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This topical bibliography and commentary discusses several classroom techniques designed to encourage beginning writers to grow beyond uninspired composition. The strategies employed in the classroom are of equal value for both expository and creative writing. The various classroom techniques discussed share an emphasis on student-centered learning that prioritizes interaction and physicality over a traditional lecture format. These alternative techniques include the use of writing workshops, literature-based mini-lessons, and creative dramatics to encourage clearer, more lively writing. The incidental (although key) by-products of these strategies are increased student interest and greater interaction among students and teachers. (Contains 14 references and 2 Internet addresses.) (RS)

Research suggests that oral language development is directly related to literacy, and is crucial for success in learning to be literate. This topical bibliography and commentary discusses language acquisition theories, components of language, phonology in literacy, and a first-grade classroom study that explored "literate talk" in the classroom context. It concludes that in the activities literate talk was involved in, the class was enhancing their social skills as well as developing their ability to understand written language. (Contains 3 Internet addresses and 16 references.) (RS)

Most research supports the teaching of language arts in an integrated program. This topical bibliography and commentary addresses: how integrated language arts is carried out by school administrations; how integrated language arts is carried out by the teacher; whether integrated instruction helps improve learning performance in reading and writing; how the skills of phonics, comprehension, spelling, and grammar are developed in an integrated language arts environment; and whether there is room for direct instruction in an integrated language arts classroom. It concludes that as schools study the issue, they will become aware that integration is more than a different method of teaching, it is a philosophical change that will need support from administration, teachers, and parents. (Contains 16 references and 2 Internet addresses.) (RS)

Research indicates that incorporating both pre-reading and post-reading activities into the English curriculum contributes to a more successful reading experience for students of all ages and backgrounds. The primary advantage of using either (or both) strategies is that they actively involve students in what they are reading and studying, enhancing both comprehension and appreciation of what is being read. This topical bibliography and commentary discusses research that demonstrates the value and impact of these strategies and summarizes activities that stress active communication between the reader and the writer. (Contains 16 references and 6 Internet addresses.) (RS)

This topical bibliography and commentary highlights the major points of the available literature on the value of using a "thematic organization" for the teaching of language arts classes in grades 6 through 8. It begins with a definition of the thematic organization approach, as culled from the literature. It then presents briefly a few examples of thematic organization techniques that have been used in language arts classes. The topical bibliography and commentary next examines the benefits of the thematic approach. It concludes that thematic organization is a highly effective and valuable technique. Contains 9 references and annotated links to 2 Internet resources. (RS)

This topical bibliography and commentary addresses methods of alternative, or informal, assessment that have proven effective, and how these methods have been, or can be, established as reliable alternatives to standardized testing. It discusses authentic assessment, forms of alternative assessment (unstructured written activities, unstructured oral activities, and structured activities), and reliability of alternative assessments. It concludes that as teachers learn how to measure authentic assessment techniques "consistently and accurately" parents and administrators will gain a greater sense of confidence with alternative assessment methods. Contains 10 references and annotated links to 2 Internet resources. (RS)

This topical bibliography and commentary discusses resource aids that help educators evaluate and select high quality reading materials for young adults. It discusses general resource articles as aids. Examples are: specific themes, booklists, and school system aids. It concludes that there are no succinct lists of criteria or resources; rather, educators must consult numerous sources, some of which are cited in this topical bibliography and commentary, before making wise selections. Contains 26 references and links to 3 Internet resources. (RS)

This topical bibliography and commentary discusses how the principles in first language acquisition can be applied to second language learning and summarizes a variety of techniques employed by teachers towards that end. It discusses first language acquisition, narrative strategies, conversational strategies, and creating contextual experiences. It concludes that whether a teacher uses narrative strategies to initiate dialogue, provides opportunities for guided, instructional conversations, or utilizes tools to help provide a greater context to lesson plans, second language learners will benefit from meaningful, purposeful, and relevant experiences to hear, learn, and practice speaking in their newly acquired language. Contains 22 references and links to 5 Internet resources. (RS)

This topical bibliography and commentary provides an overview of current thinking on the role of phonics in reading instruction. It discusses the value of phonics, phonics and phonemic awareness, the need for explicit instruction, principles in phonics instruction, and recommended instructional procedures. It concludes that findings from research reveals that phonemic awareness training will enhance children's auditory skills in segmenting and blending unfamiliar words as well as improve their reading achievement. Contains 9 references and links to 3 Internet resources. (RS)

There are many ways and options available for children to publish their work, other than just writing for their teachers. This research summary discusses the benefits of publishing students' writing and ways that students go public with their writing: the author's chair, publishing individual authors, classbooks, classroom and school newspapers, and Young Author's conferences. It also discusses the role of technology and computers in publishing children's writing. It concludes that whatever the chosen method, teachers can rest assured that when they publish their students' work, they will not only see improvement in their students' writing skills, but also witness the students' sense of satisfaction and heightened self-esteem as they make their writing public. Contains 23 references and links to 3 Internet resources. (RS)

Although there is a substantial research knowledge base in the field of teaching English as a Second Language (ESL), this topical bibliography and commentary suggests that much misinformation still persists. The articles that form the basis for this topical bibliography and commentary agree on the approach that is most effective for ESL acquisition: child relevant materials and conversation that focus on content and concepts. Another important aspect is peer collaboration and the fostering of an environment in which real conversation can take place. The articles summarized in this topical bibliography and commentary also agree that student language acquisition is a social and cultural as well as a cognitive process. Conversation is more than vocabulary and grammar; it involves learning the social and cultural aspects of communication. Contains 14 references and annotated links to 2 Internet resources. (RS)

Teachers of second language writing classes are faced with the task of choosing writing methods that provide their students the greatest opportunity to gain writing skills, but there is a lack of research in this area. This topical bibliography and commentary reviews existing research on second language writing instruction. It concludes that free writing offers value to second language learners, while a strictly grammatically based writing strategy has been shown to be detrimental. It appears that the most advantageous approach to second language writing instruction is to include some skills from both schools of writing (product and process approaches) and to avoid a one-sided teaching method. (RS)

This topical bibliography and commentary reviews research to examine the current trends in information literacy. It notes that the most recent studies of information literacy reflect the following concerns: (1) the effects of new information technologies (especially the Internet) on traditional methods of research and instruction in research; (2) the ways in which these new technologies are shaping current notions of literacy; and (3) the absence or virtual absence in most primary and secondary education curricula of classes suited to these new problems. The topical bibliography and commentary concludes that all authors reviewed share a common interest in providing teachers and scholars in the field of education with definitions of "literacy," which are suited to the technological environment of the early 21st century, and with suggesting means of adapting their methods of instruction to this relatively new and confusing environment. Contains 9 references and annotated links to 2 Internet resources. (RS)

The research reviewed in this topical bibliography and commentary generally pursues two lines of inquiry: what exactly information literacy is, and how educators can apply theories of information literacy to the day-to-day problems of elementary and middle-school students. The research contains a particular emphasis on the inability of current elementary school curricula to relate class work to "real-world" problems and produce students who are adapted to an economy based more on information than labor. The research reviewed in the topical bibliography and commentary both argues and demonstrates through successful classroom experiments the superiority of the information literacy program in achieving such results. Contains 5 references and annotated links to 3 Internet resources. (RS)

Contemporary syntactic theory rejects the idea that prescriptive grammar can provide students with any insights into how language works. For generative grammar, a term for the aggregate of methodologies which currently dominates modern linguistics, rules determining the grammaticality of a sentence do not relate in any way to the rules which make up "good grammar." Prescriptive grammar has also suffered assaults from specialists in American dialectology. Proponents of grammar instruction have by no means ignored attacks, and it might be argued that the controversies of the past several decades have had a positive effect on grammar teaching. Current theoretical and methodological perspectives show that the field of grammar is undergoing a major self-renovation. The essays reviewed in this topical bibliography and commentary show that new studies in the teaching of grammar usually reflect the insights of contemporary linguistic theory and sociolinguistics. The bibliography/commentary concludes that the work of Tony Burgess shows that though it has undergone a vigorous assault, and though teachers' organizations discourage its use, grammatical instruction has been difficult to erase from the English curriculum. Lists 3 Internet resources and 10 references. (NKA)

Without a simple, defined structure for good writing it can be difficult for an individual to be confident of his or her writing ability. The Six-Trait Writing Method, developed by Spandel and Stiggins in 1990 at the Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory (NRWEL), outlines how teachers could teach students "specific criteria for writing." The method has been found effective in teaching students not only how to use this criteria to consistently evaluate their own writing, but to improve their own perceptions of their writing skills. The six basic traits of effective writing have been identified as: ideas, organization, voice, word choice, sentence fluency, and conventions. Recently, another trait, "presentation," has been added to form the 6+1 traits of writing. This topical bibliography and commentary reviews some research studies on the six traits. The bibliography/commentary finds that the Six-Trait Writing Method is a reliable reference to guide a writer through the demanding task of writing well, as well as improving his/her skills and confidence as a writer. It also finds that the model is an effective tool to assess students' writing and to scaffold students' writing skills in a systematic manner. Lists 4 Internet resources and 9 references. (NKA)

Because oral language is so basic, it is the first step to verbal thinking, communicating socially, and understanding literature. It is through speech that children learn how to organize their thinking and focus their ideas. Nurturing children's language is fundamental to molding them into natural and competent readers and writers. This topical bibliography and commentary summarizes and gives an overview of current thinking on techniques for teaching oral language. The bibliography/commentary reviews research on oral language in the classroom, oral language development across the curriculum, language and literacy, composing through conversation, and language development by Dr. Walter Loban. Lists 2 Internet resources and 17 references. (NKA)

This topical bibliography and commentary consists of research summaries which address the challenges of creating an effective public presentation. The research articles discussed in the bibliography/commentary are geared toward teaching students to better present information with an emphasis on the primary importance of content above empty showmanship. Guidance is offered for better using multimedia to enhance the transmission and reception of information, and concerns, such as public speaking apprehension (PSA), persuasiveness, and evaluation are addressed. The bibliography/commentary concludes that effective public presentations are the result of carefully sequenced and graduated learning. It stresses that helping the student identify the needs of the audience and the intended effect upon them is a necessary component to deciding how the information will be presented. Lists 3 Internet resources and 28 references. (NKA)

Students develop skills from learning to listen and from having someone listen to them. While most educators assume that listening is a matter of choice, not ability, listening is actually something students have to be taught to do well. This topical bibliography and commentary summarizes several research studies which provide insight into skills students use when engaged in speaking and listening activities. The bibliography/commentary also explores the importance of teaching speaking and listening skills and integrating speaking and listening skills into traditionally taught content areas. It concludes that while speaking and listening are essential skills, many other important skills are learned when a student masters the ability to speak and listen, and as students mature, they are expected to achieve a higher level of thinking and listening. It also notes that most research finds that neither listening skills nor speaking skills are being taught in the classroom. Lists 6 Internet resources and 11 references. (NKA)

Each teacher has a style of teaching that provides the most effective way to help students grasp the desired learning concepts. One point teachers agree on is that teaching vocabulary to children needs to be an active process that engages students in entertaining activities and helps them build a bridge between already known vocabulary and the new vocabulary. This topical bibliography and commentary offers ideas and strategies delineated in recent research to help classroom teachers develop vocabulary skills in young students: Ediger's (1999) and Cudd and Roberts' (1994) paradigms on teaching vocabulary; the VOCABULARY system; visual representation techniques, such as the Concept Wheel, the Semantic Word Map, Webbing, the Concept of Definition, and the Semantic Feature Analysis; games, such as the Vocabulary Connection, using vocabulary packs, cued spelling, storytelling, cooperative learning techniques, story development, Charades, and the Magic Square; and the use of electronic books. Lists 2 Internet resources and 21 references. (NKA)

In the methodology called "literature-driven integrated language arts," the words "literature-driven" describe an instructional approach that uses entire pieces of literature (short stories, novels, poems, etc.) as the stimuli for a language arts program. The aim of literature-driven instruction is to engage the affective character of the text, as opposed to instruction in which skills acquisition dominates the process. When a language arts program is referred to as "integrated," that means that writing and grammar (perhaps spelling) are treated as appropriate when student performance or student questions indicate the need for instruction in those areas. This topical bibliography and commentary reviews the literature on literature-driven integrated language arts, referred to in the literature mostly as "literature-based." The literature-based approach is not a narrowly defined methodology, but rather it encompasses a wide range of techniques and variations which all have at their core the use of literature to teach reading. Lists 3 Internet resources and 13 references. (NKA)

When children are taught to read, the sources used are usually fictional narratives; writing follows in the same genre with children learning how to write personal narrative. Narrative has been such a part of the tradition in primary grades that even the information books that are available for the young are often written in a narrative structure. Recent research suggests there needs to be a more balanced approach in using fiction and nonfiction books in teaching reading. The ability of children to understand and interact with this type of text grows as they are given opportunities to work with expository texts. This topical bibliography and commentary looks at the difference between expository and narrative texts, the reasons educators give for integrating expository texts into daily teaching, and the ways in which teachers can accomplish this task. The bibliography/commentary states that the main reason for use of informational, or expository texts in the primary classroom is to better prepare students for the informational texts they will be exposed to in later schooling. It concludes that informational texts may provide access to reading and literacy for diverse types of learners and expand children's literary experiences. Lists an Internet resource and 16 references. (NKA)

Extensive research in the area of vocabulary development revealed a very limited amount of information on elaboration for writing. Only one article was found that substantiated the need to connect vocabulary with elaborative writing. This topical bibliography and commentary summarizes the findings in that article. The bibliography/ commentary considers the following: the levels of vocabulary proficiency, methods of teaching vocabulary, context in discovering the meaning of unfamiliar words, review activities to enhance a student's vocabulary, elaboration, and finally, using the new vocabulary in writing. It concludes that research has shown that a learner's writing vocabulary is the highest level of cognitive development, indicating that students would greatly benefit from learning to use new vocabulary with an elaboration for writing. Lists 2 Internet resources and 1 reference. (NKA)

A considerable body of research has shown that Guided Reading lessons provide the structure students need to develop specific ways to approach reading a text. In guided reading, teachers first provide instruction for the reading involving general discussion of the text to build background information. Second, children participate in supported reading where teachers have introduced the story followed by all children reading aloud the identified text. During supported reading teachers observe each child's application of reading strategies and provide necessary support. Third, when reading is complete, students may participate in follow-up activities that include additional instruction on specific strategies. The goal of guided reading is to assist children in becoming independent and fluent readers by providing instruction in effective reading strategies. This topical bibliography and commentary reviews research on guided reading, giving examples of how teachers can use guided reading to benefit their classes. It also gives strategies for using both core-reading selections in textbooks and separate texts from other sources. Lists 3 Internet resources and 14 references. (NKA)

Virtually every aspect of modern life has been changed and shaped by the computer's tiny, ubiquitous silicon chips. It is not surprising that computers have had a profound effect on the way students learn in the modern classroom. This topical bibliography and commentary focuses on how computers can be used to enhance the teaching of language arts. It first discusses the features of common software programs, such as word processors and spell-checkers, and then moves into a discussion of how computers are used in the elementary classroom and in what ways they influence students' writing processes. Finally, the bibliography/commentary explores different types of technologies teachers use in the classroom and offers guidelines for their use. Lists 2 Internet resources and 12 references. (NKA)

Direct Instruction (DI) is a pedagogical method that has come to be seen as the principal alternative to whole language reading instruction. Its development is attributed to Siegfried Engelmann, from the University of Illinois, in the mid-1960s. DI was originally developed as an instructional method in both mathematics and reading. This topical bibliography/commentary focuses on use of the DI method for reading instruction. The bibliography/commentary explains that, as DI is a pedagogy informed by the insights of general linguistics and segmental phonology in particular, DI theories of reading instruction view written text as a set of small units that become meaningful in combination with one another. It discusses what DI considers the problems in learning to read: phonemic awareness, the relation of words to their meaning, and the interpretive element. It also discusses DI and second language instruction. Lists 3 Internet resources and 12 references. (NKA)

Typically, elementary school children read more narrative texts, such as short stories, poems, and fiction books. Some educators have raised concerns over whether elementary school children are developing the skills needed to study the structure and function of expository texts. This topical bibliography and commentary provides examples that show how teachers can incorporate expository text into the school curriculum while making this writing style a rewarding experience for students. The bibliography/commentary notes that expository writing is also considered information literacy since the primary function of this text style is to convey information. It adds that this imbalance between narrative and expository experience has led educators to try to seek methods for closing the gap, and they have found that expository writing can be taught even at an early age. (Contains 2 Internet addresses and 14 references.) (NKA)

Research indicates that for students to perform well in speaking, reading, and writing they need to possess a rich vocabulary. Studies have consistently shown that "vocabulary size correlates with success in all areas of the curriculum" (Manning, 1999). This Topical Bibliography and Commentary reviews the recent research literature on the importance of teaching vocabulary development and on ways educators can integrate writing into the curriculum utilizing the vocabulary learned. As writing is heavily dependent upon an author's ability to draw upon words to describe an event, vocabulary development must be taken seriously in the classroom. Since the emphasis in teacher education is on reading, many teachers do not know how to teach writing, nor do they feel comfortable teaching writing. Students' writing skills can be enhanced through improved vocabulary and by teachers creating a writer-centered classroom where instruction is individualized. Teaching writing should not be approached as a survey class, but rather as a process that must be studied in depth. (Contains 5 Internet addresses and 11 references.) (NKA)

This Topical Bibliography and Commentary reviews the recent research literature which focuses on writing--specifically, word choice in writing. The bibliography/commentary first lays a foundation that chronicles the importance of writing instruction in school. It then summarizes the importance of choosing quality words when writing, gives examples of how to teach word choice through writing, and explores the use of grammar to improve word choice through writing. The bibliography/commentary finds that through increased vocabulary awareness and by studying words in the context in which they are used, students can become better writers--when a student understands how the English language can be manipulated, many word choice opportunities are created. (Contains 5 Internet addresses and 12 references.) (NKA)

This Topical Bibliography and Commentary examines recent studies on phonological awareness, finding the evidence conclusive that teaching phonological awareness to young children greatly facilitates the reading process. Researchers have studied problems children experience in reading for many years. The focus of research during the 1990s has been early detection of readers who are considered at-risk. The significance placed on early detection has led researchers to study the impact phonological awareness has on young children in their early reading activities. Smith defines phonological awareness as "sensitivity to sound structure of language and a conscious ability to detect, combine, and manipulate different sizes of sound units." To accurately understand phonological awareness, it is important to understand the difference between phonics and phonemic awareness--phonemic awareness places emphasis on oral language, while phonics places emphasis on written language but does not exclude the oral. (Contains 2 Internet addresses and 15 references.) (NKA)

During the 1970s direct phonics instruction was the preferred method of reading instruction. In the 1980s the whole language concept caught on and phonics instruction was considered defunct. In the 1990s the pendulum, in the process of swinging back, was intercepted before it went to the extreme of "all phonics," by a balanced approach to reading instruction. Even though there has been an increased emphasis on explicit phonics instruction in recent years, research continues to indicate the benefits of a balanced approach to reading instruction. This Topical Bibliography and Commentary reviews recent research on balanced instruction, concluding that combining phonics/basic skills with whole language into a balanced approach may permit more students to experience reading and writing success. (Contains 3 Internet addresses and 11 references.) (NKA)