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Abstract The most poisonous fish species found along the Brazilian coast is the spotted scorpionfish Scorpaena plumieri. Though hardly ever life-threatening to humans, envenomation by S. plumieri can be quite hazardous, provoking extreme pain and imposing significant socioeconomic costs, as the victims may require days to weeks to recover from their injuries. In this review we will walk the reader through the biological features that distinguish this species as well as the current epidemiological knowledge related to the envenomation and its consequences. But above all, we will discuss the challenges involved in the biochemical characterization of the S. plumieri venom and its compounds, focusing then on the successful isolation and pharmacological analysis of some of the bioactive molecules responsible for the effects observed upon envenomation as well as on experimental models. Despite the achievement of considerable progress, much remains to be done, particularly in relation to the non-proteinaceous components of the venom. Therefore, further studies are necessary in order to provide a more complete picture of the venom’s chemical composition and physiological effects. Given that fish venoms remain considerably less studied when compared to terrestrial venoms, the exploration of their full potential opens a myriad of possibilities for the development of new drug leads and tools for elucidating the complex physiological processes.

Abstract: The Scorpaena plumieri fish venom induces a severe pain and edema, observed both clinically and experimentally. In order to understand more about the envenomation syndrome, the present study characterized experimentally the local acute inflammatory response induced by S. plumieri venom (SpV) in a mouse model of tissue injury. Our results demonstrated that the local inflammatory response provoked after 2 h of SpV injection in footpad of mice is characterized by release of pivotal pro-inflammatory mediators (TNF, IL-6 and MCP-1). These mediators could be associated with histopathological changes observed into paw tissue, characterized by cellular infiltration, mainly neutrophils. Additionally, an investigation of edema formation pathways involved in inflammatory response was performed. SpV-induced edema was reduced significantly by previous administration of aprotinin or icatibant (HOE-140). However, the pre-treatment with diclofenac sodium and promethazine had less effect on this response. These results demonstrate that the kallikrein-kinin system (KKS) plays a major role in the edema formation. Despite the whole venom hydrolyzed the kallikrein synthetic substrate S-2302 (Pro-Phe-Arg-pNA), its main pro-inflammatory fraction was devoid of kininogenase activity. Our results demonstrate that SpV evokes a complex inflammatory reaction stimulating a secretion of TNF, IL-6, MCP-1 and leukocytes recruitment at the site of venom injection. In addition provide clear evidence of the involvement of the KKS in inflammatory response induced by S. plumieri venom. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Scorpaena plumieri venomous fish inflicted severe injuries in humans characterized by systemic effects and cardiovascular abnormalities. Although cardiotoxic and hypotensive effects induced in rats by this venom have been studied, little is known about their effect on bronchial epithelial permeability and airway inflammation in mice. The primary goal of this study was to determine whether the intraplantar or intraperitoneal injection of S. plumieri venom results in systemic response, and whether this event initiates acute lung injury. We found that BALB/c mice developed neutrophilic infiltrates, areas of lung hemorrhage and alveolar macrophage activation within 24h after injection with S. plumieri venom. These histopathological changes were associated with an early increase in BAL fluid protein and early induction of cytokines, chemokines and matrix metaloproteinases, followed by a later increase in BAL fluid neutrophils. These findings provide clear evidence that the injection of S. plumieri venom in footpad or peritoneal cavity of mice results in venom deposition in the airway and initiates a sustained inflammatory response in the lungs. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The most poisonous fish species found along the Brazilian coast is the spotted scorpionfish Scorpaena plumieri . Though hardly ever life-threatening to humans, envenomation by S. plumieri can be quite hazardous, provoking extreme pain and imposing significant socioeconomic costs, as the victims may require days to weeks to recover from their injuries. In this review we will walk the reader through the biological features that distinguish this species as well as the current epidemiological knowledge related to the envenomation and its consequences. But above all, we will discuss the challenges involved in the biochemical characterization of the S. plumieri venom and its compounds, focusing then on the successful isolation and pharmacological analysis of some of the bioactive molecules responsible for the effects observed upon envenomation as well as on experimental models. Despite the achievement of considerable progress, much remains to be done, particularly in relation to the non-proteinaceous components of the venom. Therefore, further studies are necessary in order to provide a more complete picture of the venom's chemical composition and physiological effects. Given that fish venoms remain considerably less studied when compared to terrestrial venoms, the exploration of their full potential opens a myriad of possibilities for the development of new drug leads and tools for elucidating the complex physiological processes.