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Levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in smoked food materials from roadside barbeque spots in western Nigeria were determined. Different samples of smoked fish, meat and plantain were ...

After a cancer diagnosis, patients often change their lifestyle in order to improve health. The aim of this study was to examine whether women with breast cancer had changed their diet two years after the diagnosis, and to compare their diet with that of healthy female blood donors.Patients (n = 180), median age 58 years (range 37-78), and 101 controls, median age 57 years (age 43-75) answered questions about consumption of alcohol, 36 different food items, and information like age, body mass index (BMI), marital status, and years of education.Forty patients (22%) had changed their diet. Comparing all patients with controls, significantly more patients avoided alcohol, p = 0.0005, and 3 of 36 food items; smoked food, p = 0.04, and milk and other dairy products, p = 0.02 and p =0.0001, respectively. Based on BMI, 50% of all the patients reported overweight or obesity. Breast cancer treatment explained 5.7% of the total variance in scores for changing diet, where chemotherapy was the sole significant predictor, p = 0.04.Two years after a breast cancer diagnosis, most women (78%) maintained their diet, which was largely similar to the controls. Fifty percent of the patients reported overweight or obesity.

We evaluated the performance of a gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method for quantifying 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which the Scientific Committee on Food and the Joint Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/World Health Organization Expert Committee on Food Additives have considered to be of concern to human health and used the method to determine the PAH concentrations in smoked foods. Eighty-seven samples of smoked fish, smoked meat, smoked eggs, dried bonito flakes, and dried bonito-related soup-stock products (disposable powder packets for infusion, instant bouillons, and liquids) were purchased in Japan to analyze their content of the 16 PAHs. Because of the low certainty of some results, the analytical values for some PAHs (e.g., benzo[c]fluorene, chrysene, and dibenzo[a,h]pyrene) are given for informational purposes only. The highest median concentrations of benzo[a]pyrene and the sum of all the 16 PAHs (29 and 760 μg/kg, respectively) were found in the disposable powder packets, followed by dried bonito flakes (24 and 512 μg/kg, respectively), and instant bouillons (11 and 227 μg/kg, respectively). These concentrations were much higher than those in the other products tested. We also investigated the percentages of the PAHs transferred from dried bonito flakes and a disposable powder packet to soup stocks commonly prepared at home. These were extremely low (4%), even though they contained relatively high concentrations of the PAHs. Finally, the intake of benzo[a]pyrene and the sum of the intakes of four PAHs, as a marker proposed by the European Food Safety Authority, were estimated based on the data from a Japanese food consumption survey and the mean concentrations found in smoked fish and smoked fish products. These estimates suggest intakes of PAHs pose a low concern for consumer health.

This study presents a strategy for differentiating paprika obtained by means of different drying systems. The differentiation is performed using spectroscopic fluorescence in combination with multivariate analysis. The two groups of samples (smoked or non-smoked paprika) are classified according to the content of some of their fluorescent compounds presented in each group, among which several polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are included. These compounds are characteristic in smoked food. The full information of excitation–emission matrices (EEMs) is processed with the aid of unsupervised parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC), PARAFAC supervised by linear discriminant analysis (LDA) and discriminant unfolded partial least squares (DU-PLS). The last algorithm allows an adequate classification of unknown paprika samples. Besides, the quantification of several PAHs in paprika was performed by means of unfolded partial least squares with residual bilinearization (U-PLS/RBL). On this way, three (fluorene, phenantrene, and anthracene) out of the five (fluorene, phenantrene, anthracene, pyrene and chrysene) selected analytes were quantified.

The aim of this study was to develop an effective sample preparation procedure for the determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in smoked fatty products of animal origin (fish, cheese and sausage). Two different approaches were tested: classical QuEChERS and procedure with the use of Enhanced Matrix Removal (EMR)-Lipid material. Two techniques of extract preconcentration: under nitrogen stream and with the use of dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME), were also taken into consideration. All samples were analysed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The results showed the optimised sample preparation procedure was composed of three steps: 1) QuEChERS extraction, 2) clean-up by EMR-Lipid material and 3) extract preconcentration by DLLME. The obtained recovery rates within the range of 50–120% were received for all compounds with relative standard deviation (RSD) values lower than 16.7%. The proposed method is fast and effective and can be successfully applied for PAHs determination in difficult matrices such as heat-treated food of animal origin with high fat content. The research also discovered the significance of the quality of the laboratory disposables. Contaminants present in plastic consumables can be transferred to the sample extract contributing to its contamination and can also lead to failure of analytical equipment.

Aan sommige voedingsmiddelen wordt rookaroma toegevoegd, zoals rookworst en bepaalde smaken chips. De blootstelling aan rookaroma kan nauwkeuriger worden geschat als de industrie de daadwerkelijke gehalten per product aanlevert. Deze gehalten worden vervolgens gekoppeld aan de hoeveelheid die mensen per dag aan producten consumeren die rookaroma's bevatten. Dit blijkt uit een pilotstudie van het RIVM. Het is van belang om de blootstelling aan rookaroma's te berekenen om na te gaan of die binnen de veilige marge valt. In de huidige methode worden de gegevens over de concentraties verkregen op basis van informatie die de producenten van rookaroma aanleveren over het gebruik ervan in bredere productgroepen (zoals 'vlees en vleesproducten' en 'snacks'). Deze gegevens worden vervolgens geëxtrapoleerd naar de dagelijkse consumptie van de producten uit die volledige productgroepen. Hierdoor wordt vaak een hogere blootstelling aan rookaroma's geschat dan feitelijk het geval is. Meerdere partijen zijn gebaat bij een nauwkeurigere schatting. De risicomanager (het ministerie van VWS) hoeft geen kostbaar monitoringsprogramma op te zetten dat op metingen is gebaseerd. Daarnaast krijgen de blootstellingsdeskundigen de beschikking over nauwkeurigere gegevens. Ten slotte kan de industrie er voordeel bij hebben, als de nauwkeurige berekeningen resulteren in lagere blootstellingsberekening. Het onderzoek is uitgevoerd op initiatief van het ministerie van Volksgezondheid, Welzijn en Sport (VWS) en de Federatie Nederlandse Levensmiddelen Industrie (FNLI). De resultaten gelden voor Nederland. De blootstellingschatting kan niet gebruikt worden voor de risicobeoordeling van één type rookaroma. Om dat te kunnen specificeren, is het nodig om te weten hoeveel producten dat rookaroma bevatten. Een voorbeeld is het percentage van een type chips dat een bepaald rookaroma bevat op het geheel aan chipsproducten.

This chapter focuses on smoked food and starts by presenting an overview of the history of smoked food, its role in the human diet, and its economic importance and history. Then, after the main types of smoked food and smoking methods have been described, the composition of smoke and its desirable and undesirable effects on smoked food are characterized in detail. Among the desirable effects are food preservation and the improvement of the organoleptic profile, color, texture, and flavor of various types of food. On the other hand, the main undesirable effect of smoking, which is defined in detail, is the contamination of food by toxic and carcinogenic compounds. The most important of these are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and others, such as N-nitrosamines, heterocyclic aromatic amines, and β-carbolines. Finally, the main conclusions are summarized, showing how it is necessary and also possible to prevent the undesirable effects and maintain the good properties of smoked food.

A screen-printed carbon electrode modified with tyrosinase (SPCE-Tyr/Paa/Glut) has been developed for the determination of phenol concentration in real samples. The resulting SPCE-Tyr/Paa/Glut was prepared in a one-step procedure, and was then optimized as an amperometric biosensor operating at 0 mV versus Ag/AgCl for phenol determination in flow injection mode. Phenol detection was realized by electrochemical reduction of quinone produced by tyrosinase activity. The possibility of using the developed biosensor to determine phenol concentrations in various smoked products (bacon, ham, chicken and salmon) was also evaluated. Gas chromatography (GC) method was used for result validation obtained in flow injection mode using amperometric biosensor. The result showed good correlation with those obtained by flowinjection analysis (FIA).

Smoking of food is one of the oldest methods of food preservation and still is used widely to help preserve foods such as ham, bacon, sausage, fish, and cheeses. Apart from its conservation function, the smoking process also has a considerable influence on the sensory characteristics of the products. A highly trained, skilled descriptive sensory panel identified, defined, and referenced 14 attributes related to the flavor of food products labeled as smoked or smoky. The panel evaluated sauces, meats, fish, cheeses, vegetables, and flavorings that are on the market in addition to samples that were smoked in-house. Attributes attributed to the smoke flavor in each sample were written down and discussed. The list was narrowed to include only those attributes that were thought to be specifically related to the smoke flavor and not to the base notes of the product or other cooked/processed notes. The lexicon includes: Smoky (Overall), Ashy, Woody, Musty/Dusty, Musty/Earthy, Burnt, Acrid, Pungent, Petroleum-Like, Creosote/Tar, Cedar, Bitter, Metallic, and Sour. Definitions of these attributes were written and references were found that anchor a 0–15 point scale. The references include market products, chemical solutions and commonly found non-food products. This lexicon can be used to evaluate the smoke flavor on all types of food products. Practical applications This research provides a list of sensory terms that can be used to describe the smoky flavor of products. The lexicon will help sensory analysts, product developers, researchers, and technologists better understand the flavor of products that have been naturally or artificially smoked to modify or improve the products.

The smoked food samples (Smoked fish, roasted yam, sharwama, suya, roasted plantain and roasted corn) were sampled from retail outlets in Lagos State, Nigeria. The analysis was carried out with a Gas Chromatography (GC) – Flame Ionization Detector (FID) equipped with auto sampler. The results of sixteen PAHs in the studied smoked food shows that PAHs of low molecular weight such as acenaphthene and anthracene were detected in all the food samples. High molecular weight PAHs such as fluoranthene, pyrene and benzo (a) anthracene were also detected. Five and six membered ring PAHs benzo (k) fluoranthrene, benzo (a) pyrene, indenol (1, 2, 3) perylene, dibenzo (a, h) anthracene and benzo (g, h, i) perylene were not detected in all the food samples. Total PAHs concentrations determined in smoked food samples were: smoked fish 0.3303 Mg/Kg, roasted yam 0.2456 Mg/Kg, sharwama 0.4508 Mg/Kg, suya 0.4762 Mg/Kg, roasted plantain 0.1844 Mg/Kg and roasted corn 0.1719 Mg/Kg. The sum of the total fraction of PAHs in smoked food samples calculated according to their rings number and percentage. A two-ring PAHs (naphthalene) was not detected in all the samples except in roasted plantain with 20.6%. A three-ring PAHs recorded the highest percentage of the total PAHs constituting 87.2% in smoked fish, 43.8% in roasted yam, 81.9% in sharwama, 83.3% in suya, 37.5% in roasted plantain and 67.4% in roasted corn. While a four- ring PAHs constitute 12.8% in smoked fish, 56.2% in roasted yam, 18.1% in sharwama, 16.7% in suya, 41.9% in roasted plantain and 32.7% in roasted corn.

The aim of the present study was to reveal if sensory properties of smoked food could be considered as decisive in the determination of one product’s preference over another. In addition to this, this work tries to clarify whether the flavour obtained in commercial smoked products was noticed and clearly recognized. This study consisted of two parts; first, a preference testing without physical products (recalled preference) presented using a nine‐point hedonic scale, and second, a difference testing with selected products using the triangular test. Consumers showed a preference for non‐smoked products, particularly for cheese, sausages and chips. The first preference dimension of the internal preference mapping (MDPREF) analysis accounted for 74.6 per cent of total variation indicating overall agreement about likings relating these products, with cheese being the most acceptable overall. Analyzing triangular test results it may be concluded that other factors but sensory ones must be defining consumer representations of smoked food, without a correspondence with its real organoleptic properties.

Several separation and detection methods for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in smoked chicken by GC and HPLC were compared. With HPLC and a gradient solvent system, all 16 PAHs could be simultaneously separated and detected by fluorescence with seven settings of programmable wavelength (excitation/emission). The presence of impurities in smoked chicken could interfere with the subsequent identification and quantification of PAHs by HPLC. With GC and a temperature programming method, all 16 PAHs could be separated and the PAHs in the chicken sample could be detected with an ion-trap mass spectrometer even in the presence of fat-or PAH-like impurities. Nine PAHs were identified by the former method while fourteen PAHs were identified by the latter method. The retention times by HPLC were shorter than those by GC, also, the former had better separation for most PAHs than the latter.

The CASE methodology for studying structure-activity relationships has been applied to investigating the basis of the genotoxicity of phenols and derivatives following exposure to nitrous acid. The structural feature identified include availability of positions para or ortho to the hydroxyl groups, that one meta position must remain unoccupied and one ortho or para position must be unsubmitted as well. The analyses reveald that genotoxicity is dependent upon the ease of formation of the active phenyldiazonium intermediate and is influenced only secondarily by the nature of the genotoxicant or its ease of entry into the cell. With this data base, CASE predicts the genotoxicity, following nitrosation, of a number agents, including serotonin, acetaminophen, and of some naturally-occuring pesticides present in edible plants.

A high pressure liquid Chromatographic procedure has been developed and applied to the analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's) in 70 samples of smoked food products commercially available in Canada, and in 6 charcoal broiled meats. In some cases a gas‐liquid Chromatographic procedure was used as a confirmatory technique. In the commercial samples PAH's were detected in approx. 70% of the samples. Total PAH's ranged from 0–141 ppb and individual PAH's from 0–38 ppb. With the charcoal‐broiled samples, total PAH's and individual PAH's ranged from 0–164 ppb and 0–60 ppb respectively. These levels are similar to those observed in other countries.

Although smoking of foods has been long established as a method for its preservation, the possibility that smoking can introduce compounds which may be carcinogenic to man poses problems for legislation relating to public health. While evidence from industrial exposures which correlate cancer incidence and benzo a pyrene intake is strong, it must be recognized that although they have not been measured, other chemical carcinogens might be involved in the smoking of food. The most important example here would be N-nitroso compounds. Since PAH are ubiquitous in our environment a major problem is to take decisions on levels which can be tolerated. Present evidence suggests that PAH contamination of green vegetables mainly from traffic fumes is likely to be at least as great as the contamination of smoked food where modern technology is employed. Other factors which may affect the situation are co- and anti-carcinogenic factors which may be associated with different diets of which little is at present known. Although there is generally a reluctance to legislate specifically for carcinogens, a number of nations have introduced legislation to limit aflatoxin content in foods. As good methodology exists for the determination of PAH and the technology exists to limit their content in smoke additives, there seems no reason why PAH should not be controlled either directly in the food or in the smoke additive.

Though there have been published a number of papers concerning the smoked food, no attempt has ever been made in preparing the smoke of favorable quality. Therefore, in this paper, using the filter paper as the smoking material, and with the equipment which is shown in the figure 1, the smoking conditions affecting the formation of formaldehyde are studied. The results obtained are as follows: larger amount of formaldehyde are produced from the moist sample, and when the sample is heated more quickly and more higher temperature. The same tendency will be seen in the industrial smoking method using saw dust.

Savustus on eräs vanhimpia elintarvikkeiden säilöntä- ja maustamismenetelmiä. Nykyisin, muiden säilöntämenetelmien yleistyttyä, käytetään savustusta lähinnä maustamistarkoituksessa. On tunnettua, että savustuksessa, kuten aina orgaanisen materiaalin epätäydellisesti palaessa, muodostuu myös haitallisia aineita, esim. polysyklisiä aromaattisia hiilivetyjä. Näistä useat on todettu eläinkokeissa karsinogeenisiksi eli syöpää aiheuttaviksi yhdisteiksi, joista yksi tunnetuimpia on 3,4-bentsopyreeni. Työn tarkoituksena on ollut saada taustaselvitystä savustettujen elintarvikkeiden 3,4-bentsopyreenipitoisuuksista Suomessa. Ainoastaan Länsi-Saksassa on tällä hetkellä annettu raja-arvo savustettujen lihavalmisteiden 3,4-bentsopyreenipitoisuudelle.

Savustus on eräs vanhimpia elintarvikkeiden säilöntä- ja maustamismenetelmiä. Nykyisin, muiden säilöntämenetelmien yleistyttyä, käytetään savustusta lähinnä maustamistarkoituksessa. On tunnettua, että savustuksessa, kuten aina orgaanisen materiaalin epätäydellisesti palaessa, muodostuu myös haitallisia aineita, esim. polysyklisiä aromaattisia hiilivetyjä. Näistä useat on todettu eläinkokeissa karsinogeenisiksi eli syöpää aiheuttaviksi yhdisteiksi, joista yksi tunnetuimpia on 3,4-bentsopyreeni. Työn tarkoituksena on ollut saada taustaselvitystä savustettujen elintarvikkeiden 3,4-bentsopyreenipitoisuuksista Suomessa. Ainoastaan Länsi-Saksassa on tällä hetkellä annettu raja-arvo savustettujen lihavalmisteiden 3,4-bentsopyreenipitoisuudelle.

Smoking is a well-known source of food contaminated caused by carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Epidemiological studies indicates a statistical correlation between the increased occurrence of cancer of the intestinal tract and the frequent intake of smoked foods. As observed during the last 10 years in a certain district of Hungary with a Slovenian population, the percentage of stomach cancer among all types of cancer is nearly twice as high (47-50%) as in Hungary altogether (29.9%). In this special district, predominantly home-smoked meat products are consumed. Using identical techniques, the authors investigated the contamination of smoked foodstuffs by carcinogenic, cocarcinogenic and other polyaromatic hydrocarbons in the German Democratic Republic and in Hungary. No significant differences have been found either in the average values or in the ranges of the benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) contents in meats smoked by industrial processes used in the GDR and in Hungary. In the GDR, industrially smoked foods contain on average 0.43 micrograms/kg, products smoked in handicraft workshops 0.76 micrograms/kg, home-smoked products 0.74 micrograms/kg. The mean BaP content of all smoked meat and sausage products amounts of 0.55 micrograms/kg. In Hungary, the following average values have been found: 0.6 micrograms/kg for industrially smoked products, 0.74 micrograms/kg for home-smoked products, the total being 0.7 micrograms/kg. The average BaP value of home-smoked (softwood) products of the Slovenian population in Hungary is as high as 4.16 micrograms/kg. Apart from this particular case, the techniques used in both countries permit the production of smoked meat and sausages with a BaP content of less than 1 microgram/kg.

We performed a case-control study on astrocytomas to test previous hypotheses and to generate new ones. The study groups consisted of 78 cases, 197 clinical controls, and 92 population controls. Comparisons with both groups of controls showed an excess risk for persons who had lived in the vicinity of a farm. The risk for persons exposed to herbicides or insecticides was elevated, although less so compared with the population controls. Frequent intake of smoked food was associated with an excess risk compared with the population controls but not when compared with the clinical controls.

Although smoking of foods has been long established as a method for its preservation, the possibility that smoking can introduce compounds which may be carcinogenic to man poses problems for legislation relating to public health. While evidence from industrial exposures which correlate cancer incidence and benzo a pyrene intake is strong, it must be recognized that although they have not been measured, other chemical carcinogens might be involved in the smoking of food. The most important example here would be N-nitroso compounds. Since PAH are ubiquitous in our environment a major problem is to take decisions on levels which can be tolerated. Present evidence suggests that PAH contamination of green vegetables mainly from traffic fumes is likely to be at least as great as the contamination of smoked food where modern technology is employed. Other factors which may affect the situation are co- and anti-carcinogenic factors which may be associated with different diets of which little is at present known. Although there is generally a reluctance to legislate specifically for carcinogens, a number of nations have introduced legislation to limit aflatoxin content in foods. As good methodology exists for the determination of PAH and the technology exists to limit their content in smoke additives, there seems no reason why PAH should not be controlled either directly in the food or in the smoke additive.