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Phosphorus is a key indicator for water quality management due to its role in eutrophication. The variety of phosphorus-containing substances necessitates highly sensitive detection of total phosphorus, particularly through automated methods, to ensure water safety. This study involved the independent development of a sensor featuring an automated in situ detection technique. Utilizing potassium persulfate high-temperature oxidation and phosphorus molybdenum blue spectrophotometry, total phosphorus was monitored in situ via sequential injection technology. Additionally, the detection process and reaction conditions of the sensor were optimized, and a temperature compensation algorithm and turbidity correction were applied to mitigate environmental factors. Under optimal conditions, the sensor demonstrated a detection limit of 1.9 µg/L with a range of 6.5–1000 µg/L in seawater, and 1.2 µg/L with a range of 4.1–2000 µg/L in freshwater. The digestion efficiency for five representative phosphorus-containing substances was found to range from 87.3% ± 1.7% to 103.1% ± 0.6%. Notably, the sensor was deployed for in situ operation at a marine experimental station and online at a river monitoring station. With its integration, low power consumption, and high precision, the sensor enabled long-term unattended monitoring, delivering accurate, stable, and reliable results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Industrialization has led to environmental pollution with various hazardous chemicals including pollution with metals. In this regard, the development of highly efficient analytical methods for their determination has received considerable attention to ensure public safety. Currently, scientists are paying more and more attention to the automation of analytical methods, since it permits fast, accurate, and sensitive analysis with minimal exposure of analysts to hazardous substances. This review discusses the automated methods with fluorescent detection developed for metal determination since 2000. It is evident that flow-injection analysis (FIA) with no preconcentration or with solid-phase preconcentration are predominant compared to liquid-phase preconcentration systems. FIA systems are also more widespread than sequential injection analysis (SIA) systems. Moreover, a significant number of works have been devoted to chromatography-based methods. Atomic fluorescence detectors significantly prevail over molecular fluorescence detectors. It must be highlighted that most of the methods result in good figures of merit and performance characteristics, demonstrating their superiority in comparison with manual systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A sequential injection analysis method for the determination of glutathione (GSH) in pharmaceuticals has been developed. It is based on the reduction of the Cu(II)-neocuproine complex by GSH and the formation of an orange-yellow colored Cu(I)-neocuproine complex with maximum absorbance at 458 nm. Under optimal conditions the method is characterized by a linear calibration range of 6.0 × 10−7–8.0 × 10−5 mol L−1 (Amax = 3270 CGSH − 0.0010; R2 = 0.9983), limit of detection of 2.0 × 10−7 mol L−1, limit of quantification of 6.7 × 10−7 mol L−1, repeatability (expressed as relative standard deviation) of 3.8%, and sampling rate of 60 h−1. The newly developed method has been successfully applied to the determination of GSH in pharmaceutical samples with no statistically significant difference between the results obtained and those produced by the standard Pharmacopoeia method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thallium is an accumulative highly toxic metal, that can be present in environmental samples due to industrial pollution and is dangerous for living organisms. Thus, its determination at trace levels is necessary. The lab-in-syringe (LIS) is considered to be a simple, functional, and versatile, technique that combines operational concepts and flow and sequential injection analysis. In this study, a liquid-phase microextraction LIS system was developed as a front-end to flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS) for the determination of thallium in water samples. The proposed approach is based on the formation of Tl(III) ammonium–pyrrolidine–dithiocarbamate complex followed by its extraction using di-isobutyl-ketone. These procedures take place within the syringe barrel of the LIS system. The limit of detection of the developed method was 2.1 µg L−1 with a linear range from 7.0 to 400 µg L−1. The relative standard deviation (RSD) was 3.9% (at 50.0 µg L−1 Tl(I)), demonstrating good precision. Moreover, good method accuracy was obtained since the relative recovery values were within the range of 93.4–101.2%. Finally, reliable method applicability and green merits were demonstrated using the blue applicability grade index and green analytical procedure index, respectively. The proposed method was used for the analysis of environmental water samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phosphorus is a key indicator for water quality management due to its role in eutrophication. The variety of phosphorus-containing substances necessitates highly sensitive detection of total phosphorus, particularly through automated methods, to ensure water safety. This study involved the independent development of a sensor featuring an automated in situ detection technique. Utilizing potassium persulfate high-temperature oxidation and phosphorus molybdenum blue spectrophotometry, total phosphorus was monitored in situ via sequential injection technology. Additionally, the detection process and reaction conditions of the sensor were optimized, and a temperature compensation algorithm and turbidity correction were applied to mitigate environmental factors. Under optimal conditions, the sensor demonstrated a detection limit of 1.9 µg/L with a range of 6.5–1000 µg/L in seawater, and 1.2 µg/L with a range of 4.1–2000 µg/L in freshwater. The digestion efficiency for five representative phosphorus-containing substances was found to range from 87.3% ± 1.7% to 103.1% ± 0.6%. Notably, the sensor was deployed for in situ operation at a marine experimental station and online at a river monitoring station. With its integration, low power consumption, and high precision, the sensor enabled long-term unattended monitoring, delivering accurate, stable, and reliable results.

New sequential injection analysis (SIA) methods with optical sensing for the determination of N-acetyl-L-cysteine ethyl ester (NACET) have been developed and optimized. NACET is a potential drug and antioxidant with advantageous pharmacokinetics. The methods involve the reduction of Cu(II) in its complexes with neocuproine (NCN), bicinchoninic acid (BCA), and bathocuproine disulfonic acid (BCS) to the corresponding chromophoric Cu(I) complexes by the analyte. The absorbance of the Cu(I) complexes with NCN, BCA, and BCS was measured at their maximum absorbance wavelengths of 458, 562, and 483 nm, respectively. The sensing manifold parameters and experimental conditions were optimized for each of the Cu(II) complexes used. Under optimal conditions, the corresponding linear calibration ranges, limits of detection, and sampling rates were 8.0 × 10−6–2.0 × 10−4 mol L−1, 5.5 × 10−6 mol L−1, and 60 h−1 for NCN; 6.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−4 mol L−1, 5.2 × 10−6 mol L−1, and 60 h−1 for BCA; and 4.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−4 mol L−1, 2.6 × 10−6 mol L−1, and 78 h−1 for BCS. The Cu(II)-BCS complex was found to be best performing in terms of sensitivity and sampling rate. Usual excipients in pharmaceutical preparations did not interfere with NACET analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The yeast Kluyveromyces marxianus has shown the potential to produce β -fructofuranosidases, which are enzymes capable of hydrolyzing β -fructofuranosides links of fructans to obtain fructooligosaccharides. The thriving market for fructose syrup and the quality standards imposed by food and pharmaceutical industries have generated an increased search for improved, monitored, and controlled production processes. Monitoring β -fructofuranosidase activity in a bioprocess requires the use of adequate sensors and the processing of information using efficient software algorithms; nevertheless, currently, such a sensor does not exist for this purpose. In this contribution, a sequential injection analysis system (SIA) developed in our laboratory was adapted to monitor at-line β -fructofuranosidase activity produced by the yeast K. marxianus. Samples were taken out automatically from the bioreactor and analyzed using 3,5-dinitrosalicylic (DNS). An algorithm was designed to operate the overall components of the lab-made SIA system. The enzymatic activity error obtained with the automatic SIA compared to the off-line laboratory determinations varied from 0.07% at high enzyme concentrations to 20.39% at low β -fructofuranosidase activity. Further development is required to improve the performance of the lab-made SIA system; nevertheless, such a device must be considered as a potential method for monitoring β -fructofuranosidase activity in real time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the authors propose to carry out a case study, on a visual part made of thermoplastic material from the automotive industry. Using the most up-to-date CAE systems, we will try to highlight the main appearance problems in long parts, namely the appearance of weld lines at the meeting of the flow fronts. The part will be processed using sequential, as well as non-sequential injection systems, respectively, in order to highlight the difference between the two, respectively to compare these two tests with the results of rheological simulation (CAE). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A carbon nanotubes modified silver electrode (CNTs-Ag) was prepared via catalytic chemical vapor deposition and characterized. The morphology, crystallinity, elemental composition, and other quality parameters of the prepared electrode were investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and Raman techniques. The characterization results revealed the modification of the silver metal surface with CNTs of good characteristics. A sequential injection analysis (SIA) system was developed for studying the reaction of ascorbic acid with KIO3 using the prepared CNTs-Ag electrode. Electrodes were polarized with both direct current (DC) and periodic square wave (SW). Various experimental conditions affecting the differential electrolytic potentiometric (DEP) peak such as current density, SW bias value, and flow rate were appraised. Under the optimum conditions, good linear responses for ascorbic acid were obtained in the range of 60.0–850.0 µM for both types of polarization with detection limits of 14.0–19.0 µM. The results obtained showed that the periodic polarization method was more sensitive than DC polarization and the electrode response was faster. Ascorbic acid in pharmaceutical tablets was determined with satisfactory results using this method. The prepared CNTs-based electrode exhibited good performance for a long period of use. The method is simple, rapid, and inexpensive for routine analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC), a sulfhydryl-containing compound, is mainly used as a mucolytic and as an antidote for acetaminophen overdose. Flow injection and sequential injection systems were designed and optimized with the aim of providing precise, accurate and reliable flow methods for NAC determination in pharmaceuticals with very low sample and reagent consumption. Proposed methods are based on a redox reaction wherein NAC reduces a complex of Cu(II) and bathocuproine disulfonate (BCS) to orange [Cu(BCS)2]3- complex, which absorption was measured at λmax = 483 nm. The optimized FIA and SIA configuration yielded a linear calibration curve with correlation coefficients (R² = 0.9999 and R² = 0.9996) in the concentration range of 3.0 × 10-7 - 3.0 × 10-5 mol L-1 and analytical frequency of 120 h-1 for the FIA method and 4.0 × 10-7 - 4.0 × 10-5 mol L-1, at sampling rate 60 h-1 for the SIA method. The proposed flow methods were successfully applied for the determination of NAC in pharmaceutical products, as the results showed good agreement with the standard method prescribed by Pharmacopoeia. Recoveries were in the range from 98.4 % to 101.9 % for the FIA method and from 97.2 % to 101.8 % for the SIA method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The catalytic activity of particles of gold, cobalt, and a gold–cobalt binary system electrodeposited on the surface of planar carbon electrodes was found in the oxidation of glucose in a neutral medium. The amperometric response of a screen-printed electrode modified with a gold–cobalt binary system was used as an analytical signal in the determination of glucose in a sequential injection system. The linear logarithmic dependence of current on the glucose concentration was observed in the range from 5 × 10–8 to 5 × 10–2 M. The use of a screen-printed electrode modified with a gold–cobalt binary system as an amperometric detector in a sequential injection system makes it possible to selectively determine glucose in saliva in the concentration range used for medical diagnosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A sensitive and accurate Sequential Injection Analysis technique for determining Cupper (II) ion in different samples, using a new azo derivative reagent of 8- hydroxy quinoline (HQDABA). The reagent and Cu(II) complex diagnosis included Infrared spectroscopy, Ultraviolet-Visual radiation, Elemental Analysis (CHN), Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy ¹HNMR and mass spectroscopy techniques. The method depends on the reaction of Cupper (II) with the (Azo derivative of 8-hydroxy Quinoline) reagent in a neutral medium to form a Brown complex which gave a maximum absorbance at 420 nm. The optimum conditions such as flow rate, Copper (II) volume, reagent volume; pH, reagent concentration, and reaction coil length are thoroughly examined. A Copper (II) curve is constructed, and the suggested method obeys Beer's law over ration range of 1-10 mg/ L. The limits of detection (LOD) and on (LOQ) are determined to be (0.361) mg/ L and(1.204) mg/ L, while Sandell's sensitivity and molar absorption coefficient are to be (0.120) µg/ cm² and (527.05) L/ mol. cm respectively. The recommended method has given good accuracy with recovery rates ranging from (77.82% - 115% ). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A novel automated method based on sequential injection analysis (SIA), a non-segmented flow injection technique, was developed to evaluate glutathione S-ransferase P1-1 (GST P1-1) activity in the presence of organometallic complexes with putative anticancer activity. The assay is based on the reaction of L-glutathione (GSH) and 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB) in the presence of GST P1-1 to afford the GS-DNB conjugate and the reaction may be monitored by an increase in absorbance at 340 nm. A series of ruthenium, iron, osmium and iridium complexes were evaluated as GST P1-1 inhibitors by evaluating their half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50). An iridium compound displays the lowest IC50 value of 6.7 ±0.7 µM and an iron compound displays the highest IC50 value of 275 ±9 µM. The SIA method is simple to use, robust, reliable, and efficient and uses fewer reagents than batch methods and each analysis takes only 5 minutes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A spectrophotometric flow-based method for the determination of nickel in recreational waters is proposed. In this scenario, the strategy was to devise a miniaturized and automatic system based on sequential injection analysis, aiming for an expeditious, real-time and low-cost determination. For the spectrophotometric determination, dimethylglyoxime was used as color reagent due to its selectivity for nickel. Considering the expected low concentration and low sensitivity of the coloured reaction, a long pathlength flow cell was used to increase the sensitivity. The potential interference of metal ions commonly present in freshwaters was assessed and no significant differences (

The yeast Kluyveromyces marxianus has shown the potential to produce β-fructofuranosidases, which are enzymes capable of hydrolyzing β-fructofuranosides links of fructans to obtain fructooligosaccharides. The thriving market for fructose syrup and the quality standards imposed by food and pharmaceutical industries have generated an increased search for improved, monitored, and controlled production processes. Monitoring β-fructofuranosidase activity in a bioprocess requires the use of adequate sensors and the processing of information using efficient software algorithms; nevertheless, currently, such a sensor does not exist for this purpose. In this contribution, a sequential injection analysis system (SIA) developed in our laboratory was adapted to monitor at-line β-fructofuranosidase activity produced by the yeast K. marxianus. Samples were taken out automatically from the bioreactor and analyzed using 3,5-dinitrosalicylic (DNS). An algorithm was designed to operate the overall components of the lab-made SIA system. The enzymatic activity error obtained with the automatic SIA compared to the off-line laboratory determinations varied from 0.07% at high enzyme concentrations to 20.39% at low β-fructofuranosidase activity. Further development is required to improve the performance of the lab-made SIA system; nevertheless, such a device must be considered as a potential method for monitoring β-fructofuranosidase activity in real time.

Automatic sequential injection analysis (SIA) with spectrometric or spectrofluorimetric detection is presented for the determination of three selected phenothiazines (chlorpromazine, levomepromazine, and promethazine) in pharmaceutical formulations. The determination is based on the oxidation of phenothiazine by cerium(IV) in acidic media, which leads to the formation of a color product that is detected by either VIS spectrometry or spectrofluorimetry. The conditions of SIA were optimized and second-order polynomial calibration equations were established in a dynamic range of 3–350 mg dm−3 for VIS detection, 0.05–50 mg dm−3 for spectrofluorimetric detection, respectively. The limit of quantitation was established 0.31 mg dm−3 for VIS detection, 2.6 × 10−3 mg dm−3 for spectrofluorimetric detection, respectively. The sample throughput was 24 h−1 for VIS spectrometric, 20 h−1 for spectrofluorimetric, respectively, detection. Common excipients of the dosage forms (fructose, glucose, lactose) did not affect the measurement even at concentrations 200 times higher than phenothiazine. The method was used for the phenothiazine assay in authentic samples of commercial pharmaceutical formulations, and the results were in good agreement with the official pharmacopoeial method. The advantages of the developed SIA method are its complete automation, speed, very low reagent consumption, and a wide dynamic range of analyte concentrations, enabling it to be advantageously used for routine product control in the pharmaceutical industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Uneven workflow in serial flow lines is common when job work content varies. Unfortunately, work content imbalance between stations or between jobs degrades system performance. The effect of this imbalance can be mitigated by proper job sequencing. In this paper, we uncouple the influence of station-to-station and job-to-job imbalance within a set of jobs, introducing metrics to quantify the degree of imbalance, and determine their impact on line performance. We then examine the sensitivity of several scheduling methods at different problem scales and processing time variance levels, and compare the sensitivity to process time stability radii. Within the case studies explored, we determine that greater station imbalance can degrade solution quality regardless of problem scale and variance level. Greater job imbalance can either improve or diminish solution quality (i.e. relative performance from a given scheduling method), but less than station imbalance. Scheduling methods that sequence jobs based on the sums of processing times, e.g. SPT, can benefit from greater station imbalance. Scheduling methods that sequence jobs based on idle time between stations, e.g. the state-space heuristic, are more sensitive to station imbalance, but can also benefit from job imbalance. Finally, we conclude that job sequence has a greater impact on solution quality than stability radii. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lab-in-syringe (LIS) is a powerful automatic technique that is derived from sequential injection analysis. In LIS, a computer-controlled syringe pump is employed, and its syringe barrel serves as a mixing, reaction, and/or extraction chamber. Until now, the LIS concept has been efficiently employed for the automation of solid-phase microextraction and liquid-phase microextraction protocols as a front-end to a plethora of chromatographic and spectrometric techniques. In this work, the applicability of LIS systems was examined using the Blue Applicability Grade Index (BAGI), a recently introduced metric tool that is used to examine the applicability of an analytical method. For this purpose, the sample preparation procedure and the instrumental method are thoroughly evaluated. The attained BAGI scores ranged between 60.0 and 77.5 for all the examined methods, while the average score was 71.3. As derived from the BAGI evaluation, good practicality can be attributed to the reviewed systems and protocols. • Evaluation of 32 LIS systems using BAGI meric tool. • All LIS systems showed high applicability in terms of practicality. • The average BAGI score for LPME and headspace methods was 72.7. • The average BAGI score for SPE-based methods was 67.2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • A violet light-emitting diode-based nitrate and nitrite sensor was developed. • Nitrate and nitrite were sensitively detected in the environmental water. • The water vapor interference was eliminated by a homemade semiconductor refrigeration system. • The interferences of coexisted ions were reduced by the transformation of nitrite into gaseous NO 2. A simple and sensitive device for the detection of nitrite and nitrate in environmental waters was developed based on visible light gas-phase molecular absorption spectrometry. By integrating a detection cell (DC), semiconductor refrigeration temperature-controlling system (SRTCY), and nitrite reactor into a sequential injection analysis system, trace levels of nitrite and nitrate in complex matrices were successfully measured. A low energy-consuming light-emitting diode (violet, 400–405 nm) was coupled with a visible light-to-voltage converter (TSL257) to measure the gas-phase molecular absorption. To reduce the interference of water vapor, an SRTCY was used to condense the water vapor on-line before the gas-phase analyte entered the DC. The DC was radiatively heated by the SRTCY to avoid water vapor condensation in the light path. As a result, the obtained baseline noise reduced 3.75 times than that of without SRTCY. Under the optimized conditions, the device achieved limits of detection (3σ/k) of 0.055 and 0.36 mmol/L (0.77 and 5.04 mg N/L) for nitrite and nitrate, respectively, and the linear calibration ranges were 0.1–15 mmol/L (R2 = 0.9946) and 1–10 mmol/L (R2 = 0.9995), respectively. Precisions of 5.2 % and 9.0 % were achieved for ten successive determinations of 0.3 mmol/L nitrite and 1.0 mmol/L nitrate, and the analytical times for nitrite and nitrate determination were 5 and 13 min, respectively. This method was validated against standard methods and recovery tests, and it was applied to the measurement of nitrite and nitrate in environmental waters. Moreover, a device was designed to enable the field measurement of nitrite and nitrate in complex matrices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present work introduces nanocomposites based on carbon materials of various nature and hexarhenium chalcogenide clusters as surface modifiers of screen-printed graphite electrodes for amperometric immunosensing of the tricyclic antidepressant desipramine. The surface modification of the electrodes by chronoamperometric reduced graphene oxide in combination with chalcogenide hexarhenium clusters or nanodiamonds was developed for the determination of desipramine. The properties of the nanocomposites studied by voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) were correlated with the roughness parameters of their modified surface associated with the height properties of the irregularities estimated by atomic force microscopy. The composition of the hybrid nanostructures was optimized to provide the following analytical figures of merit for the immunosensors: the range of working concentrations from 1 × 10−4 to 1 × 10−9 М and the lower limit of the determined concentrations of (5–8) × 10−10 М. The optimal parameters for sequential injection analysis were obtained at a flow rate of 25 µl s−1 and the injected volume of 3125 µl of the supporting buffer at pH 7.5. It is possible to determine lower concentrations of desipramine equal to (7–9) × 10−11 M using the proposed immunosensors in the flow mode. The testing of the developed immunosensors was characterized by the determination of the analyte in a pharmaceutical preparation and in urine. The relative standard deviation was less than 0.072. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapid intravitreal antibiotic administration in all-cause endophthalmitis, is associated with better final visual acuity outcomes, particularly for those receiving treatment within two hours of presentation. Recent studies show that post-intravitreal endophthalmitis is the leading cause of endophthalmitis due to the number of procedures performed, with a global incidence of 0.028-0.056%. Smoking Hypertension treatment during the pregnancy Hypertension treatment before pregnancy Preeclampsia Which one of the following is positively correlated with DR non-progression in pregnancy. [Extracted from the article]

In the flow method development, zone penetration studies are usually conducted as a part of the initial screening phase. A lack of an appropriate tool can keep these studies on the level of rough estimations. The developed LabVIEW virtual instrument (VI) which processes peak signals and calculates the overlapping area and fundamental peak-related parameters was used for the calculations in experiments that are modelling sample and reagent plug interaction within liquid conduits. The reliability of the predictions was initially confirmed on the artificial data set based on thirty-six files covering all the different types of cases that can be foreseen. To continue, the volumes of model solutions, propelling flow rate, and the coil length in the sequential injection analysis system, were varied by following the Box–Behnken response surface design. In three examples, it is demonstrated how the VI can help the planning of further experiments in the range which ensures the efficient zone overlapping, the economic exploitation of reagent plug and the adequate dispersion. The application of the VI is not limited just to the flow-based chemistry, it can also be used in spectroscopy and chromatography. In order to use the graphical user interface, it is not necessary to have the LabVIEW program installed.

A flow-based method for the spectrophotometric determination of chromium (VI) in recreational waters with different salinities was developed. Chromium can occur in the environment in different oxidation states with different related physiological properties. With regard to chromium, the speciation is particularly important, as the hexavalent chromium is considered to be carcinogenic. To achieve that purpose, the use of the diphenylcarbazide (DPC) selective colored reaction with the hexavalent chromium was the chosen strategy. The main objective was to develop a direct and simple spectrophotometric method that could cope with the analysis of different types of environmental waters, within different salinity ranges (fresh to marine waters). The potential interference of metal ions, that can usually be present in environmental waters, was assessed and no significant interferences were observed (<10%). For a complete Cr(VI) determination (three replicas) cycle, the corresponding reagents consumption was 75 µg of DPC, 9 mg of ethanol and 54 mg of sulfuric acid. Each cycle takes about 5 min, including the system clean-up. The limit of detection was 6.9 and 12.2 µg L−1 for waters with low and high salt content, respectively. The method was applied for the quantification of chromium (VI) in both fresh and marine water, and the results were in agreement with the reference procedure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wine is a fermented product consumed in a large scale all over the world that therefore has a large impact both economic and food safety terms. The analytical control of the final product is thus of high importance; it is not a simple task given that the chemical composition of wine is very variable and complex. Consequently, there is always the need for some sample pre-treatment prior to analysis. Flow-based analyses are known for their efficiency in sample manipulation and can be easily coupled to other techniques, such as separation techniques, namely membrane-based or extraction procedures. This possibility is an important step when dealing with complex matrices, such as wine samples. This review presents the state of the art of the methodologies that were developed using flow-based systems coupled to separation devices applied to wine analysis, namely membrane-based, solid, and liquid phase extraction and low pressure chromatography separations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In response to FDA's call for Quality by Design (QbD) in biopharmaceutical product development, the biopharmaceutical industry has been developing highly sensitive and specific technologies in the monitoring and controlling of product quality attributes for bioprocesses. We previously published the successful application of an off-line multi-attribute method (MAM) to monitor more than 20 critical quality attributes (CQA) with superior sensitivity for the upstream process. To further remove the hurdles of laborious process sampling and sample preparation associated with the offline method, we present here a fully integrated MAM based online platform for automated real time online process monitoring. This integrated system includes Modular Automated Sampling Technology (MAST) based aseptic sampling, multi-function Sequential Injection Analysis (SIA) sample preparation, UHPLC separation and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) analysis. Continuous automated daily monitoring of a 17-day cell culture process was successfully demonstrated for a model monoclonal antibody (mAb) molecule with similar specificity and sensitivity as we reported earlier. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of an end-to-end automated online MAM system, which would allow the MAM to be applied to routine bioprocess monitoring, potentially replacing multiple conventional low resolution and low sensitivity off-line methods. The online HPLC or HPLC/MS platform could be easily adapted to support other processing steps such as downstream purification with minimal software re-configuration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • New analytical tool for the automation of enzymatic assays in ILs medium. • Structures of the ionic liquids and their effect on the β-galactosidase. • Useful study for the design of ionic liquids to be used in enzymatic reactions. • New automatic microfluidic methodology for the evaluation of ionic liquids. • Inhibitory effect of the cation [bmpyr] on the β-galactosidase activity. Understanding the potential of ionic liquids in biocatalysis is both useful and difficult. The unique properties of ionic liquids, such as their tunability, allow for the medium to be adjusted to the reaction, thereby supporting both substrate solubility and enzyme activity. Thus, the effect of 9 different ionic liquids with different structures (in terms of cation, anion, and the attached substituents) on the activity of β-galactosidase, an enzyme widely used in food industry processes, was investigated. According to the findings of this study, three of the nine tested ionic liquids promoted an increase in β-galactosidase activity, while two of them ([bmpyr][Cl] and [bmpyr][BF 4 ]) promoted an inactivation (with EC 50 of 20.4 and 10.7 mmol L−1, respectively), most likely due to the presence of the cation [bmpyr]. Some correlations between the structure of ionic liquids and the activity of β-galactosidase were established. To carry out these studies, a microfluidic automatic system was used, allowing for greater control of the reaction conditions as well as a reduction in reagent consumption and waste generation. It demonstrated the system's potential as a simple, versatile, robust, and fast analytical tool for the automation of enzymatic assays in ILs medium. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A 3D printed device covered with Zn/Co-ZIF-derived carbon allows the on-site extraction of fluoroquinolones (FQs) from wastewater, avoiding the sample transportation to the laboratory, and the subsequent elution, separation and determination using an on-line flow system based on sequential injection analysis (SIA) coupled to HPLC-FL. Several parameters that affect the extraction efficiency and desorption were optimized including the sorption phase immobilization technique on the 3D device, extraction time, pH effect, sample volume as well as the type of eluent, eluent volume, and flow rate. Under optimum conditions, detection limits of 3–9 ng L−1 were achieved for norfloxacin, ciprofloxacin, danofloxacin, enrofloxacin and difloxacin. The precision expressed as relative standard deviation (%RSD, n = 3), showed intraday and interday ranges of 1.5–5.3% and 2.8–5.7%, respectively, demonstrating a good precision of the proposed methodology. To assess matrix effects and accuracy of the proposed method in real samples, recovery studies were performed without and with FQs spiked at different concentrations (0.5–10 μg L−1) to wastewater samples, showing good recoveries in the range of 91–104%. The results allow to confirm the applicability of MOF-derived carbons as adsorbents for on-site extraction, and the satisfactory separation and quantification of FQs by a SIA-HPLC-FL on-line system after their desorption with small eluent volumes. [Display omitted] • Zn/Co-ZIF derived-carbon coated 3D device allows fluoroquinolones on-site extraction. • Fluoroquinolones are on-site extracted from wastewater without any pre-treatment. • The 3D device with fluoroquinolones retained is placed in an online SIA-HPLC-FL. • The SIA-HPLC-FL system achieves very satisfactory analytical performance. • This methodology shows 91–104% recovery, <5.3% intraday, <5.7% interday variation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the most used methods to measure antioxidant capacity in food is the ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) test, which is simple, sensitive, and economical, nevertheless has long analysis times, causing measurement errors due to the instability of the FRAP reagent due to its precipitation sequential injection analysis (SIA) is a flow technique that can correct these disadvantages because it is more quickly. So, a novel FRAP-SIA method was developed to evaluate the antioxidant capacity. The system was optimized using a central composite design for hydrodynamic and chemical factors, resulting in a flow rate of 35 μL s−1, and aspirate volumes of 33 μL–38 μL–33 μL for the sequence (FRAP-Antioxidant-FRAP). FRAP reagent was prepared with an HCl solution at 0.005 mol L−1, improving its stability 24 times, concerning when it is in acetate buffer at pH 3.6. The method showed excellent accuracy (RSD <3%) with a LOD of 1.0 μmol L−1 of Trolox for a linear range of 5–120 μmol L−1. The reaction time was diminished by 96% concerning the FRAP-microplate assay (from 30 min to 1.2 min). The method was applied in beverages and extracts, obtaining recovery values ranging from 91.24 to 114.22%. [Display omitted] • A completely novel FRAP-SIA method was developed to determine antioxidant capacity. • The stability of the FRAP reagent was improved up to 24 times. • The reaction time was reduced from 30 min to 1.2 min by the developed SIA method. • The results of antioxidant capacity were comparable with those by reference method. • The FRAP-SIA method substantially improved precision (<3%). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Sequential injection analysis method for Se(IV) /Se(VI) speciation is developed. • Se(IV) is determined by oxidising I 3 - to I 2 which reacts with starch. • Total Se (Se(IV) + Se(VI)) is determined after reduction of Se(VI) to Se(IV) with HCl at 75 °C. • The LOD for Se(IV) and Se(VI) are 0.02 mg L-1 and 0.07 mg L-1, respectively. • The method was successfully applied to spiked tap water and mineral water samples. Selenium is an important micronutrient for the human body, but biological concentrations on either side of its narrow nutritional window can lead to serious health impacts. Furthermore, Se(IV) has been reported to be more toxic than Se(VI). Therefore, prudent control and monitoring of Se intake should involve speciation of this element. Herein, the development and validation of an automatic sequential injection analysis (SIA) system and method for the speciation of Se(IV) and Se(VI) in water samples is reported for the first time. This method is based on the starch-iodide reaction using Se(IV) as the oxidant, which subsequently forms a blue compound with starch. Total selenium is determined after an online pre-reduction of Se(VI) to Se(IV) with HCl at 75 °C. The concentration of Se(VI) is then calculated as the difference between the total Se and Se(IV) concentrations. The calibration curves for Se(IV) and total Se are characterised by linear ranges of 0 – 1.5 mg L-1 and 0 – 2.5 mg L-1, limits of detection (LODs) of 0.02 mg L-1 and 0.07 mg L-1, and averaged relative standard deviations (RSDs) (n = 3) of 1.33 % and 2.95 % respectively, with a sampling rate of 10 h−1. The newly developed SIA method has been successfully applied to drinking water samples spiked with both Se species and good recoveries in the range 94 – 109 % have been achieved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A combination of sequential Injection Analysis (SIA) system and the ion-selective electrode (ISE) detector is considered to be one of a very effective analytical method. Reaction of lactate with lactate oxidase produces pyruvic acid and hydrogen peroxide. When the produced hydrogen peroxide is reacted with 4-aminoantipyrine (4-AAP) and 4-fluorophenol (4-FP) in the presence of horseradish peroxidase (HRP), F− ion is produced. The concentration of lactate can be indirectly determined by measuring the F− ion by F− ISE. Based on this principle of detection of lactate, a new measurement method of lactate using an SIA with ISE detector was developed.

A new automated analytical method for the determination of Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) based on sequential injection analysis (SIA) method using a butyrylcholine chloride (BuCh) ion-selective electrode (ISE) detector was developed. BuCh is degraded to choline and butyrate by the enzymatic activity of BChE, resulting in a decrease in BuCh concentration. By detecting this change in BuCh concentration with BuCh-ISE, BChE can be determined indirectly. In the present SIA method using the BuCh-ISE detector based on α-cyclodextrin membrane, BChE in the concentration range of 0.015–0.50 units/mL was determined at a BuCh concentration of 2.0 mmol dm−3 and a reaction time of 5.0 min. The detection limit for BChE is 4.8 × 10−3 units/mL.

This work describes a sequential injection analysis (SIA) method for on‐line strippping voltammetric determination of Pb(II), Cd(II) and Zn(II) using an injection‐moulded electrochemical fluidic chip consisting of 3 conductive carbon fiber‐loaded polymer electrodes embedded in a plastic fluidic holder. The sample containing the target metals and a solution containing Bi(III) were aspirated in the holding coil of the SIA manifold. Then, the flow was reversed and the two solutions were directed to the fluidic cell through a mixing coil which induced mixing of the two zones. Upon reaching the cell, simultaneous reduction of the target metals and Bi(III) occurred resulting in the formation of a metal‐Bi alloy on the working electrode. Finally, the accumulated metals were stripped off the bismuth‐film electrode via a positive potential scan and the oxidation current was recorded. The experimental variables (concentration of the bismuth plating solution, deposition potential, sample volume, stripping mode) were investigated and the potential interferences were assessed. The limits of quantification were 2.8 μg L−1 for Pb(II), 3.6 μg L−1 for Cd(II) and 4.2 μg L−1 for Zn(II) and the the within‐chip and between‐chip % relative standard deviations were ≤6.3 % and ≤14 %, respectively. Finally, the sensor was applied to the determination of trace metals in a fish food sample. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple meso-scale capacitor structures have been made by incorporating thin (~300 nm) single crystal lamellae of KTiOPO4 (KTP) between two coplanar Pt electrodes. The influence that either patterned protrusions in the electrodes or focused ion beam milled holes in the KTP have on the nucleation of reverse domains during switching was mapped using piezoresponse force microscopy imaging. The objective was to assess whether or not variations in the magnitude of field enhancement at localised "hot-spots," caused by such patterning, could be used to both control the exact locations and bias voltages at which nucleation events occurred. It was found that both the patterning of electrodes and the milling of various hole geometries into the KTP could allow controlled sequential injection of domain wall pairs at different bias voltages; this capability could have implications for the design and operation of domain wall electronic devices, such as memristors, in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acoustic trapping is a non-contact particle manipulation method that holds great potential for performing automated assays. We demonstrate an aluminium acoustic trap in combination with attenuated total reflection Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) for detection of E. coli in water. The thermal conductivity of aluminium was exploited to thermo-electrically heat and hold the acoustic trap at the desired assay temperature of 37 °C. Systematic characterisation and optimisation of the acoustic trap allowed high flow rates while maintaining high acoustic trapping performance. The ATR element serves not only as a reflector for ultrasound standing wave generation but also as a sensing interface. The enzyme conversion induced by alkaline phosphatase-labelled bacteria was directly monitored in the acoustic trap using ATR-FTIR spectroscopy. Sequential injection analysis allowed automated liquid handling, including non-contact bacteria retention, washing and enzyme-substrate exchange within the acoustic trap. The presented method was able to detect E. coli concentrations as low as 1.95 × 106 bacteria per mL in 197 min. The demonstrated ultrasound assisted assay paves the way to fully automated bacteria detection devices based on acoustic trapping combined with ATR-FTIR spectroscopy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work reports the fabrication of a robust and high-performance CNT/Ag composite electrode via catalytic chemical vapor deposition of ethylene. The fabricated electrode showed the formation of aligned CNTs with strong adhesion to the Ag substrate. It was successfully applied to zero-current potentiometry and sequential injection analysis of ascorbic acid. The CVD-fabricated CNT/Ag composite electrode showed an excellent response, a fast equilibrium, good sensitivity and reproducibility, as well as durability for long term use.

The present study focused on the phytochemical chromatographic isolation of two chemical constituents, sterol and flavonoid (stigmasterol glucoside and luteolin) from Plectranthus asirensis. A novel, eco-friendly, and cost benefit, ultrasensitive sequential injection analysis chemiluminescence (SIA-CL) approach based on the enhanced catalytic activity of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) was suggested to evaluate the isolated compounds. Silver nanoparticles were synthesized using the biomass of an ethanolic extract of aerial parts of P. asirensis as a reducing agent. Spectroscopic and microscopic characterization of the prepared AgNPs were performed, including UV-Vis spectrometry, XRD and FT-IR as well as TEM and SEM. UV-spectroscopic method detected the formed AgNPs at an absorbance wavelength of 420 nm. Furthermore, antioxidant activity of the isolated compounds was also determined using 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity protocol.

Ketoconazole was determined by the use of sequential injection analysis (SIA) in tandem with a spectrophotometric detector. This system was designed to interface to a personal computer. The proposed method is based on a coupled redox–complexation reaction, which reduces Fe(III) to Fe(II) by ketoconazole, following by the reaction of Fe(II) with 2,4,6-tripyridyl-s-triazine in an acetate buffer at pH 4.00 at the maximum absorption wavelength of 590 nm. The optimum conditions for the analysis were studied and evaluated. Beer's law shown to be followed across the concentration range from 0.24 to 5.00 µg mL−1 with a correlation coefficient R2 equal to 0.9962. The relative standard deviation values for the repeatability and reproducibility were less than 1.40% and 2.15% (n = 11) for 2.00 µg mL−1 of ketoconazole. The detection limit (3σ) and limit of quantification (10σ) were 0.07 and 0.24 µg mL−1, respectively. The results for the proposed method and a standard HPLC procedure provided no significant differences (p > 0.05) using Student's t-test. Therefore, the SIA procedure has been satisfactorily applied to the determination of ketoconazole in pharmaceutical products with a sample throughput of 30 h−1. This study provides an environmentally-friendly analytical tool for quality control in the pharmaceutical industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An automated sequential injection analysis with spectrometric detection for the determination of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole in tablets is proposed. The concentration of sulfamethoxazole is determined by monitoring the absorbance at 540 nm due to the intensively colored complex formed by derivatization reaction of sulfamethoxazole with nitrite and N-(1-naphthyl)ethylenediamine in acidic media. With knowledge of the sulfamethoxazole concentration, the trimethoprim concentration can be calculated from the absorption of the sample solution at 264 nm, where both analytes absorb, and the additivity of individual absorbances according to Beer-Lambert law can be used. The developed method has a linear dynamic range of 0.03–5.0 mg dm−3 and a detection limit of 0.03 mg dm−3 for trimethoprim and a linear dynamic range of 0.1–10.0 mg dm−3 and a detection limit of 0.01 mg dm−3 for sulfamethoxazole. The sampling frequency of the method is 24 h−1. The method was successfully applied on pharmaceutical dosage form of tablets, as the results of the determination are in a good agreement with the official pharmacopoeial method (HPLC). The developed sequential injection analysis is simpler, cheaper, and faster than already published methods and pharmacopoeial assay. So it appears to be suitable for quality control in the pharmaceutical industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The formation of an ion-association complex (IA) between sulfonephthalein dye and basic nitrogen-containing compound in an organic solvent medium has been for the first time used to develop an automated SIA method. In highly polar aprotic solvents, the tautomeric equilibrium for such dyes is strongly shifted towards the colorless lactonic form. The addition of a basic nitrogen-containing substance leads to the formation of IA with a highly colored quinonoid form, which is accompanied by an increase in the absorbance of the dye band at approximately 400 nm. Protonation of pyridine nitrogen in loratadine, structure and binding places of IA were shown using quantum-chemical calculations. The very simple, direct and non-extraction spectrophotometric SIA method with high throughput of 43 h−1 was developed based on the formation of IA between loratadine and bromocresol purple in the medium of acetonitrile used both as solvent and carrier. The calibration graph was linear in the concentration range from 1.0 to 20 mg L−1 with correlation coefficient of 0.9992. The developed method was successfully applied to the analysis of pharmaceutical formulations. [Display omitted] • Interaction of sulfonephthalein dyes and nitrogen-containing compounds. • Shift of tautomeric equilibrium in an organic solvent medium. • Non-extraction spectrophotometric SIA method for loratadine determination. • Loratadine was determined using its ion associate with bromocresol purple. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the different uses of radioactivity during the last decades, there has been an increase in the concentration of natural and artificial radionuclides in the environment. This, along with some accidents with a high affect public opinion (for example, Chernobyl and Fukushima), have led to the growth and establishment of environmental radioactivity monitoring programs. Currently, trends in legislation and research are focused on the development of accurate, precise, reliable and fast analytical methods with low limits of detection (LOD) for radionuclides determination, such as strontium and yttrium, in environmental samples. In this paper, two comprehensive reviews and four automated analytical systems for total and isotopic determination of yttrium and strontium are presented. The developed methods have been applied in the analysis of environmental samples with low concentrations of these analytes. These methodologies have been automated by exploiting flow analysis techniques, such as multi-syringe flow injection analysis (MSFIA), Sequential injection analysis (SIA) and laboratory-on-valve (LOV) systems, achieving a minimal handling and low consumption of samples and reagents, a significant reduction in waste generation and a high frequency of analysis. In the developed methodologies, some spectrometric methods such as ICP-OES and ICP-MS have been implemented as detection techniques instead of radiometric detectors obtaining a fully automated, low-cost and fast yttrium and strontium determinations. SIA setup used for 90Sr/90Y determination. [Display omitted] • Several full automation methods for Yttrium and Strontium are reviewed. • Pre-concentration techniques and/or the use of long optical path length optical fibers are usually needed to reach the legal levels. • For field measurements, small portable devices can be useful. • They are based on the combined use of supports created by 3D printers and webcam detectors or digital microscopes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A sequential injection method for the determination of penicillamine (PA) was developed based on quenching the chemiluminescence generated by oxidation of luminol by hydrogen peroxide in presence of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs). The chemiluminescence (CL) of the reaction was found to greatly enhance in presence of AgNPs due to the increased catalyst surface area. The method was sensitive and found suitable for analysis of penicillamine in pharmaceutical preparations. Linear calibration curve is obtained in the range 0.2-1.0 mg mL-1 with a relative standard deviation less than 2%. A recovery percent of 102.3 ±0.2 was obtained with the tablets matrix indicating reasonable selectivity of the method for PA in tablets. The mechanism of quenching of the CL reaction was investigated by UV-Visible spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy as well as by theoretical calculations using DFT-B3LYP method. The covalent attachment of PA to the AgNPs triggers aggregation of the particles thereby diminishing the surface significantly. The method was applied for the assay of PA in pharmaceutical preparations.

A fully automated sequential injection system was tested in terms of its application in liberation testing, and capabilities and limitations were discussed for clotrimazole liberation from three semisolid formulations. An evaluation based on kinetic profiles obtained in short and longer sampling intervals and steady-state flux values were applied as traditional methods. The obtained clotrimazole liberation profile was faster in the case of Delcore and slower for Clotrimazol AL and Canesten cream commercial formulations. The steady-state flux values for the tested formulations were 52 µg cm−2 h−1 for Canesten, 35 µg cm−2 h−1 for Clotrimazol AL, and 7.2 µg cm−2 h−1 for Delcore measured in 4 min sampling intervals. A simplified approach for the evaluation of the initial rate based on the gradient between the second and third sampling points was used for the first time and was found to correspond well with the results of the conventional methods. A comparison based on the ratio of the steady-state flux and the initial rate values for Canesten and Clotrimazol AL proved the similarity of the obtained results. The proposed alternative was successfully implemented for the comparison of short-term kinetic profiles. Consequently, a faster and simpler approach for dissolution/liberation testing can be used.

Aristolochic acid-I (AA-I) is commonly present as a natural product in medicinal plants such as Asarum and Radix aristolochiae. The misuse of some slimming products and dietary, supplements containing AA-I as a regulator has been reported to cause cancer, acute hepatitis and renal failure. Hence, quality control and quantification of AA-I in these products at a trace level are significantly necessary. In this approach, a simple and accurate sequential injection analysis (SIA) chemiluminescence (CL) detection method was employed for AA-I determination. Gold nanoparticles were used to enhance the CL signal of luminol-ferricyanide-AA-I reaction. The results showed that the proposed method displayed linear relationship of 10–20,000 ng mL−1, (r = 0.9992) with 10 and 3 ng mL−1 as the minimum quantification and detection limits, respectively. The possible interferences such as some common metals, additives and related pharmacological action compounds were tested. The recorded SIA-CL results were statistically assessed and compared to those obtained from other published methods.

This paper describes for the first time the automation of immobilized metal affinity chromatography by sequential injection analysis. A generic poly(glycidyl methacrylate-co-ethylene dimethacrylate) monolith was synthesized by thermal free radical polymerization inside a 2.1 mm inner diameter activated fused silica-lined stainless steel tubing and then modified with iminodiacetate (IDA) onto which Cu(II) was immobilized. The retention mechanism controlled by metal ion affinity was verified for proteins such as ovalbumin and myoglobin. These proteins were unretained in the monolith modified only with IDA using a mobile phase composed of 20 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) and 0.50 M NaCl. On the other hand, ovalbumin and myoglobin were retained in the monolith to which Cu(II) was immobilized and elution was achieved only following the addition of imidazole to the mobile phase. The sequential injection strategy created a fast gradient by mutual dispersion of three mobile phases containing imidazole at concentrations of 10, 20, and 50 mM, which enabled the efficient separation of cytochrome C, ribonuclease A, and myoglobin. The proposed methodology may be useful to isolate proteins from complex matrices as demonstrated by the separation of ovalbumin and lysozyme from unretained compounds in an egg-white sample. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lactate is usually present in human blood at very low concentrations and its production occurs under hypoxic conditions. However, lactate is considered to be a signalling molecule promoting specific immune inflammatory responses since its level increases according to the grade of inflammation. In this work, we developed an automatic system based on sequential injection analysis (SIA) to determine the lactate concentrations in human samples. The reaction is based on the conversion of lactate to pyruvate by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in the presence of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) that is converted to reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), a fluorescent compound. The effects of several parameters on the reactions were tested, such as reagent concentration, volume, aspiration order, and reaction time, and the best ones were selected to maximise accuracy and quickness in the execution of the enzymatic assay. Finally, the methodology presented detection and quantification limits of 0.193 mM and 0.642 mM, respectively, allowing accurate and reliable quantification of lactate in human plasma samples. This work confirmed the potential of the SIA system as a simple, versatile, robust, and rapid analytical tool for automating the determination of lactate levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Flow analysis methodologies began in the 1950s. Flow injection methodologies originated in the 1970s. This review focuses on FIA related developments. Early injection analysis reports included the Nagy, Feher, and Pungor system in which they injected an electroactive sample into an electrolyte stream, and used a magnetic stirrer to ensure complete mixing. White and Fitzgerald injected a sample over a 20 sec. period into a carrier reagent stream. Sarbeck, St. John, and Winefordner injected a microsample into a carrier stream for introduction into atomic spectrometers. Bergmeyer and Hagen injected samples into a circulating enzymatic reagent stream, obtaining step signals. Stewart, Beecher, and Hare injected discrete samples into a carrier stream, using a long mixing coil to ensure complete chemical reaction. Ruzicka and Hansen injected samples into a rapidly flowing carrier stream, without the need for steady-state reaction/ reading, being characterized by controlled dispersion and reproducible timing. They termed this Flow Injection Analysis. New generations include sequential injection analysis and lab-on-valve. Japanese researchers were early adopters of FIA technology, and formed the Japanese Association for Flow Injection Analysis (JAFIA) and the Journal of Flow Injection Analysis (JFIA). Two conferences are devoted to flow analysis methodologies: the International Conference on Flow Analysis (FA) and the International Conference on Flow Injection Analysis (ICFIA). These developments are reviewed in detail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]