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Zoonotic nematodes of the genus Trichinella are foodborne parasites that have a global distribution in wild carnivores and omnivores, with spillover and spillback into domestic livestock and people, with concomitant trade and health consequences. Historically, most human cases were linked to domestic pigs infected with Trichinella spiralis, but under current high biosecurity swine production in many countries, wildlife have become a more important source of human trichinellosis. The aim of this review is to update the global distribution of Trichinella species and genotypes reported in wildlife, as well as reported human outbreaks from the consumption of wildlife. Using several online databases and by “snowballing” references, hundreds of reports of Trichinella spp. in wildlife published between January 1991 and December 2023 provide an important update to the host and geographic range for each of the recognized 13 species/genotypes, grouped by continent. Surveillance effort was highest in Europe and North America, while Africa, Asia, Oceania, Central and South America have had limited surveillance, in some instances with human cases serving as sentinels of transmission in a region. Dozens of human outbreaks are described, with wild boars (Sus scrofa) being the most frequently implicated wildlife species in human outbreaks globally. Bears are an important source of infection in North America, for wildlife tourism, and importation of bear meat has also been implicated in multicountry outbreaks. The largest study limitation was the dearth of molecular identification of larvae in both wildlife surveillance studies and human outbreaks, particulary in under-studied regions. We highlight the need for enhanced molecular epidemiological approaches to outbreaks of this important foodborne parasite, and emphasize the need for a One Health approach to manage Trichinella spp. which transmit among terrestrial and marine wildlife (including migratory birds), pigs, horses, and people, often across large geographic scales and borders.

The systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted to determine the estimates of the prevalence and infection rates of natural and experimental infections of amphistome species in intermediate host snails (IHs) across different continents. A search of peer-reviewed literature on natural and experimental infections of freshwater snails with amphistome species was conducted from four electronic databases from 1984 to 2023. The estimates of the prevalence and/or infection rates were based on 36 eligible peer-reviewed articles, which met the inclusion criteria and reported on natural and experimental infections of amphistome species in freshwater snails. The results showed that a total of 1,67,081 snail species from the peer-reviewed articles were examined for natural infections and 7,659 snail species for experimental infections. The overall pooled prevalence of amphistome infections from naturally infected snails was 2% (95% CI: 0–4), while the overall pooled prevalence of amphistome infections from infections was 40% (95% CI: 18–64). The highest pooled prevalence of natural infection was 3%, which was recorded in Europe (95% CI: 1–7%). The highest overall prevalence of naturally infected amphistome was 6% (95% CI: 0–20%) for Paramphistomum epiclitum. The Americas had the highest pooled prevalence of experimental amphistome infection among freshwater snails (66%; 95% CI: 26–96%). The highest pooled infection rate of 65% (95% CI: 12–100%) was recorded for Paramphistomum cervi in experimental infections. Galba truncatula was the only snail that qualified for meta-analysis for natural infection with Calicophoron daubneyi, with a pooled prevalence of 3% (95% CI: 1–8%). Galba truncatula infected with C. daubneyi and P. cervi, and Bulinus tropicus infected with Calicophoron microbothrium in the experimental infection qualified for the meta-analysis, with an overall infection rate of 66% (95% CI: 34–92%) and 30% (95% CI: 0–74%), respectively. The pooled prevalence of amphistome species infection in the intermediate host (IH) snails based on detection techniques was higher with PCR compared to the dissection and shedding of cercariae. The results from the quality effects model revealed a high heterogeneity and publication bias between studies. This meta-analysis provided valuable insights into the prevalence and infection rates of amphistome species in snail IHs across different geographical regions.

This review summarizes published records on the prevalence, species diversity, geographical distribution, mixed infections, co-infections with other trematodes and intermediate hosts (IHs) of amphistomes (rumen flukes) of wild ruminants in Africa. Literature search was conducted on Google Scholar, PubMed and JSTOR, using a combination of predetermined search terms and Boolean operators. Of the 54 African countries searched, results showed that occurrence of amphistome infections in wild ruminants have only been reported in 23 countries. A total of 38 amphistome species consisting of the following 11 genera were recorded, viz Bilatorchis, Calicophoron, Carmyerius, Choerecotyloides, Cotylophoron, Explanatum, Gastrothylax, Gigantocotyle, Leiperocotyle, Paramphistomum and Stephanopharynx. These were recorded in 39 wild ruminant species, belonging to the Bovidae family. The genus Carmyerius recorded the highest number of species (n = 13) across nine countries Africa. However, Calicophoron species (n = 9) were more widely distributed, occurring in 17 countries across all regions of Africa. Species of this genus collectively infected 27 wild ruminant species. However, at a species level, Cotylophoron cotylophorum infected the highest number of wild ruminant species. Prevalence of infection based on post-mortem examination ranged from 1.89% in African Buffalo to 100% in Defassa waterbuck from Egypt and Zambia, respectively. The most common mixed infections recorded were those between amphistomes of the same or different genus. Snail intermediate hosts (IHs) were described for 10/38 amphistome species, and these were predominantly species from Plarnobidae family. Despite the richness in diversity of amphistomes infecting wild ruminants in Africa, there is need to further confirm identity of snail IHs and the amphistome species using both morphological and molecular techniques. Furthermore, more studies are recommended to assess the burden of amphistomosis in commercially reared wildlife/game farming, mixed game and livestock farming systems in Africa.

Human strongyloidiasis is an important neglected tropical disease primarily caused by the nematode Strongyloides stercoralis, and to a lesser extent Strongyloides fuelleborni which mainly infects non-human primates. Zoonotic sources of infection have important implications for control and prevention of morbidity and mortality caused by strongyloidiasis. Recent molecular evidence suggests that for S. fuelleborni, primate host specificity is variable among genotypes across the Old World, and consequently that these types likely vary in their capacity for human spillover infections. Populations of free-roaming vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops sabaeus), introduced to the Caribbean Island of Staint Kitts from Africa, live in close contact with humans, and concern has arisen regarding their potential to serve as reservoirs of zoonotic infections. In this study, we sought to determine the genotypes of S. fuelleborni infecting St. Kitts vervets to explore whether they are potential reservoirs for human-infecting S. fuelleborni types. Fecal specimens were collected from St. Kitts vervets and S. fuelleborni infections were confirmed microscopically and by PCR. Strongyloides fuelleborni genotypes were determined from positive fecal specimens using an Illumina amplicon sequencing-based genotyping approach targeting the mitochondrial cox1 locus and 18S rDNA hypervariable regions I and IV of Strongyloides species. Phylogenetic analysis of resultant genotypes supported that S. fuelleborni from St. Kitts vervets is of an exclusively African variety, falling within the same monophyletic group as an isolate which has been detected previously in a naturally infected human from Guinea-Bissau. This observation highlights that St. Kitts vervets may serve as potential reservoirs for zoonotic S. fuelleborni infection, which warrants further exploration.

This study aimed at determining the identity of freshwater snails collected from selected water habitats frequented by wildlife as source of drinking water in the Matebeleland region of Zimbabwe and further screening the identified snails for natural infections with amphistomes using PCR. A total of 487 freshwater snails were collected from six areas in the Matebeleland region of Zimbabwe for identification and screening of amphistome infection. Eight freshwater snail species were morphologically identified and Biomphalaria pfeifferi, Bul. tropicus, Bul. truncatus, Bul. globosus, and L. (R.) natalensis were confirmed using the COI gene. Bulinus tropicus and Phy. acuta were the most abundant species at 33.9% (165/487) and 31.2% (155/487), respectively. DNA of amphistome was detected in 11.9% (58/487) of the collected snails. The highest infection rate was detected in Bul. globosus (44.4%). West Nicholson recorded the highest infection rate (33.9%), and infection was not detected in L. (R.) natalensis, Phy. acuta, and Bellamya spp. Amphistome DNA from M. tuberculata was successfully sequenced and identified as Calicophoron microbothrium. An additional band was detected in M. tuberculata, Bul. tropicus, and Bul. trancatus, which showed a 96.42% similarity to Paragonimus sp. sequence in the GenBank.

Abstract Background Schistosomiasis is known to affect the cognitive functions of children, however, but there is paucity of information on its impact on early childhood development in developing countries where the disease is endemic. This study aimed at determining the effects of schistosomiasis due to Schistosoma haematobium on early childhood development in children below 5 years old from Murewa District, Zimbabwe, including the benefits of treatment. Methods Preschool age children (PSAC) under the age of 5 years were screened at baseline and at 6 months post-treatment for S. haematobium infections diagnosed using the urine filtration method. Cognitive domains were assessed using the Griffith Mental Developmental Scales III on 136 PSAC. Multivariate logistic regression was used to determine the level of association between S. haematobium infection and performance in the cognitive domains adjusting for confounding factors (i.e. nutrition, hemoglobin levels, gender and age). Median Development Quotient scores of each cognitive domain at baseline and at 6 months post-treatment were compared and quantified. Results After adjusting for confounding factors, PSAC infected with S. haematobium had greater odds of having lower scores in the Foundation of Learning Domain (OR = 3.9, p = 0.008), Language and Communication Domain (OR = 3.2, p = 0.017), Eye-Hand Coordination Domains (OR = 10.7, p = 0.001), Personal-Social-Emotional Domain (19.3, p = 0.001) and in the Overall General Development Domain (7.2, p = 0.011). Improvement of cognitive performance was observed at 6 months post treatment in the following Domains; Language and Communication Domain (p = 0.003), Eye-Hand Coordination Domain (p = 0.02) and General Development Domain (p = 0.006). Conclusion The study showed that S. haematobium infection in PSAC is associated with lower cognitive scores in the Foundation of Learning, Language and Communication, Eye-Hand Coordination, Personal-Social-Emotional and in the Overall General Development domains. Our results strengthen the call for inclusion of PSAC in routine deworming programs for the control of urinary schistosomiasis and the need to develop locally validated tools to monitor early child development in endemic areas where resources are limited.

Besnoitiosis is a parasitic disease of economic importance caused by cyst-forming protozoa from the genus Besnoitia. The disease affects the skin, subcutis, blood vessels, and mucous membranes of the animals. It is traditionally endemic in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world, and causes enormous economic loss associated with impaired productivity and reproduction, as well as skin lesions. Therefore, knowledge of the epidemiology of the disease, including the current Besnoitia species occurring in sub-Saharan Africa, the wide range of mammalian species hosts they use as intermediate hosts, and the clinical signs manifested by infected animals is crucial in developing effective prevention and control measures. This review collected information from peer-reviewed publications involving the epidemiology and clinical signs of besnoitiosis in sub-Saharan Africa using four electronic databases. Results showed that B. besnoiti, B. bennetti, B. caprae, B. darlingi-like and unidentified Besnoitia spp. were found naturally infecting livestock and wildlife across nine reviewed sub-Saharan African countries. Besnoitia besnoiti was the most common species, occurring in all nine reviewed countries, and utilised a wide range of mammalian species as intermediate hosts. Prevalence of B. besnoiti ranged from 2.0 to 80.3%, and B. caprae 5.45–46.53%. Infection rate was high with serology compared to other techniques. Some of the typical signs of besnoitiosis included sand-like cysts on the sclera conjunctiva, nodules in the skin, thickening and wrinkling of the skin and alopecia. Inflammation, thickening and wrinkling of the scrotum were observed in bulls, and lesions on the scrotum deteriorated progressively and became generalized in some cases in spite of treatment. There is still a need for surveys focusing on detecting and identifying Besnoitia spp. using molecular techniques in combination with serological, histology and visual observation, and scoping their natural intermediate and definitive hosts, as well as assessing the burden of the disease animals reared on different husbandry systems in sub-Saharan Africa.

BackgroundCognitive function is negatively impacted by schistosomiasis and might be caused by systemic inflammation which has been hypothesized to be one of the mechanisms driving cognitive decline, This study explored the association of systemic inflammatory biomarkers; interleukin (IL)-10, IL-6, IL-17, transforming growth factor (TGF-β), tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), C-reactive protein (CRP) and hematological parameters with cognitive performance of preschool-aged children (PSAC) from an Schistosoma haematobium endemic areaMethodsThe Griffith III tool was used to measure the cognitive performance of 136 PSAC. Whole blood and sera were collected and used to quantify levels of IL-10, TNF-α, IL-6, TGF-β, IL-17 A and CRP using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and hematological parameters using the hematology analyzer. Spearman correlation analysis was used to determine the relationship between each inflammatory biomarker and cognitive performance. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to determine whether systemic inflammation due to S. haematobium infection affected cognitive performance in PSAC.ResultsHigher levels of TNF-α and IL-6, were correlated with lower performance in the Foundations of Learning domain (r = -0.30; p < 0.001 and r = -0.26; p < 0.001), respectively. Low cognitive performance in the Eye-Hand-Coordination Domain was observed in PSAC with high levels of the following inflammatory biomarkers that showed negative correlations to performance; TNF-α (r = -0.26; p < 0.001), IL-6 (r = -0.29; p < 0.001), IL-10 (r = -0.18; p < 0.04), WBC (r = -0.29; p < 0.001), neutrophils (r = -0.21; p = 0.01) and lymphocytes (r = -0.25; p = 0.003) The General Development Domain correlated with TNF-α (r = -0.28; p < 0.001) and IL-6 (r = -0.30; p < 0.001). TGF-β, L-17A and MXD had no significant correlations to performance in any of the cognitive domains. The overall general development of PSAC was negatively impacted by S. haematobium infections (OR = 7.6; p = 0.008) and (OR = 5.6; p = 0.03) where the PSAC had higher levels of TNF-α and IL-6 respectively.ConclusionSystemic inflammation and S. haematobium infections are negatively associated with cognitive function. We recommend the inclusion of PSAC into mass drug treatment programs.

BackgroundThe study aimed to estimate the burden of ticks and tick-borne diseases (TBDs) among rural cattle-keeping households of the Eastern Cape province of South Africa using Productivity Adjusted Life Years (PALYs). We modified Disability Adjusted Life Year (DALY) equations for humans to PALYs to estimate the societal burden of tick-borne animal diseases. Whilst the World Health Organization has indicated the adaptability of DALYs to assess burden of animal diseases, nothing has been done in this regard. This could be due to several reasons including that the assessment of animal disease burden is often less of a priority compared to human diseases, particularly in low- and middle-income countries where resources may be limited. As a result, less funding and attention may be given to developing and implementing PALYs for animal diseases. Furthermore, technical and conceptual challenges may be associated with applying DALYs equations to animal diseases, such as determining appropriate measures of productivity loss for different types and categories of animals and diseases. This motivated our study, which is focused on modelling the burden of ticks and TBDs in cattle (cows, oxen and bulls) reared in resource-poor settings.MethodWe formulated a PALYs approach for cattle populations by adapting the DALYs approach to assess the burden of ticks and TBDs for cattle populations in 20 villages in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. PALYs is a measurement used to assess the burden of disease in cattle populations, quantifying the years of life lost due to premature mortality and disability. It encompasses years of life lost due to premature mortality (YLL) and years lost due to disability (YLD) caused by health conditions. PALYs provide a comprehensive perspective on the effective number of years lost due to disability and premature death in cattle populations. The PALYs model involves several parameters that are examined to understand their impact on the model's behavior. To illustrate this, we used a structured questionnaire to collect data on parameters that feed into PALY equations. We coded and entered data from questionnaires directly into Statistical Package of Social Sciences (IBM SPSS Version 20) and entered the estimated values of PALY parameters to calculate PALYs equations, which were to estimate the societal disease burden of ticks and TBDs in cattle. PALYs calculations were done in three categories; PALYs without discounting and age weighting, PALYs with only discounting, and PALYs with discounting and age weighting in a practical example to study how these parameters influence the outcomes of the PALYs model.ResultsOur results revealed that the years of productivity lost by a cow, bull, and ox that suffered from ticks and TBDs could be estimated at various disability weights. Approximately 26%, 23% and 35% of the productivity years of a cow, ox and bull, respectively, reared by resource-poor livestock owners are lost due to the burden of ticks and TBDs in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. However, introducing tick control measures reduces the loss to approximately 3%, 2% and 3% of their lifespan productivity, an indication that tick control will save approximately 23%, 21% and 32% of years of the productive life of cows, oxen and bulls, respectively. Therefore, it is evident that using ticks and TBD prevention measures at an early age of cattle will improve cattle productivity and hence the socioeconomic welfare of resource-poor rural farming communities in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa.ConclusionThe findings generated from the PALYs approach are helpful in projections for the future burden of any livestock disease. They may be used as a basis in policy formulation and decision-making by various stakeholders, and hence a priority in animal health economics. We recommend that a classification of livestock diseases of national economic importance should consider both the societal burden (non-monetary) and economic impact instead of the common practice of only considering the economic (monetary) impact. Adding a societal burden measure to existing economic measures provides a holistic understanding of the impact of a disease on society especially in resource-limited settings where the livestock value goes beyond monetary value.

This review collated existing data on the occurrence, distribution, and prevalence of haemoparasites of poultry in sub-Saharan Africa. A literature search was conducted on three electronic search databases using search terms and Boolean operators (AND, OR). The results recorded 16 haemoparasites, viz., Leucocytozoon spp., L. marchouxi, L. neavei, L. sabrazesi, L. schoutedeni, Haemoproteus columbae, H. pratasi, Haemoproteus spp., Plasmodium spp., P. gallinaceum, P. circumflexum, P. juxtanucleare, Trypanosoma avium, T. gallinarum, T. numidae, and Hepatozoon spp. from a wide range of poultry species distributed across Nigeria, Kenya, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Ghana, Cameroon, and Zambia. Infections due to Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon species were the most common and documented in eight of the ten reviewed countries. The presence of mixed infections was observed in quails, pigeons, chickens, ducks, turkeys, and guineafowls, but predominantly in chickens. Co-infections by Plasmodium spp. and Haemoproteus spp. were the most common, which may be attributed to the distribution of these species, coupled with the availability of vectors they are associated with in areas from which they were documented. The information generated in this review is essential for improving existing preventive and control measures of these parasites in sub-Saharan Africa.

ABSTRACT: Free-range chickens are predisposed to diverse parasitic infections during scavenging. Accurate identification of these parasites using morphological characters has been a challenge. Therefore, this study aimed to identify nematodes from the Heterakidae and Ascarididae family infecting free-ranging chickens from KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa using a combination of morphological and molecular techniques. Forty-two free-ranging adult indigenous chickens were purchased from randomly selected households in Shongweni (n=12), Umzinto (n=10), Gingindlovu (n=10) and Ozwathini (n=10) rural villages and examined for nematodes of the Heterakidae and Ascarididae family. Collected specimen were identified morphologically and confirmed using mitochondrial and nuclear ribosomal markers. Results showed that Ascaridia galli was common, occurring at all sampling locations with an overall prevalence of 58.3%, while Heterakis gallinarum and H. beramporia occurred in three locations. Ascaridia galli had high prevalence in Shongweni (58.3%), followed by Gingindlovu (40%), Ozwathini (20%) and Umzinto (10%). Heterakis gallinarum infection was prevalent in three locations, with an overall prevalence of 90% in Gingindlovu, 80% in Ozwathini and 58.3 % in Shongweni. Heterakis gallinarum and H. beramporia were not recorded in Umzinto. Heterakis beramporia was recorded in low prevalence in Gingindlovu (20%), Ozwathini (10%) and Shongweni (8.3%) villages. Mixed infections of A. galli and H. gallinarum were recorded in Gingindlovu, Ozwathini and Shongweni, and H. gallinarum and H. beramporia in Gingindlovu. Molecular analysis confirmed identification of A. galli, and further showed close relationship with the GenBank-derived South African isolates. Haplotype network further confirmed their ancestral history, where all South African A. galli isolates formed five novel haplotypes corresponding with the structure of the phylogenetic tree. Similar structure was observed with Heterakis isolates, where analysis of the cox1 gene showed that H. gallinarum formed a well-supported monophyletic clade with other Heterakis species. The ITS marker identified three specimens from Gingindlovu, Ozwathini and Shongweni as H. beramporia, which formed strongly supported sister clade to H. indica and this is the first report confirming the occurrence of H. beramporia in South Africa.

This review was conducted to provide an update on the status of the occurrence of Fasciola species in livestock, wildlife and humans, and the geographical distribution of snail intermediate host (IH) species in South Africa. The literature search was conducted on four electronic databases using the Boolean operators in combination with predetermined search terms for thematic analysis. Results showed that Fasciola species have been reported in six out of nine provinces of South Africa in the last six decades (1960–2021), with both F. hepatica and F. gigantica infecting vertebrate hosts and F. hepatica and Fasciola spp infecting humans. Results also showed that most studies relied on morphological identification of eggs and flukes without molecular confirmation, which might have led to the misidentification of specimens, especially when immature. Fasciola hepatica has been documented in Limpopo, Mpumalanga, and KwaZulu-Natal provinces. The occurrences of Galba truncatula as the probable snail IH for F. hepatica in the three provinces has been documented while Pseudosuccinea columella has only been documented in Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces. The occurrence of F. gigantica to date has been reported in Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces, with overlapping distribution with F. hepatica. Radix natalensis, the main IH of F. gigantica has been documented in all the three provinces, while the two alien Radix species (R. auricularia and R. rubiginosa) were documented in KwaZulu-Natal province and have been implicated elsewhere with the transmission of F. gigantica. The presence of Fasciola spp eggs and antibodies in humans were documented in the Eastern Cape and the Western Cape provinces, where both P. columella and G. truncatula are known to be present. The prevalence of Fasciola spp infection in livestock ranged from 9.1 to 37.67 %, with an estimated annual financial loss ranging from R44930.26-129901 in cattle production in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. This review reaffirms the scarcity of information on the occurrence and burden of fasciolosis in South Africa, and further highlights the importance of future research covering all provinces of the country and assessing the public health significance of the disease in resource-poor livestock communities in the areas where the parasite is endemic.

Background Plasmodium falciparum and tissue dwelling helminth parasites are endemic in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The geographical overlap in co-infection is a common phenomenon. However, there is continued paucity of information on how the co-infection influence the blood glucose and insulin profiles in the infected host. Animal models are ideal to elucidate effects of co-infection on disease outcomes and hence, blood glucose, insulin and glycogen profiles were assessed in Sprague-Dawley rats co-infected with P. berghei ANKA (Pb) and Trichinella zimbabwensis (Tz), a tissue-dwelling nematode. Methods One-hundred-and-sixty-eight male Sprague-Dawley rats (weight range 90–150 g) were randomly divided into four separate experimental groups: Control (n = 42), Pb-infected (n = 42), Tz-infected (n = 42) and Pb- + Tz-infected group (n = 42). Measurement of Pb parasitaemia was done daily throughout the experimental study period for the Pb and the Pb + Tz group. Blood glucose was recorded every third day in all experimental groups throughout the experimental study period. Liver and skeletal muscle samples were harvested, snap frozen for determination of glycogen concentration. Results Results showed that Tz mono-infection and Tz + Pb co-infection did not have blood glucose lowering effect in the host as expected. This points to other possible mechanisms through which tissue-dwelling parasites up-regulate the glucose store without decreasing the blood glucose concentration as exhibited by the absence of hypoglycaemia in Tz + Pb co-infection group. Hypoinsulinemia and an increase in liver glycogen content was observed in Tz mono-infection and Tz + Pb co-infection groups of which the triggering mechanism remains unclear. Conclusions To get more insights into how glucose, insulin and glycogen profiles are affected during plasmodium-helminths co-infections, further studies are recommended where other tissue-dwelling helminths such as Taenia taeniformis which has strobilocercus as the metacestode in the liver to mimic infections such as hydatid disease in humans are used.

Abstract Background African tick bite fever (ATBF) caused by Rickettsia africae and transmitted by Amblyomma spp. ticks is one of the zoonotic tick-borne fevers from the spotted fever group (SFG) of rickettsiae, which is an emerging global health concern. There is paucity of information regarding the occurrence and awareness of the disease in endemic rural livestock farming communities living in livestock-wildlife interface areas in South Africa. Methods The purpose of the study was to assess the level of knowledge, attitudes and practices on ticks and ATBF infection from a community living in livestock-wildlife interface areas in South Africa. A focus group discussion (FGD) was carried out followed by verbal administration of a standardized semi-structured questionnaire a month later to 38 rural livestock farmers (23 from Caquba area and 15 from Lucingweni area where A. hebraeum was absent). An FGD was conducted in Caquba (situated at the livestock-wildlife interface where Amblyomma hebraeum was prevalent on cattle and infected with Rickettsia africae) in the O.R. Tambo district of the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. Results Results from the FGD and questionnaire survey showed that participants from the two rural communities were not aware of ATBF and were not aware that ticks are vectors of the disease. Respondents from Caquba reported of having frequent exposure to tick bites (91.3%, 21/23) specifically from the anthropophilic A. hebrauem which they were able to identify as Qwelagqibe in IsiXhosa (their vernacular). Thirteen out of 15 (86.7%) of respondents from Lucingweni reported that they had never been bitten by ticks, which corresponded with the absence of A. hebraeum from their locality as evidenced from results of a concurrent study on prevalence of ticks on livestock in the area. Both communities confirmed to being “very concerned” of tick bites and we presume this was more related to the localized wounds from the bites than to the diseases transmitted by the ticks. Conclusions We recommend future studies encompassing seroprevalence of ATBF in Caquba and other communities at risk in South Africa including establishing surveillance systems to monitor the seasonal infection rates in ticks, cattle and humans.

Abstract Background Schsistosomiasis is endemic in sub-Saharan Africa. It is transmitted by intermediate host snails such as Bulinus and Biomphalaria. An understanding of the abundance and distribution of snail vectors is important in designing control strategies. This study describes the spatial and seasonal variation of B. globosus and Bio. pfeifferi and their schistosome infection rates between May 2014 and May 2015 in Ingwavuma, uMkhanyakude district, KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa. Methods Snail sampling was done on 16 sites once every month by two people for 30 min at each site using the scooping and handpicking methods. Snails collected from each site were screened for schistosome mammalian cercariae by the shedding method. The negative binomial generalised linear mixed model (glmm) was used to determine the relationship between abundances of the intermediate host snails and climatic factors [rainfall, land surface temperatures (LST), seasons, habitats, sampling sites and water physico-chemical parameters including pH and dissolved oxygen (DO)]. Results In total, 1846 schistosomiasis intermediate host snails were collected during the study period. Biompharia pfeifferi was more abundant (53.36%, n = 985) compared to B. globosus (46.64%, n = 861). Bulinus globosus was recorded at 12 sites (75%) and Bio. pfeifferi was present at 7 sites (43.8%). Biompharia pfeifferi cohabited with B. globosus at all the sites it was present. High numbers of Bio. pfeifferi (n = 872, 88.5%) and B. globosus (n = 705, 81.9%) were found between winter and mid-spring. Monthly rainfall showed a statistically significant negative relationship with the abundance of B. globosus (p

Background: Psidium guajava is a medicinal plant with antidiabetic properties and can be found growing in tropical and sub-tropical countries around the world. Purpose: The aim of the present study was to investigate the anti-diabetic potential of Psidium guajava leaf in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats, with particular focus on key enzymes of glycogen metabolism in skeletal muscle. Study design: The study design involved preparation of an aqueous Psidium guajava leaf extract; investigation of its effect on muscle glycogen synthase and phosphorylase activities and possible protective effect on pancreas in streptozotocin induced diabetic male Sprague-Dawley rats and phytochemical study of the extract to identify further compounds with anti-diabetic potential. Method: Diabetes was induced in male Sprague-Dawley rats with a single intraperitoneal injection of 40 mg/kg streptozotocin. Normal and diabetic animals were treated with 400 mg/kg body weight of Psidium guajava leaves aqueous extract for a period of 14 days. Results: The treatment of diabetic animals with the Psidium guajava extract ameliorated damage to the pancreatic islets and enhanced lowering of blood glucose following a glucose load. Diabetes significantly decreased (P 0.5) and treatment of both diabetic and normal animals with the extract reduced activity of the enzyme. The Psidium guajava extract also reduced glycogen phosphorylase expression in diabetic animals. Skeletal muscle glycogen content reduced by diabetes was increased as a result of treatment of diabetic animals with the Psidium guajava extract. Phytochemical analysis of the aqueous extract of Psidium guajava using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy indicated the presence of triterpenes and phenolic compounds and we also report what we believe are three new compounds. Conclusion: The results from this study suggest that the antidiabetic effects of Psidium guajava may be due to modulation of glycogen metabolism mediated by phenolic compounds and triterpenes present in the extract.

The use of forensic entomology is well established in the northern hemisphere, but is still emerging in the southern hemisphere, where most of the current research is not explicitly undertaken in the context of forensics. In this review, we provide an update on the current status of forensic entomology research and its application in relation to estimation of post-mortem interval in various criminal investigations ranging from murder cases, cases of human neglect and the poaching of wildlife in southern Africa, among other issues. A literature search was conducted using Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus and EBSCOhost databases. The studies reviewed were focused on arthropod diversity during different stages of carcass decomposition, effect of seasons on the abundance and diversity of carrion feeding arthropod species during carcass decomposition, and diurnal and nocturnal oviposition of forensically important insect species during carcass decomposition. It was further observed that arthropod species that established on a decomposing carcass are potentially useful in the estimation of post-mortem interval and determining clues in cases of criminal investigations. The review confirmed the paucity of research in forensic entomology, and its application in southern Africa. Future studies on the research and application of forensic entomology in various criminal investigation scenarios – such as murder cases, human neglect, and wildlife poaching in southern Africa – are therefore needed. Significance: Forensic entomology research and its application is lagging in southern Africa. There is seasonal variation in the arthropod species used for estimation of post-mortem intervals in southern Africa. Identification of arthropod species diversity in the region has potential for application in forensic investigations.

Abstract Background Globally, Taenia solium can cause cysticercosis in humans (including neurocysticercosis) and in pigs through ingestion of eggs and taeniasis in humans through ingestion of raw/undercooked pork contaminated with mature cysts. It is now recognised globally as one of the most prevalent food-borne parasitic diseases. The majority of cases have been reported in developing countries where consumption of food produced under unhygienic conditions is prevalent, exacerbated by lack of food safety education. The aim of this study was to determine the knowledge and practices of consumers towards pork safety in two districts of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, where T. solium cysticercosis is endemic in pigs and humans. Methods Three-hundred-and-sixty-one (361) participants were conveniently interviewed on consumer knowledge (harmfulness of T. solium cysticercosis, ability to identify cysts, trustworthiness of registered butcheries and legal requirements) and practices (storage of pork and method(s) of cooking pork safely) through a structured questionnaire. Chi-square for association of variables was used to compare differences in the districts. Results Overall, 73.1% of the study group from both districts agreed that pork forms an important part of their diet. Consumers (54.2%: 189/349) agreed that pork infected with T. solium cysts could be harmful, and 57.3% (188/328) indicated their inability to identify T. solium cysts in pork when slaughtered at home. Although 69.5% (234/352) trusted pork bought from butcheries, only 52.2% (187/358) were aware that butcheries must present a registration certificate in order to operate. This coincides with the fact that very few (

Roads are expensive to develop particularly in challenging environmental conditions, and a lack of understanding of the properties of soil can lead to poor design and premature failures contributing to costly maintenance. The construction industry is exploring new opportunities involving biological processes and products to modify the structural properties of the in situ material, in terms of strength, volume stability, durability and permeability. Through an integrative interdisciplinary approach several microorganisms and other existing bio-enzymatic products such as secondary metabolites, enzymes, endospores, and extracellular polymeric substances have been considered as possible alternatives to conventional methods for the development of sustainable road infrastructure. Limitations in the current state of technology to developing bio-based solutions include microorganism selection and the ability to evaluate derivative components in rapid structural tests that enhance the time to development of proper commercial products. This study focused on the testing of fermentation derived components of biological materials in a high-throughput manner, using miniaturised structural tests to validate screening and selection methodology. The methods tested included resistance to abrasion, resistance to erosion, water absorption and resistance to compression load. Unique miniaturised test equipment was successfully developed using computer-aided design (CAD) and 3D printing technologies. Effects were measured to enable the rapid evaluation of a target microorganism and for screening of biological components or fractions. Results obtained using a Bacillus isolate reported in the current study exhibit strength characteristics and can potentially be formulated as a product for soil stabilisation. This work forms the basis for in vitro selection methodology to enhance development of bio-based structural materials for application in the road sector. Keywords: Bacillus species, Construction industry, Biological additives, In situ material, Road sector, Soil stabiliser

Functional foods are essential food products that possess health-promoting properties for the treatment of infectious diseases. In addition, they provide energy and nutrients, which are required for growth and survival. They occur as prebiotics or dietary supplements, including oligosaccharides, processed foods, and herbal products. However, oligosaccharides are more efficiently recognized and utilized, as they play a fundamental role as functional ingredients with great potential to improve health in comparison to other dietary supplements. They are low molecular weight carbohydrates with a low degree of polymerization. They occur as fructooligosaccharide (FOS), inulooligosaccharadie (IOS), and xylooligosaccahride (XOS), depending on their monosaccharide units. Oligosaccharides are produced by acid or chemical hydrolysis. However, this technique is liable to several drawbacks, including inulin precipitation, high processing temperature, low yields, and high production costs. As a consequence, the application of microbial enzymes for oligosaccharide production is recognized as a promising strategy. Microbial enzymatic production of FOS and IOS occurs by submerged or solid-state fermentation in the presence of suitable substrates (sucrose, inulin) and catalyzed by fructosyltransferases and inulinases. Incorporation of FOS and IOS enriches the rheological and physiological characteristics of foods. They are used as low cariogenic sugar substitutes, suitable for diabetics, and as prebiotics, probiotics and nutraceutical compounds. In addition, these oligosaccharides are employed as anticancer, antioxidant agents and aid in mineral absorption, lipid metabolism, immune regulation etc. This review, therefore, focuses on the occurrence, physico-chemical characteristics, and microbial enzymatic synthesis of FOS and IOS from coprophilous fungi. In addition, the potential health benefits of these oligosaccharides were discussed in detail.

Trichomonas tenax is a flagellated protozoan parasite found in the oral cavities of humans and animals and has been associated with periodontal disease, the most prevalent inflammatory disease affecting them all. Studies have shown that T. tenax can cause damage to mammalian cells and secretes virulent proteins, such as cysteine. It is presently considered zoonotic. Despite the few studies that have been done, the pathogenicity of this oral protozoan is still not fully understood. A database search was performed in July 2022 using PubMed and Google Scholar to retrieve data eligible for this study. PRISMA-ScR guidelines were followed to conduct this scoping review. A total of 321 articles were found with 87 included in this review after applying the exclusion criteria. Due to its increasing prevalence worldwide in both humans and dogs, detecting and elucidating the pathogenicity of this parasite is paramount for effective global control and prevention of periodontal disease. However, there is a paucity in the literature on this neglected zoonotic trichomonad, which is in large contrast to the closely related human pathogen T. vaginalis. Here, we comprehensively review the history, morphology and reproduction, host, prevalence, diagnosis, pathogenicity, control, and prevention of T. tenax. Hopefully, this article will call attention to both medical and veterinary professionals as well as epidemiologists on this most neglected and zoonotic protozoan. More epidemiological and clinical studies need to be conducted on T. tenax to gain a better understanding of its pathogenicity, to increase the chances of developing effective drugs to aid in the control of this oral parasite, and reduce the spread of periodontal disease worldwide.

The current study aimed at molecular identification and comparing the diversity of arthropods communities between pig and sheep carcasses during the cold and warm season in KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. Adult arthropods found on and around the carcasses were collected using either fly traps or forceps. Molecular analyses confirmed the identification of twelve arthropod species collected from both sheep and pig carcasses during the cold season. Results showed that 11 of 12 arthropod species were common in both sheep and pig carcasses, with exception to Onthophagus vacca (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) (Linnaeus, 1767) and Atherigona soccata (Diptera: Muscidae) (Rondani, 1871) species which were unique to sheep and pig carcasses respectively. However, during the warm season, the sheep carcass attracted more arthropod (n = 13) species as compared to the pig carcass. The difference in the obtained arthropod was due to the presence of O. vacca which was also unique to the sheep carcass during this season. Furthermore, there was an addition of a beetle species Hycleus lunatus (Coleoptera: Meloidae) (Pallas, 1782), which was collected from both sheep and pig carcasses but unique to the warm season. The pig carcass attracted more dipteran flies during both warm (n = 1,519) and cold season (n = 779) as compared to sheep carcass during the warm (n = 511) and cold season (n = 229). In contrast, coleopterans were more abundant on the sheep carcass during the warm season (n = 391) and cold season (n = 135) as compared to the pig carcass in both warm season (n = 261) and cold season (n = 114). In overall, more flies and beetles were collected on both sheep and pig carcasses during the warm season, and this further highlight that temperature influenced the observed difference in the abundance of collected arthropod between seasons.

The occurrence of Fasciola gigantica and F. hepatica in Africa is well documented; however, unlike in Asia, there is a paucity of information on the existence of hybrids or parthenogenetic species on the continent. Nonetheless, these hybrid species may have beneficial characteristics, such as increased host range and pathogenicity. This study provides evidence of the potential existence of Fasciola hybrids in Africa. A literature search of articles published between 1980 and 2022 was conducted in PubMed, Google Scholar, and Science Direct using a combination of search terms and Boolean operators. Fasciola species were documented in 26 African countries with F. hepatica being restricted to 12 countries, whilst F. gigantica occurred in 24 countries, identified based on morphological features of adult Fasciola specimens or eggs and molecular techniques. The co-occurrence of both species was reported in 11 countries. However, the occurrence of potential Fasciola hybrids was only confirmed in Egypt and Chad but is suspected in South Africa and Zimbabwe. These were identified based on liver fluke morphometrics, assessment of the sperms in the seminal vesicle, and molecular techniques. The occurrence of intermediate host snails Galba truncatula and Radix natalensis was reported in Ethiopia, Egypt, South Africa, Tanzania, and Uganda, where F. hepatica and F. gigantica co-occurrences were reported. The invasive Pseudosuccinea columella snails naturally infected with F. gigantica were documented in South Africa and Egypt. In Zimbabwe, P. columella was infected with a presumed parthenogenetic Fasciola. This suggests that the invasive species might also be contributing to the overlapping distributions of the two Fasciola species since it can transmit both species. Notwithstanding the limited studies in Africa, the potential existence of Fasciola hybrids in Africa is real and might mimic scenarios in Asia, where parthenogenetic Fasciola exist in most Asian countries. In South Africa, aspermic F. hepatica and Fasciola sp. have been reported already, and Fasciola hybrids have been reported? in Chad and Egypt. Thus, the authors recommend future surveys using molecular markers recommended to identify Fasciola spp. and their snail intermediate hosts to demarcate areas of overlapping distribution where Fasciola hybrids and/or parthenogenetic Fasciola may occur. Further studies should also be conducted to determine the presence and role of P. columella in the transmission of Fasciola spp. in these geographical overlaps to help prevent parasite spillbacks.

Prosobranch snails and adult Paramphistomoidea flukes were collected from water bodies and cattle abattoir located in Mpumalanga province of South Africa, respectively. The snails were identified based on morphological characters as well as the ITS-2 and 16S markers as Melanoides sp. and Tarebia granifera, respectively, and the Paramphistomoidea flukes were identified as Calicophoron microbothrium using the ITS-1/5.8S/ITS-2 marker. After confirming identification, the snails were bred to first filial generation (F1) under laboratory conditions. Ninety snails were randomly selected from the laboratory-bred F1 snails and 25 Melanoides sp. and 20 T. granifera were exposed to C. microbothrium miracidia, and the same numbers were maintained as non-exposed controls. Results showed that C. microbothrium successfully established in Melanoides sp. and produced cercariae, and the prepatent period recorded was 21 days. Three snails shed cercariae at day 21 postexposure (PE), and rediae and free cercariae were detected in the soft tissues of one snail on dissection at day 44 PE. The same fluke did not establish in T. granifera. Melanoides sp. started producing offspring at day 7 PE, and T. granifera at day 14 PE. In conclusion, our results showed that Melanoides sp. used in this study is a suitable intermediate host for C. microbothrium under experimental conditions, and given the wide distribution of this snail species, it is important to determine its role in the natural transmission of other Calicophoron species that have been reported in South Africa.

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disease induced by the inability to control high blood glucose level. Helminth-induced immunomodulation has been reported to prevent or delay the onset of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), which, in turn, ameliorates insulin sensitivity. Therefore, there is a need to understand the underlying mechanisms utilized by helminths in metabolism and the induction of immuno-inflammatory responses during helminthic infection and T2DM comorbidity. This study aimed at using a laboratory animal model to determine the cytokines, chemokines and haematological indices in diabetic (T2DM) male Sprague Dawley (SD) rats infected with Trichinella zimbabwensis. One hundred and two male SD rats (160–180 g) were randomly selected into three experimental groups (i. T2DM-induced group (D) ii. T. zimbabwensis infected + T2DM group (TzD) and iii. T. zimbabwensis-infected group (Tz)). Rats selected for the D group and TzD group were injected with 40 mg/kg live weight of streptozotocin (STZ) intraperitoneally to induce T2DM, while animals in the Tz and TzD group were infected with T. zimbabwensis. Results showed that adult T. zimbabwensis worm loads and mean T. zimbabwensis larvae per gram (lpg) of rat muscle were significantly higher (p < 0.001) in the Tz group when compared to the TzD group. Blood glucose levels in the D group were significantly higher (p < 0.001) compared to the TzD group. An increase in insulin concentration was observed among the TzD group when compared to the D group. Liver and muscle glycogen decreased in the D when compared to the TzD group. A significant increase (p < 0.05) in red blood cells (RBCs) was observed in the D group when compared to the TzD and Tz groups. An increase in haematocrit, haemoglobin, white blood cells (WBCs), platelet, neutrophils and monocyte were observed in the D group when compared to the TzD group. TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-10 and IL-13 concentrations were elevated in the TzD group when compared to the D and Tz groups, while IL-6 concentration showed a significant reduction in the Tz when compared to the D and the TzD groups. A significant increase in CCL5 in the D and TzD groups was observed in comparison to the Tz group. CXCL10 and CCL11 concentration also showed an increase in the TzD group in comparison to the Tz and the D groups. Overall, our results confirm that T. zimbabwensis, a parasite which produces tissue-dwelling larvae in the host, regulates T2DM driven inflammation to mediate a positive protective effect against T2DM outcomes.

Fish are generally known to change their nutritional requirements depending on their life stage and formulating feeds for different size groups to meet their dietary needs is essential. This study aimed to assess the potential of Crocodylus niloticus meat meal as an animal protein source replacing fishmeal in Oreochromis mossambicus diets. Ten fry (0.07 g fish−1) were randomly assigned to three formulated diets (0% (D1), 50% (D2), and 100% (D3)), and each diet had three replicates. The fry were fed 10% body weight per day (BWd−1) for 30 days. New diets (0% (D4), 50% (D5), and 100% (D6)) were introduced, and the feeding rate was reduced to 5% BWd−1 for 48 days. After that, the fish were fed 2% BWd−1 for 78 days, the same diets used for fingerlings. All size groups were fed two portions of their daily ration at 10:30 h and 15:30 h. Our results point to the suggestion that Crocodylus niloticus meat meal may replace fishmeal for Oreochromis mossambicus, as there were no significant differences in weight gain (G), specific growth rates (SGR), gross feed conversion ratios (GFCR), or protein efficiency ratios (PER) for fry fed different diets. Furthermore, there were similarities in Gs, SGRs, GFCRs, and PER in fingerlings and sub adult to adult fish fed D4 and D5. The cost analysis of ingredients used in diets with 50% and 100% Crocodylus niloticus meat meal indicated that it was profitable to use this meat meal in diets of O. mossambicus of all groups. The profit index of 0.3 for fry, 0.8 for fingerlings, and 1.9 for subadults to adults for 100% fishmeal diets were lower than 0.4 and 0.5 for fry, 0.9 and 1.1 for fingerlings, and 2.3 and 2.9 for sub adult to adult fish fed diets with 50% and 100% crocodile meat meal, respectively.

Fasciolosis is a food- and water-borne disease caused by digenean trematode species, Fasciola hepatica and F. gigantica. They are widely distributed and infect a wide range of definitive hosts, causing enormous economic loss due to reduced productivity in domestic ruminants. The two species have been previously reported to be co-endemic in KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga provinces of South Africa. Hybridization between the two species has been reported elsewhere. Despite the overlap of the two species in two provinces, there has been no attempt to determine the presence of the intermediate forms or hybrids. Therefore, this study aimed at morphological and molecular characterization of Fasciola spp. collected from cattle slaughtered at abattoirs located in the two provinces of South Africa, where two species are endemic. A total of 71 fluke specimens were collected cattle from abattoirs in Enhlazeni and Nelspruit in Mpumalanga province and Pietermaritzburg in KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa, and Zimbabwe (Bulawayo abattoir). Fasciola gigantica specimen collected from Zimbabwe where it has been confirmed as the only species occurring and this was used as control in the morphological and molecular assessment of the collected specimens. Of the 71 specimens collected, 37 were classified as F. hepatica, 12 as F. gigantica and 22 as Fasciola spp using morphological characters. Of these species, 11 of 37 F. hepatica and 6 of 22 Fasciola sp were found to be aspermic or having very scanty sperm. Fifteen flukes which were spermatic were all identified morphologically as F. gigantica whilst 5 flukes which were aspermic were identified morphologically as F. hepatica. Molecular analysis of the same 15 spermatic specimens confirmed the presence of F. hepatica (n = 9) and F. gigantica (n = 6) using the CO1 marker and as F. hepatica (n = 4), F. gigantica (n = 7) and Fasciola sp. (n = 1) for the same specimens using the ITS-1/5.8S/ITS-2 marker. The remaining 4 aspermic flukes (one did not resolve) were all identified morphologically as F. hepatica and molecular analysis confirmed them as F. hepatica (n = 4) by both CO1 and ITS-1/5.8S/ITS-2. Phylogenetic analysis based on both CO1 and ITS-1/5.8S/ITS-2 showed that F. hepatica species formed a moderately supported monophyletic clade with F. gigantica. Their ancestral history was further confirmed by haplotype network, which formed novel haplotypes that corresponded with the structure of the phylogenetic tree. Results from this study showed that morphological characters alone have limitations in identifying F. hepatica and F. gigantica in areas where the two species occur, although both methods confirmed the presence of F. gigantica occurring in Zimbabwe, F. hepatica in KwaZulu-Natal, and both species occurring in Mpumalanga province. Therefore, the use of morphological techniques, complemented by molecular techniques are recommended, especially in endemic areas where the two species are co-endemic.

Original article: https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2020/6065 Errors that appear in the Review Article by Tembe and Mukaratirwa are corrected here. Prof. Martin Villet (Director: Southern African Forensic Entomology Research Laboratory and Department of Zoology & Entomology, Rhodes University) is acknowledged for drawing the authors’ attention to these errors.

Schistosomiasis is a serious water-borne disease of public health importance in southern Africa and is characterised by high morbidity and negative socio-economic repercussions. Limited knowledge on the mode of transmission and treatment contribute towards increase in the risk of infection. This study assessed community knowledge levels, perceptions and the co-constructed realities of social actors with regards to schistosomiasis in rural resource-poor communities of Ndumo in South Africa and Ntalale in Zimbabwe. We hypothesised that there was association between community knowledge level on schistosomiasis and location of residency and socio-demographic factors. Two-hundred and eight questionnaires were used to gather quantitative data on socio-demographics and knowledge levels while 18 focus group discussions were used to collect qualitative data on perceptions and social constructs. The Fisher's exact and Chi-square tests were used to determine the differences in community knowledge levels based on localities, gender, religion and age. Results showed that awareness level of schistosomiasis was assessed as ‘good’ in both Ndumo (91%) and Ntalale (81%). Majority of the respondents identified schistosomiasis as a water-borne disease with significantly higher proportion in Ndumo (89%) compared to Ntalale (68%) (p = 0.005). A significant proportion of participants in both localities were aware of the symptoms of schistosomiasis especially the passing of urine with blood (82.5% in Ndumo and 77.0% in Ntalale; p = 0.039). However, presence of schistosomiasis eggs in human stool apart from urine as a sign of infection was highly acknowledged in Ntalale (57.4%) compared to Ndumo (11.7%; p

The first known severe disease caused by a coronavirus (CoV) in humans emerged with the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) epidemic in China, which killed 774 people during its 2002/2003 outbreak. The Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) was the second human fatal disease, which started in 2012 in Saudi Arabia and resulted in 858 fatalities. In December 2019, a new virus, SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19), originating from China, began generating headlines worldwide because of the unprecedented speed of its transmission; 5.2 million people were infected and 338 480 had been reported dead from December 2019 to May 2020. These human coronaviruses are believed to have an animal origin and had reached humans through species jump. Coronaviruses are well known for their high frequency of recombination and high mutation rates, allowing them to adapt to new hosts and ecological niches. This review summarises existing information on what is currently known on the role of wild and domesticated animals and discussions on whether they are the natural reservoir/amplifiers hosts or incidental hosts of CoVs. Results of experimental infection and transmission using different wild, domesticated and pet animals are also reviewed. The need for a One Health approach in implementing measures and practices is highlighted to improve human health and reduce the emergence of pandemics from these zoonotic viruses.

Trichinella zimbabwensis naturally infects a variety of reptilian and wild mammalian hosts in South Africa. Attempts have been made to experimentally infect piranha fish with T. zimbabwensis and T. papuae without success. Tigerfish (Hydrocynus vittatus) and African sharp tooth catfish (Clarias gariepinus) are accomplished predators cohabiting with Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) and Nile monitor lizards (Varanus niloticus) in southern Africa and are natural hosts of T. zimbabwensis. To assess the infectivity of T. zimbabwensis to these two hosts, 24 African sharp tooth catfish (mean live weight 581.75 ± 249.71 g) randomly divided into 5 groups were experimentally infected with 1.0 ± 0.34 T. zimbabwensis larvae per gram (lpg) of fish. Forty-one tigerfish (mean live weight 298.6 ± 99.3 g) were randomly divided for three separate trials. An additional 7 tigerfish were assessed for the presence of natural infection as controls. Results showed no adult worms or larvae of T. zimbabwensis in the gastrointestinal tract and body cavities of catfish sacrificed at day 1, 2 and 7 post-infection (p.i.). Two tigerfish from one experimental group yielded 0.1 lpg and 0.02 lpg of muscle tissue at day 26 p.i. and 28 p.i., respectively. No adult worms or larvae were detected in the fish from the remaining groups sacrificed at day 7, 21, 28, 33 and 35 p.i. and from the control group. Results from this study suggest that tigerfish could sustain T. zimbabwensis under specific yet unknown circumstances.

This Special Issue (SI) was conceptualized on the basis that success in tackling foodborne and waterborne parasites (FBP and WBP) will contribute to achievement of seven of the United Nation's Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). We chose to take a closer look at research on FBP and WBP in Africa, given that attaining these SDGs may be particularly challenging there.In this SI we present 7 articles that provide particular insights into FBP and WBP from different regions in Africa. The articles take different approaches. Three papers are reviews addressing “occurrence” (either widely, in terms of parasite and/or geography, or with focus on a specific parasite genus at a more regional level); all 3 articles emphasise the importance of a “One Health” approach regarding control and prevention of FBP and WBP, and the need for further research to fulfil the information gaps identified. Two articles then report on investigations regarding the knowledge and understanding of different communities in Africa regarding various FBP and WBP. These articles highlight lack of awareness among communities at risk, and also, perhaps of greater relevance, gaps in the knowledge of health workers regarding some FBP and WBP of public health importance. The final two articles are research articles regarding prevalence and occurrence of specific WBP, both as infections and in the environment.This SI, while limited in depth and scope, provides insights into some of the current challenges associated with FBP and WBP in Africa that might result in a lack of success regarding attainment of the previously mentioned seven SDGs. We anticipate significant advances in research on FBP and WBP in Africa, and hope that a future SI on the same topic may present a more positive picture regarding the current status and research achievements.

This study was conducted from January to October 2018 with the objective to determine the prevalence and genetic diversity of Eimeria species in broiler and free-range chickens in KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa. A total of 342 faecal samples were collected from 12 randomly selected healthy broiler chicken farms and 40 free-range chickens from 10 different locations. Faecal samples were screened for the presence of Eimeria oocysts using a standard flotation method. The species of Eimeria isolates were confirmed by amplification of the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS-1) partial region and sequences analysis. Among broiler and free-ranging chickens, 19 out of 41 pens (46.3%) and 25 out of 42 faecal samples (59.5%) were positive for Eimeria infection. Molecular detection revealed the following species: Eimeria maxima, Eimeria tenella, Eimeria acervulina, Eimeria brunetti and Eimeria mitis in all the samples screened. Similarly, polymerase chain reaction assays specific for three cryptic Eimeria operational taxonomic units were negative for all the samples. Phylogenetic analysis of the ITS-1 sequences supported species identity with the greatest variation detected for E. mitis. This study provides information on the range and identity of Eimeria species, and their genetic relatedness, circulating in commercially reared broilers and free-ranging chickens from different locations in KwaZulu-Natal province.

Malaria remains a major cause of mortality and morbidity in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and tissue-dwelling helminth parasites (TDHPs) are also prevalent in this region presenting a geographical overlap in endemicity. There is paucity of information on the specific host immune responses elicited at different phases of the life cycle by the co-infecting helminth parasites. This study aimed at using a laboratory animal model to determine selected chemokine, cytokine and hematological profiles in Sprague-Dawley rats co-infected with Plasmodium berghei ANKA (Pb) and a tissue-dwelling nematode, Trichinella zimbabwensis (Tz). One-hundred-and-sixty-eight male Sprague-Dawley rats (90–150g) were randomly divided into four experimental groups; Control (n = 42), Pb-infected (n = 42), Tz-infected (n = 42) and Pb + Tz-infected group (n = 42). Trichinella zimbabwensis infection (3 muscle larvae/g body weight per os) was done on day 0 while intra-peritoneal Pb infection (105 parasitised RBCs) was done at day 28 of the 42-day experimental study for the co-infection group which corresponded with day 0 of the Pb group on the protocol. Haematological parameters, cytokines (TNF-α, IL-10, IL-4, IL-6), chemokines (CXCL10, CCL5, CCL11) and burden of Tz adult worms and muscle larvae burden were determined as per need for each group. Results showed that Tz infection predisposed the co-infected animals towards rapid development of Pb parasitaemia during co-infection, reaching a higher peak percentage parasitaemia at day 7 post-infection than the Pb mono-infected group at day 6 post-infection. Animals in the co-infected group also exhibited severe anaemia, basophilia, neutrophilia, eosinophilia and lymphopenia at day 7 post Pb infection compared to the control groups. Significant elevation of Pb parasitaemia coincided with elevated pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α (P < 0.001), regulatory anti-inflammatory IL-10 (P < 0.001), and pro-inflammatory chemokines CXCL10 (P < 0.001) concentration in comparison to control group, at day 7 post Pb infection. Our results confirm that co-infection of Pb with Tz resulted in increased Pb parasitaemia compared to the control group in the early stages of infection and this might translate to severe malaria.

Current and future research focuses on the use of renewable technologies and materials to stabilise weak soils, of varying degrees, for road construction applications. Soil stabilisation is a method of strengthening a natural soil to meet this purpose. Our interest is in the use of bio-based components, derived from microbial growth processes, that contribute to the needed desirable strength characteristics for in situ soil stabilisation. This investigation focuses on novel Bacillus-based stabilisers obtained from the vegetative and spore growth stage. In this study, eighteen bio-based components were derived from a Bacillus licheniformis fermentation and extracted into various aqueous and non-aqueous fractions for strength property assessment. The strength properties of the treated soils (i.e., dolerite and weathered granite soil) were assessed via previously developed lab-scale equipment to rapidly pre-select the best performing fractions, (i.e., compression stress, erosion, abrasion, and water absorption tests). The effect of one superior performing prototype (a) was validated at large-scale, using standard erosion and abrasion tests (i.e., whole broth at 1.8% stabiliser concentrations), and showed resistance to abrasion (3.37 ± 0.03%) (p value ≤ 0.0001) and resistance to erosion (33.20 ± 0.15%) (p value ≤ 0.001). The elemental composition and microstructure of the bio-stabilised soil was determined using energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy, respectively. This evaluation formed part of the selection of the best performing Bacillus derived fractions and achieved a proof of concept for the next phase of product prototype development. This study demonstrated a novel bio-mediated approach to the overall criteria for evaluation and selection of candidate product prototype/s, for stabilisation of two varying soils, and for potential application in road construction works.

Background: Toxoplasma gondii is an apicomplexan parasite with zoonotic importance worldwide especially in pregnant women and immunocompromised people. This study is set to review the literature on T. gondii infections in humans and animals in southern Africa. Methods: We extracted data regarding T. gondii infections from published articles from southern Africa from 1955 to 2020 from four databases, namely Google Scholar, PubMed, EBSCO Host, and Science Direct. Forty articles from eight southern African countries were found eligible for the study. Results: This review revealed a paucity of information on T. gondii infection in southern African countries, with an overall prevalence of 17% (95% CI: 7–29%). Domestic felids had a prevalence of 29% (95% CI: 7–54%), wild felids 79% (95% CI: 60–94), canids (domestic and wild) 69% (95% CI: 38–96%), cattle 20% (95% CI: 5–39%), pigs 13% (95% CI: 1–29%), small ruminants (goats and sheep) 11% (95% CI: 0–31%), chicken and birds 22% (95% CI: 0–84%), and humans 14% (95% CI: 5–25%). Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and immunofluorescence antibody test (IFAT) constituted the most frequently used diagnostic tests for T. gondii. Conclusions: We recommend more focused studies be conducted on the epidemiology of T. gondii in the environment, food animals and human population, most especially the at-risk populations.

Abstract Background Malaria continues to be a global burden as the efficacy of most commercial anti-malarial drugs has been compromised by the evolution of parasite resistance. With the urgent need created for the development of alternative and more efficient anti-malarial drugs, this study focused on the evaluation of anti-malarial agents of the Warburgia salutaris stem bark. Methods The stem bark was extracted with dichloromethane followed by silica gel column chromatography that led to the isolation of iso-mukaadial acetate, a drimanoid sesquiterpene. This compound was characterized by spectroscopic analysis (1H NMR, 13C NMR, IR and MS), and its structure was confirmed by X-ray crystallography. In vitro anti-plasmodial activity was investigated using a chloroquine sensitive NF54 Plasmodium falciparum strain. Cytotoxicity was measured using the MTT assay on HEK239 and HEPG2 cell lines. Chloroquine-sensitive Plasmodium berghei was used to infect Sprague–Dawley rats for in vivo studies. The W. salutaris crude extract and iso-mukaadial acetate were administered orally at 0.5; 1.5, 2.5 and 5 mg/kg, chloroquine was used as the reference drug. Determination of percentage parasitaemia, haematological parameters, and rat body weights was done throughout the experimental study period. Results The crude extract and iso-mukaadial acetate showed very good activity on the inhibition of parasite growth (IC50 0.01 ± 0.30 µg/ml) and (IC50 0.44 ± 0.10 µg/ml), respectively, with iso-mukaadial acetate having cytotoxicity activity of 36.7 ± 0.8 and 119.2 ± 8.8 (µg/ml) on HEK293 and HEPG2 cells, respectively. The crude extract and iso-mukaadial acetate reduced percentage parasitaemia in a dose-dependent manner in comparison to the control. There were no significant differences in the haematological parameters in all the experimental groups in comparison to control group. This study proves that W. salutaris contains components (including iso-mukaadial acetate) that exhibit anti-malarial activity. This study scientifically validates the use of this plant in folk medicine. Conclusions This study proves that Warburgia salutaris contains components (including iso-mukaadial acetate) that exhibit anti-malarial activity and scientifically validates the use of this plant in folk medicine.

Abstract Background Schistosomiasis is a serious public health burden in sub-Saharan Africa. Praziquantel is the only drug recommended by the World Health Organization to treat both urogenital and intestinal schistosomiasis. The reliance on a single drug to treat a disease with such a huge burden has raised concerns of possible drug resistance mainly in endemic areas. This systematic review was conducted to identify gaps and recent progress on the efficacy of different regimens of praziquantel in treating schistosomiasis among children in sub-Saharan Africa where Schistosoma mansoni and S. haematobium are endemic. Main text A literature search of peer-reviewed journals was done on Google Scholar, MEDLINE (under EBSCOhost) and PubMed databases using pre-defined search terms and Boolean operators. The search included studies published from 2008 to 2017 (August) with emphasis on the efficacy of praziquantel on S. haematobium and S. mansoni infections among preschool and school children. Nineteen publications satisfied the inclusion criteria for the review. The studies reviewed were from 10 sub-Saharan African countries and 7/19 of the studies (37%) were conducted in Uganda. Seven studies (37%) focused on Schistosoma mansoni, 6/19 (31.5%) on S. haematobium and another 6 on mixed infection. A single standard dose of 40 mg/kg body weight was the most used regimen (9) followed by the repeated single standard dose assessed for efficacy at 3–4 weeks post-treatment. Conclusions A repeated standard dose of 40 mg/kg achieved satisfactory efficacy compared to a single dose against both parasite species. However, findings on efficacy of repeated doses in co-infection of S. mansoni and S. haematobium were not conclusive. Praziquantel administrated at 60 mg/kg was slightly more efficacious than the 40 mg/kg standard dose. Minor and transitory side-effects were reported for both regimens. The review indicates that further investigations are necessary to conclusively determine efficacy of praziquantel on coinfection of S. haematobium and S. mansoni to formulate concrete guidelines on the use of repeated doses at 40 or 60 mg/kg for treating schistosomiasis. We recommend the use of the egg reduction rate (ERR) formula recommended by the WHO for assessing praziquantel efficacy in order for the results to be comparable for different regions.

Objectives: To assess the efficacy of praziquantel in children infected with Schistosoma haematobium over a 2-year period in the Ndumo area of uMkhanyakude District, South Africa. Methods: This cohort study enrolled 173 school-going children in September 2017 who had participated in a baseline survey conducted in 2015 in the Ndumo area. Questionnaire interviews were conducted to collect information on the risk factors related to the transmission of schistosomiasis. The filtration technique was performed to detect Schistosoma haematobium eggs in urine. Infection intensity was classified as light or heavy. The Chi-square test was used to assess the associations between variables at the 95% confidence level, and p = 0.05 was considered significant. Results: Of the 173 participants screened 2 years post-treatment, 10 were infected. Six of these were new infection cases, while four were cases of re-infection. The intensity of infection had decreased significantly (p = 0.001) at the time of the follow-up survey compared to the baseline survey. However, no significant difference was found among the risk factors for schistosomiasis 2 years later. Conclusions: The prevalence of S. haematobium had decreased significantly in the cohort at 2 years post praziquantel treatment, during a period of persistent drought in the area. Risk factors that were significantly associated with schistosomiasis at baseline were no longer significantly associated at 2 years following treatment.

Abstract Background The speedy rate of change in the environmental and socio-economics factors may increase the incidence, prevalence and risk of schistosomiasis infections in Zambia. However, available information does not provide a comprehensive understanding of the biogeography and distribution of the disease, ecology and population dynamics of intermediate host snails. The current study used an information-theoretical approach to understand the biogeography and prevalence schistosomiasis and identified knowledge gaps that would be useful to improve policy towards surveillance and eradication of intermediate hosts snails in Zambia. Methods To summarise the existing knowledge and build on past and present experiences of schistosomiasis epidemiology for effective disease control in Zambia, a systematic search of literature for the period 2000–2017 was done on PubMed, Google Scholar and EBSCOhost. Using the key words: ‘Schistosomiasis’, ‘Biomphalaria’, ‘Bulinus’, ‘Schistosoma mansoni’, ‘Schistosoma haematobium’, and ‘Zambia’, in combination with Booleans terms ‘AND’ and ‘OR’, published reports/papers were obtained and reviewed independently for inclusion. Results Thirteen papers published in English that fulfilled the inclusion criteria were selected for the final review. The papers suggest that the risk of infection has increased over the years and this has been attributed to environmental, socio-economic and demographic factors. Furthermore, schistosomiasis is endemic in many parts of the country with infection due to Schistosoma haematobium being more prevalent than that due to S. mansoni. This review also found that S. haematobium was linked to genital lesions, thus increasing risks of contracting other diseases such as HIV and cervical cancer. Conclusions For both S. haematobium and S. mansoni, environmental, socio-economic, and demographic factors were influential in the transmission and prevalence of the disease and highlight the need for detailed knowledge on ecological modelling and mapping the distribution of the disease and intermediate host snails for effective implementation of control strategies.

Abstract Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Q fever, is a zoonotic pathogen associated with sylvatic or domestic transmission cycles, with rodents being suspected to link the two transmission cycles. Infection and subsequent disease in humans has historically been associated with contact with infected livestock, especially sheep. However, recently there have been reports of Q fever outbreaks associated with contact with infected rodents and dogs. Studies exploring the potential role of these animal hosts in the epidemiology of Q fever in many developing countries in Africa are very limited. This study aimed to determine the potential role of rodents and dogs in the epidemiological cycle of C. burnetti in Zambia. Using pathogen-specific polymerase chain reaction assays targeting the 16S rRNA gene, C. burnetii was detected for the first time in 45% of rodents (9/20), in one shrew and in 10% of domestic dogs (15/150) screened in Zambia. Phylogenetic characterization of six samples based on the isocitrate synthase gene revealed that the strains were similar to a group of isolates from chronic human Q fever patients, goats and rodents reported in multiple continents. Considering the close proximity of domestic dogs and rodents to humans, especially in resource-limited communities, the presence of C. burnetii in these animals could be of significant public health importance. It is thus important to determine the burden of Q fever in humans in such resource-limited communities where there is close contact between humans, rodents and dogs.

Environmental changes are generally known to influence the distribution and abundance of schistosome intermediate host snails (IHs). However, the influence of hydrologic changes per ser on the length of survival of schistosome IHs is not fully understood. To explore how desiccation may influence the survival of Bulinus globosus, the main IHs of Schistosoma haematobium in southern Africa, we conducted a study under laboratory conditions where snails were subjected to periods of desiccation and their survival evaluated. Desiccation period from 28 to 49 days post-draining of water was associated with an increase in mortality of 33.2 and 42.4% in large (mean shell height 7.81 ± 0.44 mm) and small (mean shell height 5.94 ± 0.68 mm) B. globosus snails, respectively. Although the duration of desiccation had no effect on the depth of burrowing, large size snails burrowed deeper into the soil than small size snails. The LT50 and LT90 of snails designated as large (7.81 ± 0.44 mm) were 73.35 ± 10.32 and 110.61 ± 21.03 days, respectively. On the other hand, LT50 and LT90 for snails designated as small (5.94 ± 0.68 mm) were 59.64 ± 8.56 and 84.19 ± 12.09 days, respectively. The survival of B. globosus during desiccation depended on the size/age of the snail where large size snails aestivate and survive for a longer period by burrowing deeper into the soil. We therefore conclude that adult B. globosus may play a significant role in habitat recolonization after a period of drought which is a common phenomenon in schistosomiasis endemic areas when population crashes.

Animal and human studies have demonstrated that helminth infections are associated with a decreased prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Lack of exposure to helminth infections has been postulated to be one mechanism to explain the markedly increased prevalence of T2DM in developed countries. However, there is still paucity of information regarding the immunological interactions between helminth infections and T2DM. The study aimed at reviewing peer-reviewed articles on host immune and pathophysiological outcomes from human and laboratory animal studies of helminth infections and T2DM comorbidity. A literature search was carried out in Google Scholar, PubMed, and EBSCOhost databases using the following keywords; immune responses OR immune modulation of helminth infections OR parasites infections AND Type 2 diabetes comorbidity in humans AND experimental/laboratory animals. Results showed that helminth infections provided some degree of protection from the pathology associated with T2DM by modulating the surrounding cytokine and chemokine milieu in humans and animals. Whilst there is some evidence regarding the protective effects of helminth infections to T2DM in cases of comorbidity, there is paucity of research in both laboratory animals and humans, with reference to the immunological and pathophysiological mechanisms which occur during comorbidity, and these constitute gaps for future research.

Variation in tick microbiota may affect pathogen acquisition and transmission but for many vector species, including Amblyomma hebraeum, components and determinants of the microbiome are unidentified. This pilot study aimed to determine baseline microbial community within A. hebraeum nymphs infected- and non-infected with Rickettsia africae from the environment, and within adult ticks infected- and non-infected with R. africae collected from cattle sampled from two locations in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. Adult A. hebraeum ticks (N = 13) and A. hebraeum nymph (N = 15) preliminary screened for R. africae were randomly selected and subjected to Illumina sequencing targeting the v3–v4 hypervariable regions of the 16S rRNA gene. No significant difference in microbial community composition, as well as rarefied OTU richness and diversity were detected between adults and nymphs. Nymphs showed a higher richness of bacterial taxa indicating blood-feeding could have resulted in loss of microbial diversity during the moulting stage from nymph to adult. Core OTUs that were in at least 50% of nymphs and adults negative and positive for Rickettsia at 1% minimum relative abundance were Rickettsia, Coxiella and Ruminococcaceae UCG-005 with a single genus Arsenophonus occurring only in nymphs negative for Rickettsia. Ehrlichia spp. was present in only four nymphal ticks positive for Rickettsia. Interestingly, Rickettsia aeschlimannii was found in one nymph and one adult, indicating the first ever detection of the species in A. hebraeum. Furthermore, A. hebraeum harboured a Coxiella-like endosymbiont, which should be investigated further as Coxiella may affect the viability and transmission of other organisms.

Abstract Background Although there has been a decline in the number of malaria cases in Zimbabwe since 2010, the disease remains the biggest public health threat in the country. Gwanda district, located in Matabeleland South Province of Zimbabwe has progressed to the malaria pre-elimination phase. The aim of this study was to determine the spatial distribution of malaria incidence at ward level for improving the planning and implementation of malaria elimination in the district. Methods The Poisson purely spatial model was used to detect malaria clusters and their properties, including relative risk and significance levels at ward level. The geographically weighted Poisson regression (GWPR) model was used to explore the potential role and significance of environmental variables [rainfall, minimum and maximum temperature, altitude, Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI), Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI), rural/urban] and malaria control strategies [indoor residual spraying (IRS) and long-lasting insecticide-treated nets (LLINs)] on the spatial patterns of malaria incidence at ward level. Results Two significant clusters (p

Abstract Background Malaria is a public health problem in Zimbabwe. Although many studies have indicated that climate change may influence the distribution of malaria, there is paucity of information on its trends and association with climatic variables in Zimbabwe. To address this shortfall, the trends of malaria incidence and its interaction with climatic variables in rural Gwanda, Zimbabwe for the period January 2005 to April 2015 was assessed. Methods Retrospective data analysis of reported cases of malaria in three selected Gwanda district rural wards (Buvuma, Ntalale and Selonga) was carried out. Data on malaria cases was collected from the district health information system and ward clinics while data on precipitation and temperature were obtained from the climate hazards group infrared precipitation with station data (CHIRPS) database and the moderate resolution imaging spectro-radiometer (MODIS) satellite data, respectively. Distributed lag non-linear models (DLNLM) were used to determine the temporal lagged association between monthly malaria incidence and monthly climatic variables. Results There were 246 confirmed malaria cases in the three wards with a mean incidence of 0.16/1000 population/month. The majority of malaria cases (95%) occurred in the > 5 years age category. The results showed no correlation between trends of clinical malaria (unconfirmed) and confirmed malaria cases in all the three study wards. There was a significant association between malaria incidence and the climatic variables in Buvuma and Selonga wards at specific lag periods. In Ntalale ward, only precipitation (1- and 3-month lag) and mean temperature (1- and 2-month lag) were significantly associated with incidence at specific lag periods (p

Background: Parasite infections of public health importance carried by Rattus spp. on the African continent (excluding toxoplasmosis) have not been adequately researched. The aim of this study was to investigate endoparasites of public health importance, particularly those associated with R. norvegicus, at different locations and seasons within the port-city, Durban. Methods: Four hundred rodents (379 R. norvegicus, 10 R. rattus and 11 Mastomys natalensis) were live-trapped at 60 sites in four locations, during wet and dry seasons in 2009. Rats were humanely euthanased, cardiac blood drawn (for blood smears and serology), ectoparasites removed and dissected. Each organ was separately processed to collect parasites. Binary logistic regression and four-way ANOVAs were used to test for the effects of location, season, rodent age and gender on parasite prevalence, richness and abundance. Results: Eight parasites of public health importance were detected: Gongylonema sp. (25.3%), Trypanosoma lewisi (22.8%), Hymenolepis diminuta (17.2%), Angiostrongylus cantonensis (15.3%), Toxoplasma gondii (11.2%), Moniliformis moniliformis (9.5%), Calodium hepaticum (2.6%) and H. nana (0.8%). Ascaris spp. (probably A. lumbricoides) ova, assumed to have been acquired from consuming infected human faeces were found in rat faeces (4.8%). Parasite species richness was positively associated with location, season and rodent age. Location, season, rat age and gender differentially affected prevalence and worm abundance of parasite species. Conclusions: These occurrence data of parasites of public health importance provide valuable information to local and provincial organisations and medical practitioners for diagnoses of possible zoonoses, and a reference point for further studies in metropolitan areas of Africa.

Background:Schistosomiasis remains a public health burden in South Africa, particularly in KwaZulu-Natal. The study aimed to identify the risk factors for transmission of Schistosoma haematobium among school-going children in the Ndumo area of uMkhanyakude district, KwaZulu-Natal. Methods: A cross-sectional study involving 320 school-going children, aged 10–15 years, was conducted in 10 local primary schools in the Ndumo area, from May to June 2015. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire based on sociodemographic information, sanitation and water access, recreational, occupational activities, and knowledge about bilharzia. A filtration technique was used to detect S. haematobium eggs in 10 ml of urine. A Chi square test, bivariate and logistic regressions were performed to assess the association between variables. Odds ratios were used to determine the strength between significant predictors with 95% confidence interval and p value 0.05. Results: From the 320 participants, 120 (37.5%) were positive for Schistosoma haematobium infection. The risk factors associated with schistosomiasis were age, household head, poor sanitation, access to water source and knowledge about schistosomiasis. Conclusion: The Ndumo area is considered a moderate zone for schistosomiasis endemicity according to the World Health Organisation (WHO) classification. The significant factors identified should be considered in designing an effective schistosomiasis control program.

Abstract Background Given that increase in temperature may alter host-parasite relationships, the anticipated rise in temperature due to global warming might change transmission patterns of certain diseases. However, the extent to which this will happen is not well understood. Methods Using a host-parasite system involving Bulinus globosus and Schistosoma haematobium, we assessed the effect of temperature on snail fecundity, growth, survival and parasite development under laboratory conditions. Results Our results show that temperature may have a non-linear effect on snail fecundity and snail growth. Snails maintained at 15.5 °C and 36.0 °C did not produce egg masses while those maintained at 25.8 °C laid 344 and 105 more egg masses than snails at 31.0 °C and 21.2 °C, respectively. Attainment of patency led to a reduction in egg mass production among the snails. However, the reduction in fecundity for snails maintained at 21.2 °C occurred before snails started shedding cercariae. Parasite development was accelerated at high temperatures with snails maintained at 31.0 °C reaching patency after three weeks. Furthermore, snail growth rate was highest at 25.8 °C while it was inhibited at 15.5 °C and reduced at 31.0 °C. Increase in temperature increased snail mortality rates. Snails maintained at 36.0 °C had the shortest survival time while those maintained at 15.5 °C had the longest survival time. Conclusions We concluded that temperature influences fecunxdity, growth, survival and parasite development in the snail and thus dictates the time it takes the parasite to complete the life cycle. This has implications on transmission of schistosomiasis in the context of global warming.