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Purpose: The Access to Literacy Assessment System--Phonological Awareness (ATLAS-PA) was developed for use with children with speech and/or language impairment. The subtests (Rhyming, Blending, and Segmenting) are appropriate for children who are 3-7 years of age. ATLAS-PA is composed entirely of receptive items, incorporates individualized levels of instruction, and is adaptive in nature. Method: To establish the construct validity of ATLAS-PA, we collected data from children with typical development (n = 938) and those who have speech and/or language impairment (n = 227). Results: Rasch analyses indicated that items fit well together and formed a unidimensional construct of phonological awareness. Differential item functioning was minimal between the two groups of children, and scores on ATLAS-PA were moderately to strongly related to other measures of phonological awareness. Information about item functioning was used to create an adaptive version of ATLAS-PA. Conclusions: Findings suggest that ATLAS-PA is a valid measure of phonological awareness that can be used with children with typical development and with speech and/or language impairment. Its adaptive format minimizes testing time and provides opportunities for monitoring progress in preschool and early elementary classrooms.

We previously conducted a series of conceptual replications to parse out which--and to what degree--adaptations and individualized supports were needed for children to access and learn early reading skills using Headsprout®. Here we developed a systematic decision-making process for providing levels of support to individuals with autism who require additional instruction in order to access and/or advance through Headsprout®. Using a series of single-case AB, ABC, and multiple-baseline designs we examined strategies from our previous research and additional strategies iteratively developed during the study on six students with autism, all of whom demonstrated progression through Headsprout® and increased reading skills. We provide practical implications for teachers and suggestions to research these supports with other computer-based programs.

Sixty-nine children (20 with cerebral palsy (CP)) and their mothers participated in a joint writing activity. Children (M age = 64.56 months; SD = 7.07 months) wrote a four-item grocery list on a keyboard at home with their mothers. Mothers who had children with CP generally provided a lower level of graphophonemic (i.e., segmenting words into their respective sounds) and print support (i.e., identifying letters to type) when compared to mothers of children with typical development. They were also less likely to be playful and correct their children's writing errors, although they spent more time on the activity overall and entered into their children's physical space more frequently. Even when children's spelling skills were considered, mothers of children with CP provided lower levels of support to their children, suggesting that mothers might be missing opportunities to maximise what children with CP can learn during joint writing activities.

Narrative skill is included in emergent literacy frameworks and believed to be important for children's early reading development. Yet, empirical evidence concerning associations with other emergent literacy skills and later word reading skills is limited. We comprehensively assessed the emergent literacy skills of 3- to 5.5-year old children (n = 243), along with their word identification and decoding skills 2 years later. Narrative skill was modestly associated with all measures of emergent literacy. Narrative skill predicted word reading skills in univariate models but not after accounting for other emergent literacy skills. Further analyses showed that associations between narrative and word reading skills were fully mediated by other emergent literacy skills. When considered in light of prior work indicating associations between narrative skill and reading comprehension, these indirect associations between narrative and early word reading suggest a second pathway by which narrative skill may support reading development. [This article was published in "Reading and Writing" (EJ1188146).]

Preschool and kindergarten teachers can assess and monitor their students' letter name knowledge in less than a minute per student using the freely available Quick Letter Name Knowledge assessment. The purpose of this article is to introduce the Quick Letter Name Knowledge assessment to early childhood educational practitioners. [This article was published in "The Reading Teacher" (EJ1152823).]

Purpose: Prior theoretical and empirical work has referenced several broad stages of narrative development, particularly in terms of young children's understanding of story structure. However, there is considerable variation in how story structure has been defined and assessed across these studies. The aims of the present study were threefold: (a) to test the unidimensionality of items designed to assess story-structure knowledge, (b) to examine story-structure item difficulty levels, and (c) to examine age-related progressions on individual story-structure components across 3-, 4-, 5-, and 6-year-olds. Method: Participants included 386 children (M = 4.8 years, SD = 11.67 months) from the Narrative Assessment Protocol study (http://www.narrativeassessment.com/), which was designed to revise a new narrative assessment tool for children between the ages of 3 and 6 years. Results: Factor analysis indicated that 16 of 21 items reflecting story-structure knowledge constituted a unidimensional construct. Individual story-structure item analyses further revealed that establishing subgoals and tracking the overall goals in the stories were particularly challenging for 3- and 4-year-olds. Conclusion: These findings hold implications for refinement of theoretical models of story-structure emergence in early childhood. [This article was published in "Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research" (EJ1124080).]

Overcoming challenges to quality early education in developing nations, TEACH Rwanda, one high-performing education system, offers a model of childhood learning through sensitive teacher dispositions, child-centred play, and culturally relevant materials. This manuscript provides a unique window into the practices of a quality early childhood system in Rwanda and articulates how these high-quality approaches to early childhood education can be executed successfully in developing nations with limited resources. The guidelines for practice and illustrations from real classrooms are relevant for a range of educators around the world. One key to success is the programmes' homegrown professional development approach featuring Rwandans teaching Rwandans, which builds capacity within the system. The professional development description encourages administrators and directors to establish such programmes which can successfully build capacity and sustainability within their schools.

E-books may be particularly useful for differentiating instruction across a wide range of learners including those with autism spectrum disorder who are minimally verbal (MV-ASD). But the extent to which children with MV-ASD benefit from e-book instruction is unknown. Using eye-tracking equipment and software, we measured the duration of attention to print and pictures when presented with an e-book of 10 elementary-aged prereading children with MV-ASD and five prereading children with typical development. Furthermore, we analyzed eye-gaze duration, left-to-right gaze, and point-to-point correspondence from word to picture across different e-book stimuli (e.g., highlighting text, read-aloud). Results indicated different duration of attending to pictures and print between typically developing children and children with ASD. Although there were some indications that differing stimuli may influence attention to salient e-book components, most notable was that children with MV-ASD attended very little to literacy concepts within the e-book.

Early behavioral self-regulation is an important predictor of the skills children need to be successful in school. However, little is known about the mechanism(s) through which self-regulation affects academic achievement. The current study investigates the possibility that two aspects of children's social func- tioning, social skills and problem behaviors, mediate the relationship between preschool self-regulation and literacy and math achievement. Additionally, we investigated whether the meditational processes differed for boys and girls. We expected that better self-regulation would help children to interact well with others (social skills) and minimize impulsive or aggressive (problem) behaviors. Positive interac- tions with others and few problem behaviors were expected to relate to gains in achievement as learning takes place within a social context. Preschool-aged children (n = 118) were tested with direct measures of self-regulation, literacy, and math. Teachers reported on children's social skills and problem behaviors. Using a structural equation modeling approach (SEM) for mediation analysis, social skills and problem behaviors were found to mediate the relationship between self-regulation and growth in literacy across the preschool year, but not math. Findings suggest that the mediational process was similar for boys and girls. These findings indicate that a child's social skills and problem behaviors are part of the mechanism through which behavioral self-regulation affects growth in literacy. Self-regulation may be important not just because of the way that it relates directly to academic achievement but also because of the ways in which it promotes or inhibits children's interactions with others.

Writing is a core school readiness skill, yet preschools typically provide children with limited writing opportunities. To consider how curricular materials guide writing instruction, the five most common Head Start curricula were systematically examined in accordance with the Head Start Early Learning Outcomes Framework. Curricula were coded considering the writing objectives they targeted, the teaching strategies proposed to promote early writing, the information provided on how to individualize instruction, and the tools provided to assess children's development in this area. Analyses indicated that although all curricula included objectives and guidance for writing these programs varied in their focus on orthography, mechanics, and composing. The primary focus was on materials, and guidance for supporting writing typically lacked sufficient specificity to implement the guidance in ways that promote children's writing development. Across curricula, there was scant information on how to differentiate writing instruction. The curricula themselves provided little in terms of assessment; two curricula did include a supplementary assessment program. Recommendations for enhanced supports for Head Start teachers are provided.

Relations between participation in Imagination Library, a book distribution program that serves children from birth through age 5, and children's literacy outcomes in kindergarten were examined. Children (n = 2,428) who participated in the program had greater letter knowledge and higher scores on measures of phonological awareness when compared to children whose families did not participate in Imagination Library (n = 3,348), although effects were small in size. No differences in spelling performance were observed. Parents also reported profiting from and enjoying the program. Imagination Library may a beneficial form of early intervention, particularly given its low cost for implementation.

Preschoolers' (n = 32) attention to print and pictures was documented during an electronic storybook reading session. Children (M = 51.06 months; SD = 7.34 months) looked at a 12-page book that contained three types of pages, each of which was presented four times over the course of the book: (1) silent presentation of print, (2) print that was read aloud, and (3) print that was both read aloud and highlighted. Our research objectives were to analyze whether the way in which print was presented related to the ways in which children attended to print and pictures during the reading session. Gaze fixation duration to print and pictures was assessed using a Tobii X2-60 portable eye tracking unit, which captured corneal reflection data for each child. Children's total fixation duration to print was greatest when print was read aloud and highlighted as compared to when it was presented silently or read aloud. In addition, children looked at print more when it was displayed silently than when the computer read the story to children, although this difference was much smaller in magnitude. Children attended to pictures more than print across pages, but this difference was most notable when the story was read aloud. Results demonstrate the potential utility of nonverbal print referencing strategies during book reading.

Twenty kindergartners (eight boys) with cerebral palsy (CP) and their mothers engaged in a writing activity that required dyads to compose a grocery list containing four items together. Maternal writing supports were observed, including graphophonemic mediation (i.e., support for letter--sound correspondence) and printing mediation (i.e., guidance on letter choice and form). Mothers described their home literacy practices, and children's early literacy skills were assessed. Mothers reported engaging in many literacy activities with their children. They also provided variable levels of printing mediation, low levels of graphophonemic mediation, rarely corrected children's writing errors, and frequently provided physical supports to children during the writing activity. Mothers' reported literacy activities at home as well the ways in which they helped children choose letters were strongly related to children's literacy skills. Findings suggest that mothers can bolster their children's literacy skills through carefully orchestrated writing activities when children have CP.

The home learning environment (HLE) that children experience early on is highly predictive of their later academic competencies; however, the bulk of this work is operationalized from mothers' perspectives. This study investigates the HLE provided by both mothers and fathers to their preschoolers (n = 767), with consideration for how parents' practices relate to one another as well as how these practices predict children's early academic outcomes. Using an SEM framework, results indicate that while, overall, mothers provide HLE activities more frequently than fathers do, both mothers (ß = 0.18, p < 0.05) and fathers (ß = 0.22, p < 0.05) make unique contributions to their preschooler's early academic skills, but only for families where mother has less than a bachelor's degree. For families where mother has a bachelor's degree or higher, the effect of father's HLE practices is not a significant predictor of children's academics when considering mother's HLE. For all families, fathers are providing a variety of HLE activities to their young children; and, although these may occur less frequently than mothers' practices, they are particularly important for the academic development of children whose mothers have less than a bachelor's degree. Practical implications are discussed.

The development of early childhood self-regulation is often considered an early life marker for later life successes. Yet little longitudinal research has evaluated whether there are different trajectories of self-regulation development across children. This study investigates the development of behavioral self-regulation between the ages of 3 and 7 years, with a direct focus on possible heterogeneity in the developmental trajectories, and a set of potential indicators that distinguish unique behavioral self-regulation trajectories. Across 3 diverse samples, 1,386 children were assessed on behavioral self-regulation from preschool through first grade. Results indicated that majority of children develop self-regulation rapidly during early childhood, and that children follow 3 distinct developmental patterns of growth. These 3 trajectories were distinguishable based on timing of rapid gains, as well as child gender, early language skills, and maternal education levels. Findings highlight early developmental differences in how self-regulation unfolds, with implications for offering individualized support across children.

Commonly used early childhood curricula were examined to consider the degree to which they support research-based instruction for phonological awareness (PA) and phonics. A content analysis was completed for two types of curricula widely used in Head Start: overarching general curricula and lesson-based curricula, which usually provide more explicit teaching instructions. Both types of curriculum demonstrated the same pattern of findings; while all curricula included some content aligned with standards, programs differed greatly in the number of objectives and instructional strategies included for PA and phonics instruction. Overall, curricula were most likely to address earlier developing PA skills (e.g., rhyming, alliteration) with more limited attention to advanced skills that are closely linked with reading development (e.g., segmenting and blending of phonemes). Phonics instruction was not included often in any of the curricula studied, and opportunities for individualizing instruction were rare, particularly for children with special needs. Results suggest that instructional recommendations for PA and phonics in most of these commonly-used Head Start curricula, even those curricula which typically provide more explicit instruction for teachers, do not align with the instruction provided in effective intervention studies, and therefore may not be powerful enough to influence children's reading trajectories.

The article focuses on the challenges and benefits of remote coaching for infant and toddler teachers, exploring strategies for effective coaching conversations and remote observations. Topics include the importance of coaching in early childhood education, the impact of technology on professional development, and specific approaches to remote coaching such as synchronous and asynchronous methods.

Although many studies have explored shared book reading between preschoolers and their families, very few have examined this practice within a large, nationally representative sample. Using the ECLS-B dataset, this study investigated shared reading among nearly 700 families of diverse ethnic, linguistic, and socioeconomic backgrounds. Coding of families' book-related discussion focused on the variety of types of talk that parents used during reading. Results showed that parents focused primarily on the meaning of the story, with little attention to the code of the text. The range of talk techniques that parents used was largely independent of background factors such as child gender, ethnicity, or age, as well as family home language. A wider variety of meaning-related remarks by parents was linked to more advanced language skills among preschoolers. Findings provide a portrait of the nature of shared book reading discussion among American families, a profile of the background factors that are linked to this talk, and a precise account of the unique contributions of this talk to key emergent language and literacy competencies.

This descriptive study explored teachers' outreach to families in preschool, kindergarten, and first grade, and its relations to children's early growth in language, literacy, and mathematics. Teachers (n = 62) completed surveys reporting the frequency of outreach practices to families, and children's (n = 210) early academic skills were assessed at the beginning and end of the school year. In addition, parents described their education, while teachers noted their education, experience, and number of minutes they devoted to various types of classroom instruction. Results revealed that the frequency of teacher outreach varied both across practices and across teachers. Positive associations emerged between teachers' provision of workshops and children's vocabulary learning, as well as between teachers' invitations to volunteer in the classroom and children's mathematics development, even after controlling for teacher, family, and child factors. In contrast, the frequency of teachers' phone calls to families was inversely related to children's vocabulary and mathematics learning. Results provide new information about the nature of teacher outreach during the school transition period and its distinct, selective contributions to important early skills.

The current study investigates associations among marital satisfaction, family emotional expressiveness, the home learning environment, and preschool-aged children's emergent literacy skills among 385 Midwestern mothers and their children. Path analyses examined how marital satisfaction related to emotional expressiveness in the home and whether this path was associated with the home learning environment and children's literacy skills. Higher maternal satisfaction was associated with higher levels of positive and lower levels of negative family emotional expressiveness. Additionally, family emotional environments characterized by mothers with higher positive expression were related to better home learning environments, which in turn were associated with higher literacy skills in children. Study findings underscore the importance of marital and family processes when considering young children's academic development. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)

Parental writing support was examined over time and in relation to children's language and literacy skills. Seventy-seven parents and their preschoolers were videotaped writing an invitation together twice during one year. Parental writing support was coded at the level of the letter to document parents' graphophonemic support (letter-sound correspondence), print support (letter formation), and demand for precision (expectation for correcting writing errors). Parents primarily relied on only a couple print (i.e., parent writing the letter alone) and graphophonemic (i.e., saying the word as a whole, dictating letters as children write) strategies. Graphophonemic and print support in preschool predicted children's decoding skills, and graphophonemic support also predicted children's future phonological awareness. Neither type of support predicted children's vocabulary scores. Demand for precision occurred infrequently and was unrelated to children's outcomes. Findings demonstrate the importance of parental writing support for augmenting children's literacy skills.

Classmates' academic skill level (peer effects) is emerging as an important predictor of individual student achievement, particularly in the early grades. However, less is known about the influence of peer effects with regard to classmates' self-regulation skills and whether they are associated with students' academic gains. Examining this is the purpose of the current study. Using a direct measure of self-regulation, the head-toes-knees-shoulders (HTKS), which assesses students' ability to coordinate their attention, ability to inhibit and switch tasks, and working memory, the classroom mean HTKS was computed to represent peer effects. With 2 cohorts of 1st graders, the effect of peers' self-regulation on literacy outcomes was examined, controlling for individual student self-regulation. In Cohort 1, 445 participants from 46 1st grade classrooms in 10 schools were included. In Cohort 2, 633 students in 68 classrooms in 18 schools were included. Using hierarchical linear modeling, peer effects predicted children's growth in passage comprehension (Cohen's d = 0.35 for Cohort 1 and 0.31 for Cohort 2) as well as their vocabulary growth (Cohen's d = 0.24 for Cohort 1 and 0.16 for Cohort 2). These were independent effects above that of individual children's fall self-regulation and school-wide percentage of students qualifying for the U.S. free and reduced price lunch program, which were both significantly related to student literacy outcomes. (Contains 5 tables and 2 figures.)

Purpose: In this study, the authors used sequential analysis to explore bidirectional and dynamic dependencies between mothers' question use and children's verbal participation during shared reading. Method: The sample was composed of mothers and their preschool-age children with specific language impairment (SLI; n = 14). Each mother and child extratextual utterance was transcribed and coded. Mother utterances were coded as "questions" or "other"; in turn, questions were coded for cognitive challenge and topic directiveness. Child utterances were coded as "verbal participation" (related to the book) or "other"; utterances designated as verbal participation were also coded for level of production (minimal, low, high) on the basis of their mean length of utterance. Results: Descriptive data show variability in mothers' question use and some variability in the level of children's verbal participation during shared reading. However, mothers' question use did not facilitate higher levels of verbal participation by children. Furthermore, the level of children's verbal participation did not influence the cognitive challenge and topic directiveness of mothers' question use. Conclusions: The findings were contrary to hypotheses and collectively suggest potentially unique and challenging verbal dynamics between mothers and their young children with SLI during shared-reading experiences. Future directions for research are discussed.

Family involvement, an important resource for early learning among children in poverty, is a primary focus of the Head Start preschool program. The current study examined the extent to which families in Head Start were involved in children's learning at home, in the community, and at school, as well as the child, family, and center factors that predicted this involvement. In total, 2154 children and families, as well as the 165 directors of their Head Start centers, participated in the nationally representative Family and Child Experiences Survey (2003 cohort). Child and family background and involvement data, as well as center outreach information, were collected through self-report surveys and interviews. Descriptive analyses showed that families were regularly involved in children's learning in all three contexts, although no ceiling effects were observed. Inferential analyses revealed that family background and process factors were the most substantial predictors of family involvement at the beginning (i.e., fall) of the Head Start year, and many of these factors continued to predict involvement at the end (i.e., spring) of the year. However, effect sizes were generally small. Center factors, including goals and incentives for involvement, were not linked to family involvement in fall or spring. In sum, findings indicate that most Head Start families were regularly involved with children's learning in diverse ways, but that involvement could be further increased. Distinct patterns of modest family predictors emerged, with center outreach indicated as a factor that could potentially be enhanced. (Contains 5 tables and 2 figures.)

Differences in literacy growth over the summer versus the school year were examined to isolate how schooling affects children's literacy development from preschool through second grade across four literacy skills. Children (n = 383) were tested individually twice each year for up to 4 years on measures of phonological awareness, decoding, reading comprehension, and vocabulary. Growth curve analyses indicated that schooling effects were greatest for decoding skills and reading comprehension, were medium in size for phonological awareness, and were less evident for vocabulary. Except for vocabulary, relatively small amounts of growth were observed for preschoolers, followed by a period of rapid growth for kindergarteners and first graders, which slowed again for second graders. Findings demonstrate the differential effect of schooling on four separate literacy skills during the crucial school transition period. (Contains 2 figures and 6 tables.)

This article reviews the mechanics of conventional and piecewise growth models to demonstrate the unique affordances of each technique for examining the nature and predictors of children's early literacy learning during the transition from preschool through first grade. Using the nationally representative Family and Child Experiences Survey (FACES) data set, 1997 cohort, the authors show how piecewise models revealed discrete contributions of child, family, and classroom experiences to children's literacy skills within particular years, whereas conventional models, which considered the whole 3-year trajectory of change as a single outcome, revealed fewer of these nuanced contributions. (Contains 4 tables.)

Purpose: This study evaluated the feasibility, efficacy, and social validity of a parent-implemented intervention for promoting print knowledge in preschoolers with language impairment. Method: This trial involved 62 children and their parents. Each dyad completed a 12-week intervention program. Parents in the treatment group implemented print-focused reading sessions; parents in two comparison groups implemented sessions focused on either storybook pictures (picture-focused condition) or phonological concepts (sound-focused condition). Results: Many parents completed the program successfully, but attrition was high; 23% of families dropped out of the program. Children who remained in the treatment group demonstrated significantly greater gains on 1 of 2 measures of print knowledge compared with those in the picture-focused condition but not the sound-focused condition. Parents generally reported favorable impressions of the program, although several aspects of the program received higher ratings from parents in the print-focused group. Conclusion: Study results raise questions about the feasibility of home-based intervention for some families; future research that examines the characteristics of families that may affect completion are needed. The causal effects of print-focused reading sessions are promising for addressing children's print-concept knowledge but not alphabet knowledge. Home-based reading intervention has considerable social validity as a therapeutic approach.

Letter name knowledge (LNK) is a key predictor of later reading ability and has been emphasized strongly in recent educational policy. Studies of LNK have implicitly treated it as a unidimensional construct with all letters equally relevant to its measurement. However, some empirical research suggests that contextual factors can affect the measurement of LNK. In this study, we analyze responses from 909 children on measures of LNK using the Rasch model and its extensions, and consider two contextual factors: the format of assessment and the own-name advantage, which states that children are more likely to know letters in their own first names. Results indicate that both contextual factors have important impacts on measurement and that LNK does not meet the requirements of Rasch measurement even when accounting for the contextual factors. These findings introduce philosophical concerns for measurement of constrained skills which have limited content for assessment.

The present study examined the influence of schooling during children's first and second years of preschool for children who experienced different amounts of preschool (i.e., one or two years), but who were essentially the same chronological age. Children (n=76) were tested in the fall and spring of the school year using measures of self-regulation, decoding, letter knowledge, and vocabulary. Using hierarchical linear modeling (HLM), preschool was not associated with children's development of self-regulation in either year. For decoding and letter knowledge, children finishing their second year of preschool had higher scores, although both groups of children grew similarly during the school year. Thus, our results suggest that the first and second years of preschool are both systematically associated with decoding and letter knowledge gains, and the effects are cumulative (two years predicted greater gains overall than did one year of preschool). Finally, children's chronological age, and not whether they experienced one versus two years of preschool, predicted children's vocabulary and self-regulation outcomes. Implications for preschool curricula and instruction are discussed, including the increasing emphasis on literacy learning prior to kindergarten entry and the need to address self-regulation development along with academic learning. (Contains 3 tables and 3 figures.)

Purpose: Letter knowledge is a key aspect of children's language development, yet relatively little research has aimed to understand the nature of lowercase letter knowledge. We considered 4 hypotheses about children's lowercase letter knowledge simultaneously--uppercase familiarity, uppercase-lowercase similarity, own-name advantage, and frequency in printed English--as well as 3 interactions. Method: Participants were 461 children ranging in age from 3 to 5 years, all of whom attended public preschool programs serving primarily children from low-income homes, who completed a letter naming task. Results: Uppercase familiarity was the strongest predictor of children's lowercase alphabet knowledge; children were more than 16 times more likely to know a lowercase letter if they knew the corresponding uppercase letter. Uppercase-lowercase similarity and frequency in printed English also predicted children's lowercase letter knowledge, as did the interaction between uppercase familiarity and own-name advantage and the interaction between uppercase familiarity and uppercase-lowercase similarity. Conclusions: Findings suggest that transference from uppercase letter knowledge may be a primary mechanism for lowercase letter knowledge and that young children's knowledge of the lowercase alphabet letters is multiply determined.

The current study investigated the extent to which child, family, and classroom factors during Head Start are related to children's literacy and mathematics skills at the beginning of preschool and through first grade. Children and families (n = 945) were participating in the Family and Child Experiences Survey (FACES), a large-scale data collection effort that assessed children's developing skills as well as their family and classroom environments. Longitudinal growth models revealed that Head Start children began their academic careers well below their more advantaged peers in literacy and mathematics, although by the end of first grade, their scores were nearly on par with national averages. Demographic characteristics of children, as well as their early language and social skills, were the strongest predictors of children's initial status and growth in both early academic domains. Results highlight key foundations and specific promotive factors of early school success for the nation's most disadvantaged children. (Contains 5 tables.)

The current study describes the storybook reading behaviors of 45 preschoolers [30 with language impairment (LI) and 15 with typical language (TL)] and their mothers. Each dyad was observed reading a storybook within their homes, and sessions were subsequently coded for indicators of emotional and instructional quality as well as for child participation. Mothers of children with LI showed lower levels of emotional support than mothers of children with TL, although all mothers exhibited similar quality of instruction. The two groups of children were equally enthusiastic about the book; however, children with LI were observed to be less compliant than children with TL and showed a trend to be less persistent. For the children with LI, participation in the book reading task was found to be high only when mothers' behaviors were observed to be highly sensitive in nature, demonstrating the importance of exposing children to maternal behaviors that are responsive to their unique abilities and needs.

Purpose: The current work examined which theory of reading development, the "cumulative reading trajectory or the compensatory trajectory of development," most accurately represents the reading trajectories of children with language difficulties (LD) relative to their peers with typical language (TL) skills. Specifically, initial levels of reading skills, overall rate of growth, and patterns of growth were examined. Method: Children were classified according to whether or not they exhibited LD at 54 months of age (LD n = 145; TL n = 653), using data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development's Early Child Care Research Network (see NICHD, 1993). A latent shape growth curve model was used to model reading skills at 4 time points from preschool through fifth grade. Results: In comparison to children with TL, children with LD showed lower reading skills in preschool, but their overall reading growth was faster. All children developed the skills associated with reading more rapidly at earlier ages compared to later ages. Children with LD continued to exhibit reading skills that were substantially lower than those of children with TL during fifth grade. Conclusion: Results supported the compensatory trajectory of development. Speech-language pathologists are encouraged to adopt evidence-based practices in order to boost reading outcomes for children with LD beginning in preschool.

Self-reported maternal literacy beliefs and home literacy practices were compared for families of children with typicially developing language skills (TL, n = 52) and specific language impairment (SLI, n = 56). Additionally, the present work examined whether maternal beliefs and practices predicted children's print-related knowledge. Mothers filled out 2 questionnaires asking about their literacy beliefs and practices while children's print-related knowledge was assessed directly. Results indicated that mothers of children with SLI held somewhat less positive beliefs about literacy and reported engaging in fewer literacy practices compared to mothers of children with TL. For the entire sample, maternal literacy practices and beliefs predicted children's print-related knowledge, although much of this association was accounted for by maternal education. Subgroup analyses focused specifically on children with SLI showed there to be no relation between maternal literacy beliefs and practices and children's print-related knowledge. The present findings suggest that the home literacy experiences of children with SLI, and the way that these experiences impact print-related knowledge, may differ in important ways from typical peers. (Contains 5 tables.)

This study examined the social and behavioral characteristics of children with specific language impairment (SLI) as compared with a group of children with typically developing language skills (TL). The participants were 45 children (17 girls and 28 boys) with SLI and 53 children (27 girls and 26 boys) with TL. Maternal ratings of participants' social and behavioral characteristics were obtained using the "Social Skills Rating System" (Gresham & Elliott, 1990) and the "Child Behavior Checklist" (Achenbach, 1995). Analyses of variance revealed differences between the two groups of children in all areas of social skills as well as in specific indices of internalizing behaviors, although no differences were observed for externalizing behavior. The prevalence of clinically significant difficulties was significantly high in the area of social skills but not for behavioral problems. Implications of the results are discussed.

PURPOSE: This research determined the psychometric quality of a criterion-referenced measure that was thought to measure preschoolers' print-concept knowledge (PCK). METHOD: This measure, titled the Preschool Word and Print Awareness (PWPA), was examined using the partial credit model (PCM) to determine its suitability for use by clinicians, educators, and researchers. The extent to which the PWPA differentiated estimates of PCK for at-risk populations on the basis of socioeconomic status (SES) and language ability was also studied. The sample population was one-hundred twenty-eight 3- to 5-year-old children who varied in SES (middle, low) and language ability (typical language, language impairment) as derived from several previous or ongoing studies of emergent literacy intervention. RESULTS: The PCM fit analyses showed good fit between the overall data and the PCM, indicating that the PWPA provided a valid estimate of the latent PCK trait. SES and language ability were significant predictors of PWPA scores when age was used as a covariate. These results showed the PWPA to be suitable for measuring preschoolers' PCK and to be sensitive to differences among children as a function of risk status. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: The results show the PWPA to be an appropriate instrument for clinical and educational use with preschool children.

This research used the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care database of 1,364 children to identify children at 3 years of age who could generally be characterized as exhibiting specific language impairment. Seventy-three identified children were classified into 2 groups on the basis of standardized assessment of language skills at 4.5 years: children whose language impairment had resolved (n = 33) versus those whose language impairment persisted (n = 40). A logistic regression model using measures of maternal sensitivity, maternal depression, child externalizing behaviors, child health history, family income-to-needs ratio, and quality of home environment was used to predict group membership. Maternal sensitivity and maternal depression contributed significantly to the prediction model for group membership. Results are discussed in terms of theoretical and clinical implications.