action in complex binding of probiotic to contaminants and strength of mycotoxin- bacterium interaction.

Effects of inoculation level (4 or 8-fold compared to standard inoculation) and order (standard inoculation before fermentation and 3-fold inoculation at the end of fermentation = 1+3, Two-fold inoculation before fermentation and the same at the end of fermentation = 2+2, 2+6, 4-fold before fermentation = 4, 4+4, and 8) of culture inoculums containing probiotics on viscosity, phase separation, particle size analysis, microstructure and sensory attributes of probiotic Doogh were studied. The probiotic microorganisms were Lactobacillus acidophilus LA-5 and Bifidobacterium lactis BB-12. Treatments with 2- and 4-fold inoculation before fermentation had the highest instrumental viscosity and surface tension at the end of fermentation. The size diameter of particles in the structure of treatment 8I was significantly (p < 0.05) smaller than I after stirring with a Lab stirrer (1500 rpm), and even after homogenization with a homogenizer (150 bar). 8I was an un-uniform, disintegrated and clumped structure with limited junctions in its network that resulted in a weak structure with bigger particles after agitation and smaller particles after stirring and homogenization compared to other treatments. This treatment also had the lowest record in ranking sensory test among treatments with a mixed culture-like and vinegary-like taint. Overall, treatments with 2- and 4-fold inoculation were realized as the best from the sum of physiochemical and sensory properties point of view.

The combined effects of inoculation level (4 or 8-fold compared to standard inoculation) and sequence (standard inoculation before fermentation and 3-fold inoculation at the end of fermentation=1+3, Two-fold inoculation before fermentation and the same at the end of fermentation=2+2, 2+6, 4-fold before fermentation=4, 4+4, and 8) of culture inoculum containing probiotics on biochemical and microbiological characteristics of probiotic Doogh during fermentation and over 21 days of refrigerated storage (4˚C) were investigated. The probiotic microorganisms were L. acidophilus LA-5 and Bifidobacterium lactis BB-12. Overall, the treatments 8, 4 and 4+4 resulted in the highest viability at the end of fermentation as well as at early days of refrigerated storage. During the second half of cold storage period, the greatest viability of probiotics was related to the treatment 2+6. The treatment '8' showed the shortest incubation time as well as the highest pH drop rate and acidity increase rate during fermentation and over the storage period.

Compared to the classical methods of analysis, advanced instrumental methods have received increasing attention due to their highly precise analysis of food micro-/macro-structure. Due to its widespread popularity, yogurt has been the subject of numerous studies. This article discusses major advanced instrumental methods applied to the analysis of set/stirred yogurt reported in the literature. Discussed analytical methods have been categorized into two parts, namely chemical analysis methods (including flavor analysis of yogurt, analysis of milk constituents, and assays of indexes), and structural analysis methods (including textural and rheological analysis as well as microstructural analysis).