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Purpose Compare the health-related quality of life (HRQL) of the Australian general population during the COVID-19 pandemic (2020) with pre-pandemic data (2015–2016) and identify pandemic-related and demographic factors associated with poorer HRQL. Methods Participants were quota sampled from an online panel by four regions (defined by active COVID-19 case numbers); then by age and sex. Participants completed an online survey about their HRQL [EORTC QLQ-C30 questionnaire and General Health Question (GHQ)], demographic characteristics, and the impact of the pandemic on daily life. HRQL scores were compared to a 2015–2016 reference sample using independent t-tests, adjusted for multiple testing. Associations between 22 pre-specified factors (pandemic-related and demographic) and 15 QLQ-C30 domains and GHQ, were assessed with multiple regressions. Results Most domains were statistically significantly worse for the 2020 sample (n = 1898) compared to the reference sample (n = 1979), except fatigue and pain. Differences were largest for the youngest group (18–29 years) for cognitive functioning, nausea, diarrhoea, and financial difficulties. Emotional functioning was worse for 2020 participants aged 18–59, but not for those 60 +. All models were statistically significant at p Conclusion During the COVID-19 pandemic, Australians reported poorer HRQL relative to a pre-pandemic sample. Risk factors for poor HRQL outcomes included greater negative pandemic-related impacts, poorer compliance attitudes, and younger age. Trial registration ANZCTR number is: ACTRN12621001240831. Web address of your trial: https://www.anzctr.org.au/ACTRN12621001240831.aspx. Date submitted: 26/08/2021 2:56:53 PM. Date registered: 14/09/2021 9:40:31 AM. Registered by: Margaret-Ann Tait. Principal Investigator: Madeleine King.

The Parent Memory Questionnaire (PMQ) and Child Memory Questionnaire (Child MQ) assess children's memory functioning in daily activities. Their psychometric properties are largely unknown. Hence, this study aimed to establish the psychometric properties of the PMQ and Child MQ. A sample included 239 neurotypical children (113 females

IntroductionThe ability to perform optimally under pressure is critical across many occupations, including the military, first responders, and competitive sport. Despite recognition that such performance depends on a range of cognitive factors, how common these factors are across performance domains remains unclear. The current study sought to integrate existing knowledge in the performance field in the form of a transdisciplinary expert consensus on the cognitive mechanisms that underlie performance under pressure.MethodsInternational experts were recruited from four performance domains [(i) Defense; (ii) Competitive Sport; (iii) Civilian High-stakes; and (iv) Performance Neuroscience]. Experts rated constructs from the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) framework (and several expert-suggested constructs) across successive rounds, until all constructs reached consensus for inclusion or were eliminated. Finally, included constructs were ranked for their relative importance.ResultsSixty-eight experts completed the first Delphi round, with 94% of experts retained by the end of the Delphi process. The following 10 constructs reached consensus across all four panels (in order of overall ranking): (1) Attention; (2) Cognitive Control—Performance Monitoring; (3) Arousal and Regulatory Systems—Arousal; (4) Cognitive Control—Goal Selection, Updating, Representation, and Maintenance; (5) Cognitive Control—Response Selection and Inhibition/Suppression; (6) Working memory—Flexible Updating; (7) Working memory—Active Maintenance; (8) Perception and Understanding of Self—Self-knowledge; (9) Working memory—Interference Control, and (10) Expert-suggested—Shifting.DiscussionOur results identify a set of transdisciplinary neuroscience-informed constructs, validated through expert consensus. This expert consensus is critical to standardizing cognitive assessment and informing mechanism-targeted interventions in the broader field of human performance optimization.

While some individuals are able to confidently make competent choices, others make poor decisions but are unjustifiably confident. What are their individual characteristics? This study examined individual differences in cognitive and metacognitive competence and arrogance. In doing so, we determined the role of metacognitive confidence and self-monitoring in competence and arrogance. We also investigated the predictive validity of the resulting model to decision-making competence. Psychology undergraduates (N = 180) completed measures of intelligence, on-task confidence, arrogant-and dogmatic-like traits and thinking dispositions. Confirmatory Factor Analysis revealed that the most parsimonious solution was a hierarchical two-factor model defined by broad Cognitive and Metacognitive Competence and Arrogance factors. The broad Competence was defined by positive loadings from Intelligence and Confidence factors and a negative loading from the Dogmatism factor. The broad Arrogance factor was defined by positive loadings from Confidence, Arrogance, and Dogmatism factors, but no loading from the Intelligence. Therefore, the study determined that the Confidence trait loaded on both factors while a first-order Intelligence factor loaded on Competence only. Thus, while arrogant individuals were as confident as competent individuals, this confidence was not justified by their performance and ability. Moreover, Arrogance positively predicted higher bias, confidence, prediction and evaluation estimates, but not actual performance on a decision task. In contrast, the Competence factor positively predicted the accuracy of performance. Supporting and extending the Koriat’s (1997) cue utilization theory, the current results indicated that test- and (systematic) individual-specific sources of diagnostic cues underlie judgment accuracy, however, they seem to play different roles for individuals based on their relative standing within the Cognitive and Metacognitive Competence and Arrogance taxonomy. Extending Dunning et.al (2003), some “people tend to be blissfully unaware of their incompetence” and are “triply cursed” as they are also dogmatic.

Research in the area of metacognition is on the rise. Translating and applying the fruits of basic scientific results to various end-users and real-world scenarios is an increasingly important challenge for science. The field of metacognition has been a key component for the model of self-regulated learning. It has provided an important platform for translating this branch of research to educators, policymakers and learners. Nevertheless, theories and measurement models used in metacognitive research largely overlap with other fields, such as decision-making. This issue, titled ‘Applied Metacognition: Real-word applications beyond learning’, aims to inform and inspire the metacognitive research community to (occasionally) look beyond the role of metacognitive factors in self-regulated learning, to the multitude of other applied areas that can benefit end-users and real-world situations. Focusing on on-task confidence judgments, self-monitoring and evaluation, this issue includes seven empirical papers applying metacognitive models to the gamification of metacognitive assessment, decision-making and problem-solving, with implications for cybersecurity, eyewitness testimony, education and business.

This article presents the results of a systematic review of the literature surrounding the effects that acute sleep deprivation has on metacognitive monitoring. Metacognitive monitoring refers to the ability to accurately assess one’s own performance and state of knowledge. The mechanism behind this assessment is captured by subjective feelings of confidence concerning the accuracy of our judgments or performance. These judgments influence decision behavior. How well these subjective feelings fit with reality is critical for good decision making. For example, a driver who is overconfident in their ability to remain vigilant after a night without sleep is at risk of having an accident. A learner who is overconfident in their ability to perform well on an exam without sleep is at risk of failing. A break down in metacognitive monitoring might be responsible for the increase in poor decision making observed when people are sleep deprived. Using defined search terms and exclusion criteria, electronic database searches identified ten empirical studies suitable for review. Participants in these studies completed performance-based tasks, typically cognitive, while remaining awake for 28–63 hours. In all studies, metacognitive monitoring was assessed via confidence ratings either pre-, on-, or post-task. Extended wakefulness had a significant negative effect on performance in most studies. Evidencing good monitoring, however, the monitoring estimates such as confidence also tended to decline. Moreover, two critical variables that assess the fit of these estimates to actual performance (bias and discrimination) were mostly unaffected by the number of hours awake. Still, some results indicated that these variables may be affected by substances intended to fight sleep deprivation, such as modafinil. Within the limitations of extant literature (e.g., a sampling bias towards young adult male participants), empirical observations to date converge to suggest that metacognitive monitoring remains largely unaffected by the examined quantities of acute sleep deprivation (up to 63 hours).

The impostor phenomenon is a pervasive psychological experience of perceived intellectual and professional fraudulence. It is not a diagnosable condition yet observed in clinical and normal populations. Increasingly, impostorism research has expanded beyond clinical and into applied settings. However, to date, a systematic review examining the methodological quality of impostorism measures used to conduct such research has yet to be carried out. This systematic review examines trait impostor phenomenon measures and evaluates their psychometric properties against a quality assessment framework. Systematic searches were carried out on six electronic databases, seeking original empirical studies examining the conceptualization, development, or validation of self-report impostor phenomenon scales. A subsequent review of reference lists also included two full-text dissertations. Predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria were specified to select the final 18 studies in the review sample. Of the studies included, four measures of the impostor phenomenon were identified and their psychometric properties assessed against the quality appraisal tool—Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale, Harvey Impostor Scale, Perceived Fraudulence Scale, and Leary Impostor Scale. The findings often highlighted that studies did not necessarily report poor psychometric properties; rather an absence of data and stringent assessment criteria resulted in lower methodological ratings. Recommendations for future research are made to address the conceptual clarification of the construct's dimensionality, to improve future study quality and to enable better discrimination between measures.

Decision making is the process by which actions are constructed and initiated. Across many research streams, this can be explained in terms of three broad cognitive processes: cognitive abilities that construct judgements and potential courses of action, and interacting monitoring and control processes that determine when to initiate them as behaviour. The aim of this research was to investigate the generality of individual differences in these processes, and their power to predict patterns of decision behaviour identified in our previous research. Undergraduate participants (N = 364) completed nine tests assessing cognitive abilities, monitoring confidence, control thresholds and various patterns of decision behaviour. The tests differed in their cognitive ability requirements and the nature of the payoffs associated with decisions. Cognitive abilities were a strong predictor of individuals' decision competence and optimality, while monitoring confidence and control thresholds were strong and unique predictors of their overall decisiveness, and reckless and hesitant errors. These results were strongest when the measures of cognitive abilities and monitoring confidence were derived from tests with the same cognitive requirements as the tests used to derive the decision behaviours and when the control threshold measure was derived from tests with the same decision payoffs as the test used to derive the decision behaviours. This effect was particularly pronounced for control thresholds, highlighting the domain-specific nature of cognitive control processes. These findings demonstrate how cognitive abilities, monitoring output and control thresholds interact with cognitive requirements and context-specific payoffs to drive individual differences in decision-making behaviour. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This research examined different conceptualisations and measurements of adaptability in a university context. We compared two approaches to adaptability: (1) personal attribute and (2) performance construct. In the extant literature, the former is dominated by self-report measures, whereas the latter is dominated by performance-based tasks. In two studies, we developed and tested the factorial structure of self-report adaptability measures and the factorial structure of performance-based tasks. Self-report measures of adaptability converged into two factors: adaptability and inflexibility. Performance-based metrics of adaptability did not converge, however. Self-reported and performance measures were unrelated, calling for a multitrait-multimethod approach to further evaluate construct validity of adaptability measurement. Self-reported adaptability was related to Big-5 personality, whilst performance-based adaptability was related to cognitive abilities.

Individual differences in lie detection remain poorly understood. Bond and DePaulo's meta-analysis examined judges (receivers) who were ascertaining lies from truths and senders (deceiver) who told these lies and truths. Bond and DePaulo found that the accuracy of detecting deception depended more on the characteristics of senders rather than the judges' ability to detect lies/truths. However, for many studies in this meta-analysis, judges could hear and understand senders. This made language comprehension a potential confound. This paper presents the results of two studies. Extending previous work, in Study 1, we removed language comprehension as a potential confound by having English-speakers (N = 126, mean age = 19.86) judge the veracity of German speakers (n = 12) in a lie detection task. The twelve lie-detection stimuli included emotional and non-emotional content, and were presented in three modalities-audio only, video only, and audio and video together. The intelligence (General, Auditory, Emotional) and personality (Dark Triads and Big 6) of participants was also assessed. In Study 2, a native German-speaking sample (N = 117, mean age = 29.10) were also tested on a similar lie detection task to provide a control condition. Despite significantly extending research design and the selection of constructs employed to capture individual differences, both studies replicated Bond and DePaulo's findings. The results of Study1 indicated that removing language comprehension did not amplify individual differences in judge's ability to ascertain lies from truths. Study 2 replicated these results confirming a lack of individual differences in judge's ability to detect lies. The results of both studies suggest that Sender (deceiver) characteristics exerted a stronger influence on the outcomes of lie detection than the judge's attributes.

This paper investigated decision pattern analysis (DPA) as a general and standard framework for studying individuals' consistent decision making behavior within and between contexts. DPA classifies decisions on the basis of judgement accuracy and the goal orientation of the decided-upon action. Over repeated decisions, patterns of individuals' decision behavior are described by five variables: competence, optimality, recklessness, hesitancy and decisiveness. A fictitious medical decision making test and three standard cognitive ability tests (extended with confidence ratings and a 'submit answer for marking' decision) were used to investigate the psychometric properties of these DPA variables. Internal consistency of the decision patterns ranged from good to excellent. Convergent validity was assessed via cognitive abilities, metacognitive confidence and a control criterion imposed on confidence that determines the decision to be made: the point of sufficient certainty. Personality variables were included to assess discriminant validity. As hypothesised, cognitive abilities showed positive correlations with competence and optimality. High confidence, low points of sufficient certainty and a greater discrepancy between them were associated with higher decisiveness and recklessness, and lower hesitancy. Personality measures showed mixed and generally weak correlations with the DPA variables. These convergent and discriminant results also held after controlling for all variables in regression. The results provide preliminary psychometric support for DPA as a general framework of behavioral decision making. DPA has the potential to be exploited in many contexts for uses that, to date, have been unachievable in a psychometrically valid manner. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Psychological and behavioral variance can be explained by differences in the environment, and between and within individuals. Almost 60 years ago, Cronbach (1957) called for converging investigations into all three sources as important for the development of accurate science and useful applications in the real world. Yet rifts among researchers tackling these various sources still exist. The articles in this issue, for example, differ greatly in terms of content, methodological approaches, and the sources of variance being addressed. On the basis of these articles, this commentary seeks to reignite Cronbach's call as an important step for psychological research to progress as a unified and useful science. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Following the Metacognitive Affective Model of SRL (MASRL; Efklides, 2011), this study sought to investigate the contribution of self-protection and self-enhancement motivations to individual differences in confidence, an on-task metacognitive experience, along with links to anxiety. Participants (N = 197) completed self-report measures of motivation, metacognitive beliefs and anxiety, along with three cognitive tests incorporating confidence judgments. Exploratory Factor Analyses suggested two distinct motivational tendencies: Self-protection and Self-enhancement. Metacognitive Beliefs, performance Accuracy and Confidence latent factors were also established. Path analysis suggested that Self-protection and Self-enhancement tendencies had respective negative and positive predictions to Metacognitive Beliefs, which in turn positively predicted Confidence. Furthermore, Self-protection positively predicted anxiety levels. This study is the first to establish the link between self-protection and self-enhancement motivations and on-task metacognitive confidence, along with highlighting links to anxiety. In doing so, the findings provide support for the MASRL model.

Phishing email is one of the biggest risks to online information security due to its ability to exploit human trust and naivety. Prior research has examined whether some people are more susceptible to phishing than others and what characteristics may predict this susceptibility. Given that there are no standardised measures or methodologies to detect phishing susceptibility, results have conflicted. To address this issue, the current study created a 40-item phishing detection task to measure both cognitive and behavioural indicators of phishing susceptibility and false positives (misjudged genuine email). The task is based on current real-life email stimuli (i.e., phishing and genuine) relevant to the student and general population. Extending previous literature we also designed a methodology for assessing phishing susceptibility by allowing participants to indicate perception of maliciousness of each email type and the actions they would take (keep it, trash it or seek further information). This enabled us to: (1) examine the relationships that psychological variables share with phishing susceptibility and false positives–both captured as consistent tendencies; (2) determine the relationships between perceptions of maliciousness with behavioural outcomes and psychological variables; and (3) determine the relationships between these tendencies and email characteristics. In our study, 150 undergraduate psychology students participated in exchange for partial course credit (98 Females; Mean age = 19.70, SD = 2.27). Participants also completed a comprehensive battery of psychometric tests assessing intelligence, pre- and on-task confidence, Big 6 personality, and familiarity/competence in computing and phishing. Results revealed that people showed distinct and robust tendencies for phishing susceptibility and false positives. A series of regression analyses looking at the accuracy of both phishing and false positives detection revealed that human-centred variables accounted for a good degree of variance in phishing susceptibility (about 54%), with perceptions of maliciousness, intelligence, knowledge of phishing, and on-task confidence contributing significantly, directly and/or indirectly via perception of maliciousness. A regression model looking at discriminating false positives has also shown that human-centred variables accounted for a reasonable degree of variance (41%), with perceptions of maliciousness, intelligence and on-task confidence contributing significantly, directly and/or indirectly via perception of maliciousness. Furthermore, the characteristics of the most effective phishing and misjudged genuine email items were profiled. Based on our findings, we suggest that future research should investigate these significant variables in more detail. We also recommend that future research should capture consistent response tendencies to determine vulnerability to phishing and false positives (rather than a one off response to a single email), and use the collection of the most current phishing email obtained from relevant sources to the population. It is important to capture perceptions of maliciousness of email because it is a key predictor of the action taken on the email. It directly predicts accuracy detection of phishing and genuine email, as well as mediating the relationships between some other predictors whose role would have been overlooked if the perceptions were not captured. The study provides the framework of human-centred variables which predict phishing and false positive susceptibility as well as the characteristics of email which most deceive people.

Background The Eating Beliefs Questionnaire (EBQ) is a 27-item self-report measure that assesses positive and negative beliefs about binge eating. It has been validated and its factor structure explored in a non-clinical sample. This study tested the psychometric properties of the EBQ in a clinical and a non-clinical sample. Method A sample of 769 participants (573 participants recruited from the university and general community, 76 seeking treatment for an eating disorder and 120 participating in obesity research) completed a battery of questionnaires. A subset of clinical participants with a diagnosis of Bulimia Nervosa or Binge Eating Disorder completed the test-battery before and after receiving a psychological treatment (n = 27) or after allocation to a wait-list period (n = 28), and a subset of 35 community participants completed the test battery again after an interval of two-weeks. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was performed. Results CFA found a two-factor structure that provided a good fit to the data, supporting the solution presented in the development paper. Items with poor psychometric properties were removed, resulting in a 16 item measure. EBQ scores were found to correlate with binge eating episode frequency, increases in body mass index (BMI), and measures of eating disorder behaviours and related psychopathology. The EBQ was found to have excellent internal consistency (α = .94), good test-retest reliability (r = .91) and sensitivity to treatment. Conclusion These findings indicate that the EBQ is a psychometrically sound and clinically useful measure.

There is increasing attention being paid to the role that metacognition, a key component of self-regulated learning, plays in learning, particularly adult learning. A novel formative assessment task, the Statistical Metacognitive Instrumentation Quizzes (Stats-mIQ) which provided extensive content and metacognitive feedback to students was developed for a senior undergraduate statistics course (N = 214). The task consisted of multiple choice questions, each accompanied by a confidence rating in which participants were asked to rate how confident they were that their answer was correct. The feedback on their answers, their overall progress and metacognitive monitoring was provided within the quiz and after each quiz attempt. Path analysis was used to model the relationships amongst a range of psychological variables, for example quiz accuracy and confidence, and predicted and actual exam performance. Demonstrating the effectiveness of the quizzes, the final exam mark was positively predicted by the total number of quiz attempts, a composite score comprising quiz accuracy and confidence, and students' prediction of their exam mark. Total number of quiz attempts was positively predicted by a composite of conscientiousness and perceived time management skills, whilst quiz accuracy/confidence was positively predicted by the numeracy/statistics skills composite and reported need for feedback. Struggling students reported greater benefit from the confidence-allocation process than other students, highlighting the important role metacognitive feedback may play in a tertiary education setting.

Decision-making is a complex process that is largely studied from an experimental perspective or in specific organizational contexts. As such, no generalizable framework exists with which to study decision-making from an individual differences perspective for predictive/selection purposes. By generalising a context-specific decision model proposed by Koriat and Goldsmith (1996), the focus of this research was to therefore test a novel framework for studying individual differences in decision-making tendencies. Utilising this framework within a fictitious Medical Decision-Making Test (MDMT) yielded five novel variables that provided unique insight into individuals’ decision tendencies: Optimal, Realistic, Incompetent, Hesitant and Congruent. Metacognitive confidence and its calibration (bias and CAQ) were used as predictor variables to validate this framework. One hundred ninety-three undergraduate students completed the MDMT and three cognitive ability tests with confidence ratings, a personality questionnaire, and the Need for Closure questionnaire. All decision tendency variables demonstrated excellent internal consistency and were predicted by the metacognitive variables incrementally to the remaining variables as hypothesized. Additionally, the metacognitive indices were found to generalize across the decision-making and cognitive tests. The results imply that this novel framework and MDMT reliably capture individuals’ decision behaviour that shares a meaningful relationship with their general confidence and calibration.

In learning contexts, people need to make realistic confidence judgments about their memory performance. The present study investigated whether second-order judgments of first-order confidence judgments could help people improve their confidence judgments of semantic memory information. Furthermore, we assessed whether different personality and cognitive style constructs help explain differences in this ability. Participants answered 40 general knowledge questions and rated how confident they were that they had answered each question correctly. They were then asked to adjust the confidence judgments they believed to be most unrealistic, thus making second-order judgments of their first-order judgments. As a group, the participants did not increase the realism of their confidence judgments, but they did significantly increase their confidence for correct items. Furthermore, participants scoring high on an openness composite were more likely to display higher confidence after both the first- and second-order judgments. Moreover, participants scoring high on the openness and the extraversion composites were more likely to display higher levels of overconfidence after both the first- and second-order judgments. In general, however, personality and cognitive style factors showed only a weak relationship with the ability to modify the most unrealistic confidence judgments. Finally, the results showed no evidence that personality and cognitive style supported first- and second-order judgments differently.

This study showed that working during high school had negative effects on 15 of 23 Grade 12 and postsecondary outcomes such as achievement, course-work selection, educational and occupational aspirations, and college attendance. These effects were found with control for background variables and parallel outcomes from Grades 8 and 10 based on the 8-year (four-wave), nationally representative National Education Longitudinal Survey of 1988. The only benefit of working was a reduction in postsecondary unemployment, but even this effect was nonlinear. In the case of most outcomes, the effects of hours worked were primarily linear and negative and were consistent across ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, initial ability levels, and different types of work. Among continuing students who worked during high school, however, working to save money for college had mostly favorable effects.

Solution-focused coaching and solution-focused therapy are strengths-based approaches which emphasize people’s resources and resilience and how these can be used in the pursuit of purposeful, positive change. The Solution-focused Inventory (SFI) is a 12-item scale with three subscales: Problem Disengagement, Goal Orientation and Resource Activation. Three studies in this article provide support for the validity of the SFI as a measure of solution-focused thinking. The SFI negatively correlated with psychopathology and positively correlated with measures of well-being, resilience and perspective taking. Test–retest reliability over 16 weeks was

Metacognition is an integral component of a self-regulated approach to learning. The present study examined the relationships between academic self-efficacy and perceptions of one's own competence in memory and reasoning abilities, and their role in predicting the Self-confidence trait. The study also aimed to determine the role of key classroom factors (goal orientation and self-efficacy with the teacher) in predicting self-beliefs, the Self-confidence trait and academic achievement in Year 6 students ( N = 177). EFA and Path analysis were used to determine these relationships. The hypothesised path model was tested in a simultaneous fashion of the entire system of variables to determine whether or not hypothesised relationships were consistent with data. The results suggest that academic self-efficacy and metacognitive competency beliefs define a broad factor—Metacognitive Beliefs—which serves as a key predictor of Self-confidence. Mastery goal-orientation and self-efficacy with teacher predicted Metacognitive Beliefs and, indirectly, Self-confidence. Students with stronger Metacognitive Beliefs were less engaged in self-handicapping behaviours. Known common factors—intelligence, gender and a proxy for SES, school fees—were controlled for. The present study has important implications for both metacognitive theory and educational practice.

Kreutzer et al.’s (Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 40(1):1–60, 1975) metamemory interview has been widely used in children’s metamemory literature, yet the psychometric properties of the measure have yet to be reported, and the format and language of some subtests may pose problems for young children. Researchers often combine subtests with other tests purported to measure metamemory, yet there is little empirical data regarding how these subtests relate. It has been proposed that metamemory is comprised of distinct procedural and declarative components, but this has not been empirically tested in young children. Therefore, the two studies reported here aimed to adapt Kreutzer et al.’s interview to increase its developmental appropriateness, to examine the relationship between the interview subtests, to add subtests that purport to test procedural metamemory, and then to examine the factor structure of the resulting scores and investigate how metamemory changes with age across the elementary school years. The results suggest that the adapted versions of the subtests are generally less contaminated by language ability, especially for the younger children. Factor analysis indicated the presence of two declarative metamemory factors and one procedural metamemory factor. Both declarative factors followed a similar developmental trajectory, increasing steadily from early to late elementary school age, whereas procedural metamemory increased significantly between Grades 1 and 3 only.

It is becoming increasingly easy for teachers to create many forms of digital learning resources, such as web-based materials, quizzes and games. Extensive research in metacognition provides strong evidence that metacognitive interface elements could make such materials more effective. This chapter argues for the creation of such a set of metacognitive interface elements so a teacher can easily incorporate these into the learning resources they create. We illustrate this in two ways: a series of examples of a simple, but valuable and broadly applicable, interface element which asks learners to assess their confidence; and an overview of a rich and sophisticated example, the Metatutor system. We conclude with a research agenda for creating a toolkit of metacognitive interface elements.

The factor structure of perfectionism is inconsistent across models. Most models distinguish between adaptive and maladaptive aspects of perfectionism, but often do not include elements representing order. Order, however, is theoretically important and distinct from the broad adaptive perfectionism factor. Therefore, a three-factor model of perfectionism was tested in a sample of undergraduate students (N = 208) who completed the Almost Perfect Scale-Revised and the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale. According to the chi-squared difference test and CFI differences, model fit improved when representing Order as a separate factor. In addition, Order and Perfectionistic Strivings factors showed significantly different correlations with Conscientiousness and Neuroticism, academic performance expectation, and four achievement goal orientations, providing further evidence of their distinctiveness. Therefore, including Order as a separate factor represents a better model of perfectionism.

This study examined parental rearing styles and objective confidence in relation to impostor phenomenon (feelings of phoniness experienced by individuals who have achieved some level of success, Clance & Imes, 1978 ) and self-handicapping tendencies (creation of an impediment to performance as an excuse for possible failure, Jones & Berglas, 1978 ). Participants (N = 115) completed measures of impostorism, self-handicapping, parental bonding (for each parent) and Esoteric Analogies test with confidence judgments. Impostor feelings were predicted by paternal overprotection and lack of paternal care. Self-handicapping scores were predicted by lack of maternal care. A significant relationship was found between impostorism and self-handicapping. Supporting the nature of the impostor phenomenon, impostors showed a “gap” between assessment of their performance and actual task-related achievements.

This paper examines the nature of the Self-confidence factor. In particular, we study the relationship between this factor and cognitive, metacognitive, and personality measures. Participants (N = 296) were administered a battery of seven cognitive tests that assess three constructs: accuracy, speed, and confidence. Participants were also given the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI, Schraw, G., and Dennison, R.S. (1994). Assessing metacognitive awareness. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19, 460–475.), a personality measure of the Big Five factors and our own Memory and Reasoning Competence Inventory (MARCI). Results indicate the presence of separate Self-confidence and Metacognitive processes factors, and a moderate correlation (.41) between them. The Self-confidence factor taps not only processes linked to performance on items that have correct answers, but also sureness level in beliefs about events that may never occur. A hierarchical multiple regression showed that the Self-confidence factor was predicted by accuracy of performance, Metacognitive Awareness Questionnaire, and beliefs of competence in reasoning ability.

Participation in high school sports had positive effects on many Grade 12 and postsecondary outcomes (e.g., school grades, coursework selection, homework, educational and occupational aspirations, self-esteem, university applications, subsequent college enrollment, and eventual educational attainment) after controlling background variables and parallel outcomes from Grades 8 and 10 in a large, nationally representative, 6-year longitudinal study. In contrast to Zero-Sum and Threshold Models, these positive effects generalized across academic and nonacademic outcomes, across the entire range of athletic participation levels, and across different subgroups of students (e.g., SES, gender, ethnicity, ability levels, educational aspirations). Sport participation is hypothesized to increase identification/commitment to school and school values which mediate the participation effects, particularly for narrowly defined academic outcomes not directly related to sport participation. Consistent with this Identification/Commitment Model, extramural sport, and to a lesser extent team sport, had more positive effects than intramural and individual sports.

This chapter reviews the item content, intended use, and psychometric properties of two main kinds of assessments that have been employed in studies of individual differences in confidence: Self-report questionnaires assessing one’s own beliefs to accomplish different tasks; and online, on-task confidence judgments of performance accuracy. First, we review six self-report measures that assess either cognitive (academic and vocational tasks) or physical (sports) confidence. We then briefly describe the use of confidence measures in studies of self-efficacy, outlining their differences and similarities with broader on-task measures of confidence. Finally, we focus on the online, performance-based, assessment of confidence and consider different indices of confidence calibration with accuracy. To date, online on-task measures have demonstrated the sound psychometric properties. This includes demonstrations of the greatest predictive validity for a range of outcomes such as educational achievement and decision-making behavior. Currently, no evidence exists relating self-report and online measures of confidence. Directions for future studies are offered for both types of assessments.

The present study investigated the effects of low cognitive workload and the absence of arousal induced via external physical stimulation (motion) on practice-related improvements in executive (inhibitory) control, short-term memory, metacognitive monitoring and decision making. A total of 70 office workers performed low and moderately engaging passenger tasks in two successive 20-minute simulated drives and repeated a battery of decision making and inhibitory control tests three times—before, between and after these drives. For half the participants, visual simulation was synchronised with (moderately arousing) motion generated through LAnd Motion Platform, with vibration levels corresponding to a well-maintained unsealed road. The other half performed the same simulated drive without motion. Participants' performance significantly improved over the three test blocks, which is indicative of typical practice effects. The magnitude of these improvements was the highest when both motion and moderate cognitive load were present. The same effects declined either in the absence of motion (low arousal) or following a low cognitive workload task, thus suggesting two distinct pathways through which practice-related improvements in cognitive performance may be hampered. Practice, however, degraded certain aspects of metacognitive performance, as participants became less likely to detect incorrect decisions in the decision-making test with each subsequent test block. Implications include consideration of low cognitive load and arousal as factors responsible for performance decline and targets for the development of interventions/strategies in low load/arousal conditions such as autonomous vehicle operations and highway driving.