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Abstract:Research has found the early onset of sexual activity (having sexual intercourse before age 13) among adolescents to be related to teen pregnancy and a range of health-risk behaviors and higher rates of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and HIV/AIDS. These findings are most prevalent in urban African American adolescents. Using a sample of 299 sexually active African American adolescents living in public housing developments in a large Northeast and a large Mid-Atlantic city, this study assesses the influence of family, peers, and the individual on the age of onset of sexual intercourse. All participants completed surveys in their housing developments. Results indicate an average age of onset of 14. Males reported a significantly younger age of onset and more sexual partners than females. Exposure to delinquent peers and self-efficacy were significant predictors of age of onset. Implications for practice are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Health promotion behaviors were examined in a sample of low-income, Black and Latino women. Latino women were more likely than Black women to eat a daily breakfast; sleep 7-8 hours per night and abstain from alcohol and tobacco use. Black women were more likely to be eating vegetables on a regular basis and exercising at least once per week. The results suggest that low-income Latino women may need to increase their consumption of vegetables and frequency of exercise. Among Black women, a wider range of healthy lifestyle behaviors, such as sleeping eight hours per night, eating a daily breakfast and decreasing alcohol and tobacco consumption may need to be emphasized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE: The author reviews selected findings on the behavioral risk factors for exposure to HIV among women of color and the social, psychological, and cultural factors that may be related to these risks and to the use of condoms. The potential value of empowerment models of AIDS intervention for women of color is examined. OBSERVATIONS: The most common routes of exposure to HIV for women of color are intravenously injected drug use and prostitution related to drug use. A woman's risk for exposure to HIV is related to her ability to protect herself by negotiating a safe sexual relationship with a partner. Women who feel powerless in their relationships are less likely to protect themselves against HIV exposure. These perceptions of powerlessness are the result of a broad array of experiences that may include secondary status, exposure to violence, restricted economic opportunities, and experiences of racism and oppression. CONCLUSIONS: Research on primary and secondary prevention of HIV infection in women of color must acknowledge and address the multiple determinants of health and risk behaviors in research paradigms and methodologies that assess women's risk in relationship to race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the associations between different types of violence victimization and psychological functioning in South African adolescents. Both differential and cumulative effects of violence were investigated. A multi-ethnic (Black, White, people of mixed heritage, and people of Indian/Asian descent) sample of adolescents in secondary schools in the Western Cape Province ( N = 1,574; boys = 46.5%, girls = 53.5%; M age = 16 years) completed a survey on their experiences of exposure to violence (across different contexts and polyvictimization) and their levels of hopelessness, anxiety, depression, perceived stress, and suicidal ideation. The results showed that indirect and direct victimization in the community, and indirect political victimization were consistent predictors for adverse psychological functioning, whereas victimization in home and school contexts did not emerge to be significant. Polyvictimization had a consistent linear effect on psychological symptoms. Interventions in South Africa should focus on addressing the psychological effects of community and political victimization on adolescents. Adopting a holistic treatment approach would be useful to gain a comprehensive understanding of adolescents' victimization experiences and maximize the impact of support to enhance their psychological functioning.

Objective: The association between violence exposure and health risk behaviours in South African adolescents, and the moderating role of emotion dysregulation were investigated. Design: A multi-ethnic sample of adolescents ( N  = 925: boy: 47.3%, girl: 52.7%, M age = 16 years, SD  = 1.54) completed a survey. Main outcome measures: Violence exposure across different contexts (home-, school-, community-, political victimisation), emotion dysregulation (inability to regulate sadness and anger) and a composite measure of health risk behaviours (smoking, substance use, risky sexual behaviour) were examined. Results: Boys reported more risk behaviours than girls, t (844) = 5.25, p  < 0.001. Direct community victimisation was a predictor for boys' risk behaviours, B  = 0.22, p  < 0.001. Indirect school victimisation and direct community victimisation were predictors for girls' risk behaviours, B 's = 0.19, p' s < 0.01. Girls reported higher emotion dysregulation than boys, t (748) = -2.95, p  < 0.01. Only for girls, emotion dysregulation moderated the associations of indirect home victimisation, B  = 16, p  < 0.01, and direct community victimisation, B  = 15, p  < 0.05, with risk behaviours. Conclusion: Interventions may target emotion regulation skills, particularly for girls, to enhance resilience to the negative effects of violence on behaviours.

Objectives: Researchers have found a link between neighborhood risk factors and youth risk behaviors. However, the pathways by which this occurs remain poorly understood. This study sought to test a hypothesized pathway that suggests the influence of neighborhood risk on sexual risk and substance use among urban African American youth may operate indirectly via their psychological outlook about current and future opportunities., Method: Secondary data analysis using structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the conceptual framework. The sample included 592 African American youth (61% female, 39% male) mean age 15.58 years, 1.23 SD. A modified structural equation model (SEM) met prespecified global fit index criteria., Results: The model contained 3 indirect paths linking increased neighborhood risk to increased sexual risk and substance use through higher levels of negative psychological outlook and youth approval of substance use., Conclusions: These findings increase our understanding of factors that influence the initiation and progression of substance use and sexual risk behaviors among urban African American adolescents. (PsycINFO Database Record, ((c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved).)

To examine the context of sexual assault and postassault actions and consequences among women attending historically Black colleges or universities (HBCUs), web-based surveys were administered in November 2008 to 3,951 undergraduate women attending four HBCUs. Data on the context in which assaults occurred were generated for women who had been sexually assaulted since entering college (n = 358). Multivariate models were run on the full sample to examine the association between sexual assault and symptoms of depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Results indicated that most survivors were assaulted by assailants well known to them and when the survivor and perpetrator were drinking alcohol. Very few survivors disclosed their experiences to formal sources of support. Survivors had significantly more symptoms of depression and were more likely to screen positive for PTSD than nonvictims. Further research on disclosure and its moderating role on the mental health consequences of sexual assault is needed.

Sexual coercion by males poses important ethical, legal and public health challenges. Individual face-to-face structured interviews were conducted among 1656 men who had undergone male initiation and circumcision in rural areas of the Eastern Cape Province. Overall, 8.4 per cent of the participants reported ever having forced someone to have sex. Logistic regression adjusting for age, working status, education level and nation of origin showed that participants that expressed high cultural affiliation were significantly less likely to sexually coerce someone. The findings suggest that emphasizing cultural commitment may reduce sexual coercion, though findings need to be replicated.

Juvenile crime and violent victimization continue to be significant social problems (Fitzpatrick, Piko, Wright, & LaGory, 2005); in that, adolescents, females in particular, are likely to participate in health related risk behaviors as result of having been victimized or exposed to a violent environment. Specifically, abuse, neglect, sexual molestation, poverty, and witnessing violence are well known risk factors for the development of trauma-related psychopathology and poor outcomes relative to delinquency, drug and alcohol abuse, and HIV risk behaviors (Steiner, Garcia, & Matthews, 1997). HIV infection is a common public health concern disproportionally affecting adolescent African American female detainees. This unique population has a serious history of violence exposure, which subsequently tends to lead to engaging in risky sexual behaviors, mental health problems, and abusing substances. Also, as a result of little to no intervention, this population is recidivating at an alarming rate, a problem that may further exacerbate the expression of health-related risk behaviors among African American adolescent female detainees. The authors briefly describe a pilot program to be implemented in the juvenile justice system that is based on the Model of Accumulated Risk (Garbarino, 1996), Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model (1994), and the Positive Youth Justice Model (Butts, Bazemore, & Meroe, 2009). The program proposes to reduce risky sexual behaviors, teach alternatives to abusing substances, treat mental health concerns, and reduce the rate of recidivism through "positive youth development", PYD (Butts, Bazemore, & Meroe, 2009). Tying elements of wraparound services and reeducation together, this program addresses salient concerns that may have an impact on an adolescent detainees' success following their release from prison in a holistic manner.

Urban, minority, adolescent mothers are particularly vulnerable to violence exposure, which may increase their children's developmental risk through maternal depression and negative parenting. The current study tests a conceptual model of the effects of community and contextual violence exposure on the mental health and parenting of young, African-American mothers living in Washington, DC. A path analysis revealed significant direct effects of witnessed and experienced violence on mothers' depressive symptoms and general aggression. Experiences of discrimination were also associated with increased depressive symptoms. Moreover, there were significant indirect effects of mothers' violence exposure on disciplinary practices through depression and aggression. These findings highlight the range of violence young African-American mothers are exposed to and how these experiences affect their mental health, particularly depressive symptoms, and thus disciplinary practices., (Copyright 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

A child's sense of control over life and health outcomes as well as perceptions of the world as fair, equal, and just are significantly influenced by his or her social experiences and environment. Unfortunately, the social environment for many children of color includes personal and family experiences of racial discrimination that foster perceptions of powerlessness, inequality, and injustice. In turn, these perceptions may influence child health outcomes and disparities by affecting biological functioning (eg, cardiovascular and immune function) and the quality of the parent-child relationship and promoting psychological distress (eg, self-efficacy, depression, anger) that can be associated with risk-taking and unhealthy behaviors. In this article we review existing theoretical models and empirical studies of the impact of racial discrimination on the health and development of children of color in the United States. On the basis of this literature, a conceptual model of exposure to racial discrimination as a chronic stressor and a risk factor for poor health outcomes and child health disparities is presented.

This article reviews and examines findings on the impact of racial discrimination on the development and functioning of children of color in the US. Based on current definitions of violence and child maltreatment, exposure to racial discrimination should be considered as a form of violence that can significantly impact child outcomes and limit the ability of parents and communities to provide support that promotes resiliency and optimal child development. In this article, a conceptual model of the effects of racial discrimination in children of color is presented. The model posits that exposure to racial discrimination may be a chronic source of trauma in the lives of many children of color that negatively influences mental and physical outcomes as well as parent and community support and functioning. Concurrent exposure to other forms of violence, including domestic, interpersonal and/or community violence, may exacerbate these effects. The impact of a potential continuum of violence exposure for children of color in the US and the need for future research and theoretical models on children's exposure to violence that attend to the impact of racial discrimination on child outcomes are discussed.

Objective: Children of adolescent mothers are at increased risk of violence exposure and behavior problems, which have been linked to mothers' disciplinary practices. This study examines how the effect of young African American mothers' discipline on their preschool-age children's externalizing and internalizing behavior varies by mother and child violence exposure., Methods: A sample of 230 African American mothers who gave birth as adolescents and their 3- to 6-year-old children were recruited from community-based day care and primary health care sites in the Washington, DC, metropolitan region. In-person interviews were conducted by trained research assistants who administered standard survey instruments., Results: Hierarchical regression models revealed an interaction effect such that adolescent mothers' harsh disciplinary practices, specifically physical discipline strategies, were positively associated with young children's internalizing and externalizing behavior in the context of high or moderate, but not low, maternal violence exposure., Conclusions: Compared with less violence-exposed mothers, the harsh disciplinary practices of young African American mothers who have been exposed to high levels of violence are more strongly associated with their children's problem behavior. Practitioners should screen mothers for violence exposure in order to address potential issues of discipline and behavior problems.

This article examines relationships among social inequality, drug use, and HIV risk for women of color in the United States and South Africa. In the first section, social and cultural factors that may place women of color at risk for drug use and exposure to HIV are identified. In the second section, lessons learned while developing HIV prevention research protocols for women of color in South Africa are presented and discussed. Experience suggests that to effectively address women's risks of drug use and AIDS requires specific theoretical models and methodological approaches that acknowledge the critical interface that may exist among social inequality, drug use, and AIDS risk for women worldwide. Successful HIV prevention and intervention programs for women of color worldwide also require international research partnerships that are based on mutual respect between partners and attention to the needs and priorities of the target populations.

This study examined the factor structure of the Preschool Behavior Questionnaire in a sample of African-American, Euro-American, Asian, and Hispanic children. The sample consisted of 304 children (141 boys, 163 girls) 3- and 4-yr.-old and enrolled in Head Start. A principal component analysis with a varimax rotation was conducted and two- and three-factor solutions were extracted. A two-factor solution produced a clear interpretive structure representing Fowler and Park's 1979 Aggressive-Hyperactive-Distractible and Anxious-Fearful factors. Even though a three-factor solution was statistically appropriate, extracting more than two factors yielded dimensions difficult to interpret. Examination of subscale differences among ethnic groups indicated significant group effect for ethnicity. Further examination showed that Euro-American children are rated significantly higher on the Anxious subtest than Latino, African-American, and Asian children, but there were no other subscale differences. Clinical and research implications are discussed.

Objective: The present study was designed to examine the extent to which ethnic differences in the circumstances of abuse would be related to psychological outcomes and whether the relationship of ethnicity to psychological outcomes would be independent of ethnic differences in the circumstances of abuse., Method: Ethnic difference in the circumstances of the abuse, depression, and anger, as measured by the Children's Depression Inventory and the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory, were assessed in 60 Black and Latino sexually abused males aged 13 to 18 years. Factors related to levels of depression and anger in these two groups were also identified., Results: Latino males were more likely to have been sexually abused by an extended family member, experienced more genital fondling and were exposed to more sexually abusive behaviors. Blacks were more likely to be abused by an immediate family member. Black males had higher anger scores than Latino males, but, there were no ethnic differences in depression scores. Both ethnicity and the relationship to the perpetrator were significantly related to scores on the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory, however, ethnicity was also significantly related to anger scores irrespective of the relationship to the perpetrator., Conclusions: Ethnic differences in the circumstances of abuse were related to psychological outcome and the relationship of ethnicity to anger scores was independent of ethnic differences in the circumstances of abuse.

Background: Factors associated with practicing five health promotion behaviors (sleeping 7-8 hours per night, eating break-fast, exercising three times per week, and abstaining from alcohol and tobacco use) were identified in 243 low-income Black and Latina women whose children were enrolled in Head Start programs in South Central Los Angeles., Methods: Based on previous studies, interviews with community leaders and health personnel, and focus groups with community residents, I designed and administered surveys to identify correlates of health promotion behaviors. We assessed demographic variables; knowledge, attitudes, and perceived barriers to health promotion behaviors; perceived susceptibility to disease and efficacy in determining health outcome; social and family support for health promotion; sources of health promotion information; interactions with health care providers; and quality of life in the community., Results: Being Latina, having a low perceived susceptibility to cancer, and using leaflets and flyers as sources of health promotion information were associated with practicing more health promotion behaviors. Exposure to violence (having a family member killed) and perceptions of community health care workers as uncaring were associated with practicing fewer health promotion behaviors., Conclusion: These findings suggest that a range of factors may be related to healthy and unhealthy lifestyles in low-income, ethnic minority women and that environmental stressors, such as exposure to violence, may significantly affect health promotion behavior in these groups.

Purpose: The purpose of this review is to identify and examine relationships between exposure to violence and health promotion behaviors in low-income black and Latino groups., Design: Based on computer surveys of the psychologic, public health, medical, and sociologic literature, approximately 90 previous studies of the impact of exposure to violence on psychologic functioning, perceptions of health and well-being, and health decisions and behavior were identified. This article reviews those studies that examine the relationships between experiences of violence and subsequent feelings of alienation, powerlessness, and hopelessness, and perceptions of health and well-being and studies that examine relationships between alienation, hopelessness, and powerlessness and health promotion behaviors. Studies of health promotion behavior that did not examine or address the impact of exposure to violence are not reviewed in this article., Results: Violence affects low-income communities directly by contributing to rates of mortality, and indirectly by affecting health promotion behaviors. Exposure to violence can result in feelings of powerlessness, hopelessness, and alienation that significantly limit motivation, the extent of involvement, and persistence in overcoming barriers to health promotion behavior., Conclusions: Future researchers must consider the confounding effects of exposure to violence when investigating differences in health promotion behaviors for low-income black and Latino groups. Community empowerment programs that address the impact of violence and focus on developing control over life and health outcomes may be needed to successfully address the effect of violence on health promotion behavior in low-income, black and Latino communities.

Psychological assessments were conducted for Black and Latino sexually abused girls aged 8 to 13 years. Latino girls received significantly higher scores for depression than the Black girls. These differences in depression appeared to be related to ethnic differences in the circumstances of the abuse. Latino girls were abused at a younger age; more likely to be abused by a relative; and more likely to have had a sibling abused. Latinos were also more likely to report high levels of family conflict and somewhat lower levels of maternal support. Ethnicity was also found to be related to psychological functioning independently of the impact of other factors such as the circumstances of the abuse. Cultural and social factors that may influence psychological functioning subsequent to sexual abuse among Black and Latino girls are identified and discussed.

Background: Few factors related to healthy or unhealthy eating habits in low-income, ethnic minority groups have been identified. In this study, factors associated with healthy and unhealthy eating habits and intent to change eating habits were examined in a sample of low-income Black and Latino women., Methods: Survey questionnaires designed to identify correlates of healthy eating habits were administered to 243 Black and Latino women whose children were enrolled in Head Start programs in South Central Los Angeles., Results: Having health insurance, lower perceived susceptibility to cancer, and higher levels of social support were significantly related to healthy eating habits. Exposure to domestic violence, lower income and knowledge of risk factors, and lower perceived efficacy in changing health outcome were associated with lower levels of intent to change eating habits., Conclusions: Economic factors such as insurance coverage and level of social support should be considered in evaluating and addressing eating habits in low-income, ethnic minority women. Exposure to domestic violence and self-efficacy may also be related to intent to change eating habits in these groups.